Social Inequality

Absolute poverty

A situation in which someone lacks the money to pay for the food, clothing and housing necessary to maintain a healthy way of life.

Achieved status A social position which individuals are able to gain through, for example, hard work and or educational qualifications.

Ageism Being prejudiced against people because of their age.Ascribed status A position or social standing given to an individual on the basis of

inherited characteristics.Caste A rigid system of stratification in which an individual cannot move from

the caste into which they are born.Cycle of

deprivationA social process which may lead the children of poor parents to suffer poverty when adults.

Embourgeoisement

The proposition that members of the working class develop middle-class attitudes and patterns of behaviour as they become more affluent.

Environmental poverty

Deprivation experienced in neighbourhoods that are ugly, dirty, unsafe and which lack adequate services and amenities.

Gender discrimination Treating people unfairly because of their gender.

Glass ceiling The informal barrier that makes it difficult for women to achieve high-level positions at work.

Income The money received by an individual in a period of time, for example, wages or interest on savings.

Institutional racism

Occurs when the everyday practices and procedures of an organisation, for example the police, lead to discrimination against ethnic groups either intentionally or unintentionally.

Life chances The chances that section of society have of achieving the things which are valued by their society.

Lifestyle The way in which members of a group use their resources. Lifestyles will reflect the attitudes and priorities of the group.

Middle class The section of society composed of people engaged in non-manual work and professional work.

Poverty trap The particular difficulties that the poor may experience in, for example, finding a job that pays more than is received from benefits.

Proletarianisation

The proposition that many non-manual jobs in a modern economy put their workers in situations very similar to that of the manual factory worker.

Racial discrimination Treating people unfairly because of their ethnicity.

RacismAttitudes to and beliefs about race which usually involve negative stereotypes of another race and lead to discrimination against people of that race.

Relative deprivation

Felt when people compare their own situation to that of others whom they believe to be unfairly better off.

Relative poverty

A situation in which someone cannot afford to possess the kind of things and participate in the kind of activities considered by members of their society to be a normal part of life.

Sexism Being prejudiced against people because of their gender.

SlaveryA form of stratification in which a section f the society has no rights. Individuals in this section of society are items of property which can be bought and sold.

Social exclusionWhen people are unable, or feel unable to play a full part in society. This may be owing to the lack of material resources, discrimination by others or a sense that the rest of society neither wants or respects them.

Subjective class The class in which an individual places themselves.Trade union An organisation established by employees to protect their economic

interests.Underclass The group of people at the very bottom of the social structure who either

by their economic situation or culture, are cut off from the rest of society.Wealth The assets owned by an individual, for example, house, savings, a

business.Welfare

scroungerAn individual who makes no contribution to society and exploits the benefits system, claiming as much as they can get away with.

Social inequality = unequal distribution of resources (eg income, wealth, power) and opportunities

Sources of inequality:

Class Age Gender Ethnicity

Social stratification = the way society is structured into a hierarchy of strata or layers that are unequally ranked – for example in Britain people are often sorted into social classes

Wealth = assets owned (eg property, savings) that could be left in a will

Income = money coming in every week/month/year, eg from wages, benefits or interest on savings

Status = social position or the different amounts of respect given to different positions in society

Ascribed status = given to an individual at birth, e.g. age, race, sex. Members of the royal family in Britain have ascribed status.

Achieved status = status individuals have achieved through their own efforts e.g. educational qualifications, career success.

Power = the ability to control or influence others

The class system is the stratification system used in modern Britain, and other industrial societies.

You should be aware that there are other systems of stratification :

The caste system – based on Hinduism. Closed system because status is based on ascription – people are born into a particular caste and this affects what job they can do, who they can marry etc. No social mobility.

Feudal estates – existed in medieval Europe. Closed system because status was acribed, people were born into royalty, or the aristocracy (Lords) or as peasants and there was very little social mobility.

Apartheid – existed in South Africa. Segregation of black and white people. Closed system as status was ascribed (based on race, which is fixed at birth). Very little social mobility.

Key terms of Social Stratification   :

Social mobility = movement up or down the social hierarchy e.g. born into a poor family, but gets a job as a doctor would be upward social mobility

Open society = where social mobility is possible

Closed = where there is little/no social mobility

Life chances are people’s opportunities of having positive or negative outcomes e.g. the likelihood of dying young, suffering ill health, being arrested, the qualifications you get etc are affected by your class, gender, ethnicity etc.

For example….

… The working class are more likely to fail at school, more likely to be arrested, slightly more likely to get divorced, more likely to suffer ill-health than other social classes ETC !

… Women are generally paid less than men, more likely to suffer poverty BUT these days girls are more likely to do well at school. Females are less likely to be arrested and highly unlikely to be sent to prison.

… Certain ethnic minorities (e.g. African-Caribbean) are more likely to be permanently excluded from school, less likely to achieve high qulifications, more likely to be unemployment, more likely to be arrested and sent to prison than other ethnic groups.

SOCIAL CLASS = a broad group of people who share similar economic situations, e.g. occupation, income and wealth. Be aware of different ways of measuring social class.

The Registrar-General’s Scale of Social Class uses occupation to allocate people to one of six classes

Working class = manual jobs

Middle class = non-manual

Problems with the Registrar General’s scale:

Difficult to place people without jobs (students, retired etc) Wealthy upper class people are difficult to place Two people may have the same occupation/job title (eg nurse) yet there may

be huge differences in their wealth, income, status and qualifications

The National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification (NS-SEC) uses occupation but covers the full population including students and long-term unemployed people.

The NS-SEC groups together the occupations that are similar in rewards, status and power.

Includes people without jobs More thorough than just looking at job title alone More categories so more accurate than the R-G scale

SEX/GENDER as a source of inequality

Sexism – Prejudice or discrimination against people (usually women) because of their sex

Patriarchy – male domination of society (feminists)

Glass ceiling – the invisible barrier that prevents women from accessing the top managerial jobs

RACE/ETHNICITY as a source of social inequality

Racial prejudice – a set of assumptions (ideas) about a racial group

Discrimination – TREATING a group unfairly, due to prejudice

Institutional racism – when a whole organisation, such as a school or police force, is racist. Usually in a very subtle and perhaps unintentional way, through policies and procedures.

INEQUALITY based on age

Ageism (age discrimination) – someone is treated differently and less favourably based on their age.

In Britain there are now regulations against age discrimination in employment and training.

POVERTY

There are different definitions of poverty:

Absolute poverty – lacking the essentials necessary for survival (food, shelter etc)

Relative poverty – being poor in relation to a generally accepted standard of living in a particular society at a particular time

Social exclusion – a broader concept that refers to being shut out from (or marginalised from) society’s social, economic, political and cultural life

Poverty line – the dividing point between those who are poor and those who are not. There is no official poverty line in Britain today.

Cycle of poverty / Cycle of deprivation – The idea that poverty is a vicious circle, in that aspects of poverty lead to further poverty, and that poverty is difficult to escape from

Poverty trap – the idea that it is difficult to escape poverty. Eg the poor pay more for goods and services.

EXPLAINING POVERTY

Structural explanations explain poverty through the inequalities in society/how society is organised. E.g. not enough jobs

Marxists argue that the reason the poor remain poor is that they are exploited by the rich.

Functionalists see inequality in society as a positive factor – it motivates people to work hard to avoid being poor themselves.

Cultural explanations blame the culture (way of life) of the poor –eg they have values that keep them poor

Culture of poverty – a set of beliefs and values thought to exist among the poor which prevents them escaping poverty (eg being fatalistic)

Welfare dependency / Dependency culture – A set of values and beliefs, and a way of life, centred on relying on others, eg reliant on welfare benefits rather than working.

New Right view of welfare

Members of the New Right believe that the welfare system is too generous and has caused a dependency culture, in which people who rely on benefits become so dependent on them that they lose all motivation to work.

The New Right also argue that the welfare state reduces the importance of families. They argue that individuals and families must accept more responsibility for their own welfare.

Some social groups are much more likely to suffer poverty :

Some ethnic minorities (eg because of racism) Women (because they are more likely to be lone

parents and are paid less on average, because of sexism)

Lone parents Older pensioners (because of inadequate state

pensions) People with disabilities

Major debates (likely to be essay questions!)

Is modern Britain meritocratic?

YES NO

Society IS meritocratic

High levels of upward and downward social mobility

Equal opportunities do exist – equal opportunities laws

Routes to mobility = educational

Barriers to mobility = sexism/racism, lack of skills, lack of qualifications, university fees

Crompton – social mobility in modern Britain is in decline. Partly due to changes in the occupational structure eg growth in professional and managerial jobs has slowed down

qualifications, financial windfalls, growth of white-collar occupations

Goldthorpe’s classic mobility study in the 1970s found that some long-range mobility had occurred (eg w/c children did end up in m/c jobs)

so there is less room at the top

Is modern Britain a classless society?

YES NO

Class is much less important nowadays – society IS more meritocratic.

Equal opportunities exist

Social mobility

Talent/ambition/ motivation is much more important than social class background eg Richard Branson, Cheryl Cole etc

Evidence shows that life chances are affected by social class – eg lower w/c much less likely to get high qualifications, go to university, get higher paid jobs. More likely to be involved in crime, suffer more poor health etc!

Opportunities are NOT equal – eg university fees!

Is social class less important nowadays? (eg are divisions based on age, sex and ethnicity more important nowadays?)

Key terms for the Major Debates topic:

Classless society

A society that does not have different social classes

Meritocracy A system in which an individual’s social position is achieved on the basis of their abilities and talents rather than on the basis of their social origins

Social mobility Movement up or down between the layers or strata of a society Inter-generational social mobility

Movement up or down between the layers of a stratification system as measured between the generations of a family

Intra-generational social mobility

Movement of an individual over the course of their life up or down between the layers of a stratification system

Long-range mobility

Social mobility that involves significant movement e.g. from the bottom layer to the top

Short-range mobility

Social mobility that involves limited movement e.g. from a semi-skilled to a skilled manual job

What is stratification?

Stratification describes the way in which different groups of people are placed within society. The status of people is often determined by how society is stratified - the basis of which can include;

o Wealth and income - This is the most common basis of stratificationo Social classo Ethnicityo Gendero Political statuso Religion (e.g. the caste system in India)

The stratification of society is also based upon either an open, or closed, system.

OPEN CLOSEDStatus is achieved through merit, and effort. This is sometimes known as a meritocracy. The UK is a relatively open society, although disadvantaged groups within society face a glass ceiling.

Status is ascribed, rather than achieved. Ascribed status can be based upon several factors, such as family background (e.g. the feudal system consists of landowners and serfs). Political factors may also play a role (e.g. societies organised on the basis of communism), as can ethnicity (e.g. the former apartheid regime in South Africa) and religion.

Structure of inequality

The power of the elite within society is based upon; Income Wealth A network of social connections – sometimes known as the ‘old boys network’

In contrast the least powerful within society have few opportunities to escape from poverty. There are different explanations for this. For example the New Right sociologist Charles Murray argued that the poorest members of society had become too reliant upon welfare benefits. This had led to a gradual loss in the ability of the poor to adopt values that would take them out of poverty; such as self-reliance and

personal initiative. Most people within society are neither rich nor poor. They form part of the middle-class –which is the most numerical social class within society.

During your revision, you need to be aware that life chances are determined by factors such as;

o Social classo Gendero Schoolingo Ethnicity, etc.

You also need to explain why such differences in life chances exist. For example ethnic minorities often face a glass ceiling at work due to discrimination upon racial grounds; which can be either overt (or obvious), or covert (in other words, hidden). Women also face the same problem.          You should also be aware of the existence of an “underclass”. Members of the underclass form norms and values that often differ to the rest of society. They are caught in a poverty trap (or cycle) from which they find very difficult to escape from. This is despite changes to the welfare and benefits system designed to get welfare claimants into work.

Social change and stratification

You should be aware of recent changes to the class structure of British society. There are several points to consider;

Society has become more open in recent years as people have found it easier to move from one social class to another. This most common trajectory is the movement of people from the working-class to the middle-class. Some sociologists describe this movement as embourgeoisiement

The life chances available to women have improved since the 1970s. One explanation for this is the impact of feminism.

The life chances available to people from ethnic minorities have also improved in recent years, in part due to legislation designed to prevent discrimination. Changing attitudes within society should also be considered

A small minority of people still gain a position within society via ascribed status (e.g. the royal family)

You also need to identify changes to the distribution of wealth and income within society since the 1970s. For example due to changes to the tax and benefits system, the rich have gained in wealth and income. Britain now has a relatively low level of income tax for those on a high level of income.

You also need to explain why such changes have occurred to the distribution of wealth and income. For example during the 1980s the number of people in poverty doubled. This was partly due to changes to the welfare state which included;

o Reducing the value of welfare benefitso Encouraging people to take more responsibility for their own (and their

families) needs, rather than relying upon the state. The aim of such changes was to tackle the dependency culture – an idea influenced by the New Right

Since 1997 the Labour government has attempted to reduce the level of poverty by;o Increasing the level of public expenditure on the welfare stateo The welfare to work programmeo An ideological commitment to helping those less advantaged within

society

Whilst the gap between rich and poor has continued to grow, there has been a decline in the rate of child poverty since Labour came to power. The government’s target is to end child poverty by the year 2020.

Welfare State

You need to understand changes within the welfare state since the 1970s. There are three main eras you need to be aware of;

Era Changes made Influenced byGolden age of the welfare state (1945 – 1979)

The scope and scale of the welfare state expanded under governments of both main parties

The Beveridge report which aimed to combat the 5 evils facing society (want, ignorance, disease, squalor and idleness)

Conservative government (1979 – 1997)

The level of benefits was reduced, and the availability of many welfare payments was restricted. The level of taxation was also lowered in an attempt to reduce the role of the state.

The New Right argued that the welfare state created a dependency culture in which welfare claimants had little incentive to return to work. The New Right had a major impact upon the Conservative governments of the 80s and 90s

Labour government since 1997

Taxation has been raised in order to fund an increase in the level of public expenditure. Benefits have also been targeted towards those who are less able to provide for themselves; such

An ideology called the Third Way. The most prominent sociologist associated with the Third Way is Anthony Giddens.

as pensioners and children.

You need to distinguish between the two main types of welfare benefits; universal and selective.

UNIVERSAL SELECTIVEUniversal benefits are provided to all regardless of a claimant’s financial status. One example is child benefit, which is paid out to all families with children regardless of income and wealth.

Selective benefits are provided on the basis of a claimant’s income and circumstance. An example of a selective benefit is the Child Tax Credit.

 Welfare benefits and services are usually provided by the state, but an increasing range of services are also provided by the third sector, and private firms.

The STATE The THIRD SECTOR The PRIVATE SECTORThe government provides both selective and universal benefits via the welfare state

The third sector consists of charities and not-for-profit organisations; such as the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust.

Private hospitals are sometimes used to treat NHS patients. The government also works with the private sector in schemes funded by the Private Finance Initiative.

         There is a debate amongst sociologists over the desirability of welfare provision. Those who defend the welfare state in terms of providing basic wants and needs, and for ensuring some degree of equality within society, tend to be on the left of the political spectrum. In contrast, the main criticisms of the welfare state in recent years tend to derive from the New Right, who argue that the welfare state;

o Is inefficient.o Undermines personal initiative.o Creates a culture of dependency.o Leads to high levels of taxation, which damages the economy.

The New Right has itself been criticised for blaming the poor for their own problems. However, the arguments put forward by the New Right were highly influential during the 1980s and 1990s under the Conservative governments of Mrs. Thatcher and John Major. Since Labour gained power in 1997, the influence of the New Right has declined.You also need to be aware that since 1997 the government has provided a substantial increase in resources for the welfare state. They have also attempted to;

o Encourage people to gain employment and move off welfare.o End child poverty by the year 2020.

o Create a more just society where opportunities are held by the many, not the few.

The Labour party, and the Liberal Democrats; are more supportive of the welfare state. In contrast, the Conservatives are more critical of the welfare state. However in 2006 the Tories signed up to the government’s target of ending child poverty (by 2020)

Poverty

Whilst it is difficult to measure poverty, there are two widely accepted methods;o Absolute poverty – This is when a person cannot provide for his/her

basic needs such as food and shelter. Homeless people suffer from absolute poverty.

o Relative poverty - The government’s official statistics define the poverty level as those earning below 60% of average earnings.

There are other measurements of poverty; such as subjective poverty and environmental poverty, but they are less widely used.

You will need to refresh your knowledge of the poverty cycle. This occurs when those living below the poverty level find it difficult to escape from their circumstances. There are several reasons for this;

o Welfare claimants either lose benefits, or experience a decline in the level of benefits received; when they return to work. They may therefore be worse off if they gain a job.

o Welfare claimants adopt a ‘culture of poverty’ which consists of a set of norms and values that differ to those of mainstream society. This makes it very difficult for them to re-enter the labour market.

o New Right theorists argue that welfare payments undermine personal initiative, thus trapping many people into poverty. As such, the poor become more and more dependent upon the welfare state – and therefore find it very difficult to escape.

The impact of poverty can be hugely significant. This can include a; Loss of status and income (if the person was previously in employment). A decline in self-esteem. A decline in personal health. A feeling of social exclusion.

There are also implications for society. For example, a wide gap between rich and poor within society can result in social conflict.

Inequality based on Gender

Feminist approaches explore gender inequalities in society. Over the last 40 years, reforms in areas such as education and employment have addressed

aspects of gender inequality. The government have introduced anti-discrimination laws such as the Equal Pay Act (1970) to reduce gender inequalities.

Today women are increasingly likely to achieve high level educational qualifications, high status jobs and good salaries. Despite this, feminist approaches argue that gender remains the most significant social division in contemporary society.

Some Feminist sociologists see society as patriarchal. This is where men have a lot of power within families, politics and the workplace. Men also generally receive a bigger share of the rewards such as wealth and status.

Inequality based on ethnicity

Over the last 40 years, reforms and policies have addressed inequality based on ethnicity in areas such as education, employment and criminal justice. For example, ethnicity in areas such as education and criminal justice.

Many employers have equal opportunity policies to support equality and diversity.

The 1976 Race Relations Act outlawed discrimination based on ethnicity. The equality and Human Rights Commission has powers to enforce the equality

laws and to shape public policy on equality issues. As a result of such changes, sociologists believe that ethnic inequality is less

significant now, although others argue that there has been little change in the fields of employment, education and criminal justice.

Unemployment rates in England and Wales are higher among people of Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Black Caribbean heritage than among White British or White Irish people.

Research has also found that men and women of Pakistani and Bangladeshi heritage have much worse chances of getting professional and managerial jobs than their white peers of the same age and educational level.

Inequality based on Age

Sociologists argue that age is socially constructed. This means that society decides how age will be interpreted. This can be seen in historical and cross-cultural differences in expectations surrounding age.

Child Labour is now illegal in Britain, it was the norm among working-class families in the 19th Century and exists in some parts of the world today.

The status of older people can also vary between cultures. In some cultures, getting old is seen as something to be avoided. In other cultures, older people

are seen as having a high status in society as their experience is valued and appreciated.

The term ageism describes a situation where someone is treated differently because of their age. In Britain, there are now two regulations against age discrimination in employment and training.

DEFINING SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND STRATIFICATION

Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of:

• Resources such as power, wealth and income • Opportunities (related, for example, to health, education and employment)

Social class, gender, ethnicity and age are all sources of inequality in modern British society.

DEFINING SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social stratification refers to the way society is structured into a hierarchy of strata that are unequally ranked. A social hierarchy is shaped like a pyramid with each stratum more powerful than the one below it. The most privileged group forms the top layer and vice versa.

Stratification involves inequalities between groups in the distribution of socioeconomic resources such as wealth, income, status and power. These inequalities persist or continue over time.

In Britain, gender, class, ethnicity and age are the main criteria by which people tend to be stratified.

Social Class Slavery

What is stratification based on?

Economic factors such as occupation and income

Some individuals claim that they have the right to own and sell other people, to treat them as property and to deny their human rights

Is status achieved or Achieved Status was ascribed in the southern states ascribed? of the US for the people who were born

into slavery Is social mobility possible?

Yes For many slaves in the southern states of the US, social mobility was unlikely unless, for example, they escaped to safety or until

slavery was abolished (emancipation) which was unlikely even then

DIFFERENT FORMS OF STRATIFICATION

The cast system in traditional India, slavery in the southern states of the US in the 19 th century, Apartheid in South Africa and the social system in modern Britain are all types of stratification.

Various forms of stratification differ according to whether status is ascribed or achieved. They also differ in terms of how open or closed they are. In an open system of stratification, status is achieved and social mobility is possible (meritocratic). In a closed system, status is ascribed so social mobility is highly unlikely.

LIFE CHANCES

Life chances are a key aspect of studying social inequality and stratification. Life chances refer to people’s chances of having positive or negative outcomes over their lifetime in relation to, for example, their education, health, income, employment and housing.

Life chances are distributed unequally between individuals and groups because they are affected by social factors such as class position, gender and ethnicity. People in higher social classes have more chance than those in other classes of accessing good quality healthcare and decent housing. Life chances are shaped by inequalities in wealth, income, power and status.

KEYWORDS

- Wealth: money held in savings accounts and shares or ownership of assets such as land - Income: the resources that individuals and households receive over a specific time period. Can

be received in cash or in kind - Ascribed status: Social positions that are fixed at birth and unchanging over time e.g. hereditary

titles - Achieved status: social positions that are earned on the basis of individuals’ talents or abilities - Social mobility: movement up or down between a society’s strata - Life chances: an individual’s chances of achieving positive or negative outcomes

(relating, for example, to health, education, housing) as they progress through life

SOCIAL CLASS AS A FORM OF STRATIFICATION

Marx, Weber and functionalists have all shaped sociological views on social class.

MARX Karl Marx believed that class membership was determined by economic factors (ownership & non-ownership). He identified two main classes in capitalist society:

- Bourgeoisie (capitalist/ruling class) o Wealthy and own property, big businesses, land and factories. Their main interests are higher profits

- Proletariat (working classes) o Own no property and are forced to sell their labour to the bourgeoisie in order to survive. Main interest is higher wages

These two classed have very different interests and this leads to conflict between them (conflict theory).

WEBER Max Weber identified four main classes with different life chances in the labour market:

- Property owners - Professionals - Petty bourgeoisie - Working class

Similarly to Marx, Weber saw class as based on economic factors. He also stressed the importance of status and power in determining life chances.

FUNCTIONALIST APPROACH According to the functionalist approach, modern society requires a system of unequal rewards. This provides an incentive for the most talented people to train for the key occupations that are essential for society to continue. These top positions must provide scarce rewards such as high pay/status to attract the most able people.

They believe that the stratification system fulfills the function of ensuring that the most important jobs are filled by the most talented and highly qualified people.

They see modern societies such as Britain as meritocratic, to a large extent.

GENDER, ETHNICITY & AGE

These sources of inequality are significant in class-based societies.

INEQUALITY BASED ON GENDER

Feminist approaches explore gender inequalities in society.

Over the last 40 years, reforms in areas such as education and employment have addressed aspects of gender inequality. For example, governments have introduced anti-discrimination laws such as the Equal Pay Act (1970) to reduce gender inequalities.

Today, women are increasingly likely to achieve high level education qualifications, high status jobs and good salaries.

Feminists would still argue that gender remains the most significant social division in contemporary society. They see society as patriarchal.

They see society as a patriarchal one in which men:

- Have a lot of power within families, politics and the workplace - Generally receive a bigger share of rewards such as wealth and status

Often, men and women do not work in the same occupations. For instance, fire fighting is male dominated and nursery nursing is female dominated. When men and women do work in the same occupations, women are more likely to be in lower-level or middle-level jobs while men tend to hold the higher grade and senior management posts. For example, in 2007, 19% of men and 11% of women worked as managers or senior officials. Women on average still earn less than men. One reason for this is that women are more likely than men to work in low-paid jobs. Women are also more likely than me to be employed part-time rather than full time. One explanation for the persistence of gender inequality at work focuses on discrimination in the workplace. Another explanation suggests that women are held back when applying for promotions or developing their career because they have the main responsibility for housework and childcare. A third explanation argues that inadequate or expensive childcare provision presents some women from participating in full-time paid work or staying in employment long enough to progress in their career.

INEQUALITY BASED ON ETHNICITY

Over the last 40 years, reforms and policies have addressed inequality based on ethnicity in areas such as education, employment and criminal justice. For example:

• Many employers have equal opportunities policies to support equality and diversity • The 1976 Race Relations Act outlawed discrimination based on ethnicity • The Equality and Human Rights Commission has powers to enforce the equality laws and to

shape public policy on equality issues • Within organizations, awareness of institutional racism has been raised

As a result of such changes, many commentators will argue that inequalities based on ethnicity are much less significant than they were 40 years ago. However, others will argue that there has been little real change in the fields of employment, education and criminal justice. For example, unemployment rates in England & Wales are higher among ethnic minorities such as Pakistani and Bangladeshi in comparison to White British or White Irish people. Research has also found that men and women of Pakistani and Bangladeshi heritage have much worse chances of getting professional and managerial jobs than their white peers of the same age and educational level.

Governments have tried to reduce inequalities between different ethnic groups by funding bodies such as the Equality and Human Rights Commission which enforces equality laws, as well as through legislature such as the Race Relations Act in the 1970s.

INEQUALITY BASED ON AGE

Sociologists argue that age is socially constructed. This can be seen in the historical and cross cultural differences in expectations surrounding age. For example, although child labour is now illegal in Britain, it was the norm among working-class families in the 19th century and exists in some parts of the world today.

The status of older people can vary between cultures. In some cultures, ageing is seen as something to be avoided. In others, however, age is seen as something to look forward to and older people have a high status in society.

The term ageism describes a situation in which someone is treated differently and less favourably based on their age. In Britain, there are now regulations against age discrimination in employment and training.

KEYWORDS

- Ageism: prejudice/discrimination upon the basis of age - Ethnicity: cultural norms and values that distinguish one ethnic group from another

WEALTH, INCOME & POVERTY

- Wealth refers to the ownership of assets that are valued at a particular point in time. Marketable assets include houses and land that can be sold in order to make money. Wealth also includes shares and savings.

- Income refers to the flow of resources which individuals households receive over a specific period of time. People may receive income in cash (e.g. wages, welfare benefits and pensions) or in kind (e.g. company car and petrol allowances)

THE DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH & INCOME

Wealth is distributed unequally in the UK. For example, in 2001, the wealthiest 1% owned 33% of marketable wealth whilst the least wealthy 50% owned just 3% of this wealth.

Income is also distributed unequally in the UK. For example, in 2007, the poorest 10% of people received 3% of total income while the top 10% received 40% of total income.

Wealth and income influence life chances. For example, people on high incomes have the choice between NHS and private healthcare, state and private education or between renting and buying a property. Most people on low incomes do not have these choices.

POVERTY

Poverty can be defined as:

- Absolute poverty when people’s income is so low that they cannot obtain the minimum needed to survive

- Relative poverty which is when people’s income is well below average so they are poor compared with others in their society. They cannot afford to have the general standard of living that most other people in their society enjoy

Poverty can also be defined in terms of exclusion from everyday activities and customs. This is about people who experience poverty from the activities and living patterns that most people take for granted.

MEASURING POVERTY

There are different ways of measuring poverty:

- Low incomes – this is the main official UK government way of measuring poverty - Lack of items that the majority of the population see as necessities - Subjective measures – in which people judge themselves to be living in poverty

GROUPS AT RISK OF POVERTY

Research suggests that the proportion of people in poverty is higher among:

• Single parent households • Single pensioners • Families with a child under 11 • Households without paid workers • People who left school aged 16 or under • Children and young people

Poverty is linked to ethnicity, gender and age.

People living in households headed by someone of Pakistani or Bangladeshi heritage are at risk of living in low-income households. Possible reasons for this could include racism and discrimination in the labour market. Members of some minority ethnic groups are less likely to take up the welfare state assistance to which they are entitled. Members of some minority ethnic groups are also more likely to experience unemployment and are more likely to live in low income households.

Women face a greater risk of poverty than men. Possible reasons could include the fact that women earn less than men, on average, because they are more likely to work in low paid jobs and to work part-time. In general, women live longer than men so there are a larger number of older female pensioners living alone. Women are less likely than men to have an income from an occupational pension. Women are also more likely than men to head single-parent families which often have to live on low incomes.

Children and pensioners are more at risk of poverty than other age groups. Possible reasons for this include living on a low income such as state retirement pension and not claiming the benefits to which they are entitled to.

This is all captured in the idea of the life cycle of poverty. The life cycle of poverty shows that people may move in and out of poverty at different points during their lives. For example, an individual may live below the poverty line during childhood. As a young adult, they can earn money and move out of poverty. If they have children, the added expense may mean they move back into poverty. When their children leave home, they may escape poverty. During old age, they no longer get a wage so they may move back into poverty. So, children and pensioners are more at risk of poverty.

KEYWORDS

- Absolute poverty: people experience absolute poverty when their income is insufficient to obtain the minimum needed to survive

- Life cycle of poverty: movement into and out of poverty at different stages during the course of a person’s life

- Poverty line: a government-approved line that divides people who are living below a set income level (living below the poverty line) from those who are living above it. In Britain, there is no official poverty line

- Relative poverty: people experience relative poverty when they cannot afford to meet the general standard of living of most other people in their society

DIFFERENT SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF POVERTY

Some approaches focus on individuals and groups while others focus on structural factors.

INDIVIDUAL EXPLANATIONS OF POVERTY

Individual explanations highlight the behaviour/lifestyles of individuals and groups who experience poverty. They suggest that the poor are responsible in some way for their own situation:

• Culture of poverty o In this account, people from the poorest sections of society are socialized within a subculture of poverty. They develop a way of life and a set of values to cope with their position. For example, they live for the moment and see no point in planning ahead. However, these values prevent them from taking up educational opportunities or saving for the future, and in this way, escaping poverty

• Cycle of deprivation o In this view, poverty involves both material and cultural deprivation. It persists from generation to generation, locking families into a cycle of deprivation

• Welfare dependency and the underclass o In the 1980s and ‘90s, New Right approaches identified the emergence in Britain of an underclass - a group of undeserving poor whose attitudes and values are different from those of mainstream society. This group remains in poverty because they are encouraged by welfare

The idea of social exclusion can be used to criticize individual explanations of poverty. Socially excluded people are shut out from participating in society’s socioeconomic, political and cultural life by factors beyond their control. The idea of social exclusion stresses society’s role in excluding some people from full participation.

STRUCTURAL EXPLANATIONS OF POVERTY

Structural approaches look at the way society is structured economically, socially and politically to create poverty and perpetuate it over time:

MARXIST APPROACH This view states that poverty is the inevitable result of the class-based inequalities that are built into capitalist society. Capitalism is an economic system that generates extreme wealth for the bourgeoisie/ruling class while producing poverty among sections of the proletariat

UNEMPLOYMENT AND THE INADEQUACIES OF THE WELFARE STATE Unemployment is seen as a key issue in understanding the causes of poverty. During economic recessions, unemployment levels rise and, as a result, the number of people experiencing poverty also increases. Another view is that welfare state benefits are too low. In this view, the solution to the

problem of poverty is to give more money to the people in poverty by increasing the value of pensions and welfare benefits.

To summarize…

• Critics argue that the culture of poverty and cycle of depravation explanations ignore structural factors and fail to explain why people are poor in the first place

• New Right approaches focus on the underclass whose members are seen as dependent on welfare provision. Critics argue that the term underclass is used to label and blame the victims of poverty

MAJOR DEBATES ABOUT SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

One debate focuses on how much social mobility there is in modern Britain and whether society is becoming more meritocratic. Other debates look at whether social class is still a useful concept in the 21st century and whether Britain is now a classless society.

MERITOCRACY AND SOCIAL MOBILITY

Some sociologists argue that Britain is a meritocracy, to a large extent. This means that status is achieved and occupational positions are allocated on the basis of individual ability. So, social class origins, gender or ethnicity are seen as less significant than talent and motivation in determining an individual’s occupation and class position.

High rates of social mobility suggest that:

• Society is meritocratic • Opportunities are available to everyone, regardless of their social class origins

Routes to mobility include educational qualifications, financial windfalls and changes in the occupational structure such as a growth in white collar occupations. Barriers include gender discrimination, lack of skills and qualifications.

Goldthorpe’s (1972-1974) mobility study suggested that some long-rang mobility had occurred. Working class children did, in fact, end up in middle-class occupations. However, they were much less likely than middle-class children to do so.

More recently, Crompton has noted that social mobility in Britain is in decline. This is linked partly to changes in the occupational structure. For example, the growth in professional and managerial jobs has slowed down so there is now less room at the top.

People of African Caribbean heritage are more likely to be in occupations that are classified as working class. This can have consequences for their chances of upward social mobility. This can also have consequences for their children’s life chances including their educational opportunities.

Sociologists working within the Feminist approach argue that gender inequality is the most important cause of social division in modern Britain. Gender inequality can be found in the workplace today despite equality laws such as the Sex Discrimination Act. On the other hand, many girls are now achieving better examination results ant GCSE and A-level than boys. Also, increasing numbers of females are going into higher education and entering professional careers such as medicine.

Other sociologists see inequality based on ethnicity as the most important cause of social division in contemporary Britain. For instance, members of some minority ethnic groups underachieve at school and experience higher levels of unemployment compared with other groups.

Sociologists from the Marxist approach see social class divisions as key to understanding capitalist society. Some sociologists, however, argue that inequalities based on gender, ethnicity, class and age are interlinked rather than separate categories. Such sociologists explore the way these inequalities are linked together.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL CLASS

One view is that social class divisions are less clear-cut in Britain today compared with the 1950s.

For example, it is argued that:

• Traditional working-class communities have declined o E.g. communities centered on heavy industry, coal-mining and shipbuilding have declined

• Class identities have weakened and people no longer strongly identify themselves as working or middle class

Another version of the decline of class view suggests that class divisions have become less significant than those based on gender, ethnicity and age:

• Women, some minority ethnic groups, children and older people are more risk of poverty than other groups

• Divisions based on gender can be seen in the gender inequalities in the workplace, the gender pay gap and the under-representation of women in political life

• Ethnic inequalities. Divisions based on ethnicity can be seen in the over-representation of some minority ethnic groups among low income households, and the underrepresentation of some minority ethnic groups among MPs and in the professions

Other sociologists will argue that inequalities based on class, gender, ethnicity and age are all significant in modern Britain. In this view, class, gender, ethnicity and age are seen as interlinked aspects of inequality rather than as completely separate aspects.

Many sociologists argue that social class remains a central concept in sociology because social class still impacts on people’s daily lives. Class-based inequalities in life chances persist in the 21st century. So, while class may have changed, it has not declined.

INTER-GENERATIONAL SOCIAL MOBILITY & INTRA-GENERATIONAL SOCIAL MOBILITY

Inter-generational mobility occurs when an individual enters a different stratum from his or her parents. It refers to movement between the generations of a family rather than over the course of an individual’s life.

Intra-generational mobility occurs when an individual moves up or down between the strata of a stratification system over the course of their life.

KEYWORDS

- Classless society: a society that does not have different social classes - Inter-generational social mobility: movement up or down between the strata of a stratification

system as measured between the generations of a family - Intra-generational social mobility: movement of an individual over the course of their life up or

down between the strata of a stratification system - Long-range mobility: social mobility that involves significant movement - Short-range mobility: social mobility that involves limited movement

Social inequality 4 & 5 mark questions

4 markers

Explain what sociologists mean by patriarchy. (4 marks)Explain what sociologists mean by the glass ceiling. (4 marks)Explain what sociologists mean by the poverty trap. (4 marks)Explain what sociologists mean by social exclusion. (4 marks)Explain what sociologists mean by institutional racism. (4 marks)

5 Markers

Describe one life chance which may be affected by an individual’s ethnicity and explain why this happens. (5 marks)

Describe one consequence of poverty for an individual and explain why it may be difficult for the individual to escape from this situation. (5 marks)

Describe one way in which governments have attempted to increase upward socialmobility and explain why this may not have been successful. (5 marks)

Describe one possible cause of social exclusion and explain why people often find ithard to escape from this situation. (5 marks)

Describe one way in which the status of the elderly may be lower than that of other agegroups in society and explain how this may lead to discrimination against them.(5 marks)

Describe one consequence of child poverty and explain why the problem of child povertycontinues to exist. (5 marks)

Describe one way in which some minority ethnic groups have fewer life chances thanothers and explain why this appears to continue over time. (5 marks)

Describe one reason why some sociologists use relative definitions of poverty and explain why some politicians might prefer to use absolute definitions. (5 marks)

Describe one way in which governments have attempted to end gender discrimination inthe workplace and explain why this policy might not have been successful. (5 marks)

Describe one reason why people find themselves in poverty and explain why it might bedifficult for them to get out of this situation. (5 marks)

12 markers:

1. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that the causes of poverty lie in the attitudes and values of the poor themselves.

2. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that gender discrimination in the workplace remains an issue in Britain today.

3. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that Britain is now a classless society.  4. . Discuss how far sociologists would agree that a person’s ethnicity is the most

important factor affecting his or her life chances5. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that a person’s gender is the most

important factor affecting his or her life chances6. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that in Britain today a person’s status is

based on his or her achievements.7. Discuss how far sociologists would agree that there is an underclass in Britain

today.

Example: Discuss how far sociologists would agree that people themselves are to blame for their poverty?Poverty can be defined in two ways, these are through the ideas of absolute poverty and relative poverty. Absolute poverty is the term used to describe people who have no access to basic necessities needed to survive (such as food, water, shelter.) In comparison relative poverty is where people cant afford the materials which people in that society consider important. Some sociologists suggest that people living in poverty have themselves to blame for their situation however others argue that other factors are to blame.

One argument to support that the poor are to blame for poverty is the cycle of deprivation. This explains that a person would be born into a poor family, then suffer from material and cultural deprivation when they attend school. This means that the individual gains no/little qualifications and so can only get a low skilled/low paid job (or in some circumstances remain unemployed.) This person then has children of their own and the cycle continues in the same way. As well as this, sociologists argue that the theory of welfare dependency as put forward by the New Right, Charles Murray, explains that the people are to blame. For example, an individual may feel there is no need for them to have a job/income because people become dependent on benefits and welfare from the government. This type of

situation is particularly evident in single parent families as they know they don't have to work because they will always have the safety net of money from the government and so remain unemployed. Therefore, this shows that it is the individual’s choice to stay in poverty as they choose not to work and depend on the welfare system.

On the other hand, it could be argued that the structure of society itself is to blame for people in living in poverty. This is a theory was explained by Marx who suggested poverty is only evident because we live in a capitalist society. This means all the wealth and power in society remains with the upper class (borgeousie) which produces poverty and poor living amongst the working class. This means that the working class are controlled by the powerful owners and so if they demand higher wages they could be replaced easily by other people. Also, the theory put forward by Burchardt et al of social exclusion could be used to explain that people aren't to blame for poverty but in fact its the government. This is because some individuals may feel that they are excluded from being able to participate in society due to not being able to buy the goods/services needed in order to contribute to their community in an political or economic manner.

In conclusion, although it could be argued that the government and society are factors keeping people in poverty, it would be reasonable to say that to a larger extent the individuals themselves are to blame for their own poverty.

Past paper June 2014:

(Mark scheme on next page)

Social inequality checklist:

What is social inequality and stratification? Understood Notes RevisedWhat so sociologists mean by the term social inequality?How is society stratified by social class?How is society stratified by gender?How is society stratified by age?How is society stratified by gender?How does stratification affect people’s life chances?How do sociologists measure stratification based on social class?Explain Karl Marx’s views on stratification?Explain Max Weber’s views on social class?How do functionalists explain social class?What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Registrar Generals’ scale?What are the strengths and weaknesses of the NS-SEC scale?How do inequalities based on gender, ethnicity and age affect people?What is gender?What inequalities are based on gender?What is ethnicity?What inequalities are based on ethnicity?What is life course?What inequalities do people face in youth and in old age?How are wealth, income and poverty distributed in the UK?Is wealth distributed fairly through the UK population? What is social mobility?What is poverty?How do we measure poverty?Which social groups are most likely to experience poverty?What are the sociological explanations of poverty?What is the culture of poverty?What is the cycle of poverty?What is welfare dependency?What is the Marxist explanation of poverty?How does unemployment and the inadequacies of the welfare state explain poverty?Contemporary examplesHow much social mobility is there in Britain?Are other divisions in society more important the social class?Has Britain got too high a level of welfare dependency?Can you give 3 recent examples from the news that relate to anything above?