DECENTRALISED ELECTRICITY SUPPLY THROUGH RENEWABLES

LAKE 2014: Conference on Conservation andSustainable Management of Wetland Ecosystems in

Western GhatsDate: 13th -15th November 2014

Symposium Web: http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy

114Sahyadri Conservation Series 47, ETR 87

DECENTRALISED ELECTRICITY SUPPLY THROUGH RENEWABLES

Ganesh Hegde and T.V. Ramachandra*Energy & Wetlands Research Group,

Center for Ecological Sciences [CES], Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore -560 012, India, http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy

[email protected], [email protected]*Corresponding author: T.V. Ramachandra ([email protected])

ABSTRACTDecentralised electric energy generation usingavailable renewable energy resources can meet theregional demand by reducing the transmissionlosses and stress on central grid. The currentcommunication explores village wise availabilityof renewable energy resources in Uttara Kannadadistrict in the central Western Ghats region. Allthe taluks of the district receive solar insolation >5kWh/m2/day annually and coastal and hilly terrainexperiences wind speed >3 m/s are most suited fordecentralised energy harvesting. Integrated energysystem would ensure elevate the livelihood withreliable electricity supply throughout the year. Afraction of (2-10%) available rooftop is adequateto mount solar panels to supply domestic

electricity. Sufficient land is available as theestimate indicates less than 5% of currentwasteland is sufficient to deploy decentralisedelectricity generation for meeting the currentdomestic and irrigation energy demand. Most ofthe villages in the district are blessed withabundant bioenergy of more than 10000 millionkWh/annum which can suffice the heating andelectric energy requirement. Similarly, 0.1 to 0.5million kWh of biogas energy available in most ofthe villages which can be used for cooking andelectricity generation. The annual energyrequirement of the villages in the district canefficiently supplied from locally availableresources in decentralised way.

Keywords: Renewable energy, solar energy, rooftop PV, Uttara Kannada

INTRODUCTIONEnergy is the fundamental need of human beingfor all activities. Energy harvesting is dependenton the available resources, type of end use, cost ofthe resource and conversion process, maturity ofenergy technology and the social acceptance.However, electricity is the widely used energyform which effects the economic and socialdevelopment of a region. Electric energygeneration from renewable energy resources (windand solar) is evolving which can play a pivotalrole in the region’s development, while combatingglobal warming through the reduction ofgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [1].

The present centralised system of electricitygeneration has caused enormous environmentalpollution through GHG emission, waste waterdischarge and changing the landscape [2].Transmission and Distribution losses due tosparsely located load centers, theft and pilferage ofelectricity is one of the major issues affecting thereliability of the electricity supply. Figure 1 givesthe T&D losses in the country form last 4 decades.It has gradually increased from 17.5% (in 1970-71) to 24.1% (in 2011-12), leading to large supplyand demand gap of electricity [3].

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The other important short coming of centralisedgeneration is reaching the remotely located loads.There are about more than 78,000 villages in thecountry of which 7.4 crore households are not yetelectrified [4]. Demand for electricity has beenincreasing due to rapid urbanisation andindustrialisation with globalisation and relaxationin Indian market. Coupled with these, ruralelectrification has widened the supply demandgap, necessitating exploration for viable energyalternatives. Electricity generation in India mainlydepends of fossil fuels (Coal – 59%, Gas - 9%,Nuclear – 2%) and Hydro resources (17%).Renewable energy constitutes about 12% in thetotal installed capacity [5]. Exploitation of fossilfuels have led to degradation of environment while

mining, transportation and burning emittingpoisonous pollutants to atmosphere. The life cyclecarbon dioxide (CO2) emission is highest in coalbased power plants, ranges from 960-1050gCO2eq./kWh followed by diesel (778gCO2eq./kWh), natural gas (443 gCO2eq./kWh)and nuclear fuelled power plants (15gCO2eq./kWh). These generating plants also emitsignificant amount of SO2 and NOx, while lettinghigh concentrated effluent to the water resources[6-8]. There has been a significant progressthrough renewable sources towards cleanerelectricity generation options, which is likely torevolutionise, if dissemination of thesetechnologies is done at decentralised levels.

Figure 1: T & D losses from 1970-71 to 2011-12

The current emphasise to meet the domesticenergy demand is through renewable resourcesharvested at decentralised level and efficientdistribution through micro grids. Exploitinglocally available renewable energy resources tomeet the regional electricity demand is beingattempted in many regions [9]. Hybrid systemsthrough integration of locally available renewableenergy resources is a feasible technique to addressthe seasonal variability and ensure the reliableenergy supply. Grid connected micro grid seemsviable option as many federal governments haveopted the payback tariff for supplying to the grid[10]. A standalone and grid connected distributed

generation (DG) would reduce the transmissionand distribution requirement of energy bysupplying the load locally while reducing T & Dlosses significantly. Since, DG integratesrenewables to the grid which increases theinstalled capacity. RE sources are mostlyenvironmental friendly, which also solves GHGemission issues [11]. The present study tries toidentify the villages with higher renewable energywhere DG can be proposed and also the annualenergy availability. The study gives insights to DGplanning and monitoring in village level of UttaraKannada district.

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DATA AND METHOD

Study Area: Uttara Kannada with the spatialextent of 10,291 km2 is located between 74°9′-75°10′ E and 13°55′-15°31′ N in the mid-westernpart of Karnataka state, India (Figure 2). Theregions with undulating hills, rising steeply from anarrow coastal strip bordering the Arabian Sea to aplateau at an altitude of 500 m, with occasionalhills rising above 600 to 860 m lies in the centralpart of Western Ghats [12]. Topographically, thedistrict lies in three distinct zones namely narrowand flat coastal zone, abruptly rising ridge zoneand elevated flat eastern zone. The coastal zone isthickly populated with coconut clad villages.Ridge zone is a part of the main range of WesternGhats, which runs north to south, parallel to the

coast. The flat eastern zone joins the Deccanplateau. The taluks, which comprises the narrowflat coastal zone, are: Karwar, Ankola, Kumta,Honnavar and Bhatkal. Similarly, taluks, whichcomprises the ridge zone, are: Supa (Joida),Haliyal, Yellapur, western Sirsi, and westernSiddapur. Flat eastern zone includes Mundgod,eastern Sirsi and eastern Siddapur. Four agro-climatic zones based on geography and climate arecoastal, evergreen, dry deciduous and moistdeciduous. There are 1291 villages, 7 towns, 5 citymunicipal corporations/town municipalcorporations/outward growth/census towns and 2reservoirs in the district[http://uttarakannada.nic.in/].

Figure 2: Study area – Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka

Method

Spatio-temporal data are used for energy potentialassessment using open source GIS platform, whichalso gives the seasonal and geographicalvariability of the energy resources. Long term datasets acquired from NASA SSE and ClimateResearch Unit (CRU) are reliable and depicts the

seasonal variability which is closely correlatedwith ground measurement.

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Figure 3: Extent and types of forest cover in the district

Solar Energy Potential Assessment: NASA SSEGlobal insolation datasets are obtained from aphysical model based on the radiative transfer inthe atmosphere considering its absorption andscattering properties. The model considers visibleand infrared radiation, cloud and surfaceproperties, temperature, perceptible water, columnozone amounts and also the atmospheric variablesincludes temperature and pressure measured usingvarious satellite instruments. The long wave andshortwave solar radiations recorded in the satellitesensors along with the effecting parameters arestudied to generate global insolation for differentlocations and durations. The 0.1°X0.1° spatialresolution SSE global insolation data derived fromNASA SSE web portal(http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/), for a period of22 years (July 1st, 1983 to June 30th, 2005) werevalidated (RMSE of 10.28%) with BaselineSurface Radiation Network (BSRN) data availableas daily, monthly and annual averages obtainedfrom measured values every 3 hours [13, 14]. Inthis study, NASA SSE monthly average Globalinsolation data is collected for more than 900 gridswhich optimally cover the entire topography of

India within the latitudes 8° to 38°N andlongitudes 68° to 98°E. Further, grids whichessentially cover the entire district are extractedand a geo-statistical Inverse Distance Weighting(IDW) interpolation is employed to producemonthly average Global Hourly Insolation (GHI)maps for the region. The Direct insolation is givenby

I = (G – D)/sin Φ (1)

where, G is the Global insolation, D is the diffusecomponent and Φ is the sun’s elevation angle.

Wind Energy Potential Assessment: Synthesizedwind data is available from various sources, whichprovides overview of the wind regime of a region.Depending on the physiographical features andclimatic conditions, these data help to assess windpotential in the region of interest which can bevalidated by long term surface windmeasurements. From earlier studies it is evidentthat Climate Research Unit (CRU) data arereliable and closer to the Indian MeteorologicalDepartment (IMD) surface data, which is used inthe present study [15]. CRU at the University ofEast Anglia maintains a record of climatic averagedatasets of meteorological variables which alsocontains wind speed data for the period between1961 and 1990, compiled from different sources.Further, inter and intra variable consistency checksare performed to minimize data consolidationerrors. The Global Land One-km Base Elevationproject (GLOBE) data of the National GeophysicalData Center (NGDC) were re-sampled into 10'×10'(ten minute spatial resolution or 0.16° X 0.16°)elevation grids where every cell with more than25% land surface represents the average elevationof 100~400 GLOBE elevation points. Thosebelow 25% are considered water bodies. Theclimatic average of wind speeds measured at 2 to20 m anemometer heights (assumed to bestandardised during collection) collated from

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3,950 global meteorological stations together withthe information on latitude, longitude andelevation were interpolated based on a geo-statistical technique called thin plate smoothingsplines. Elevation as a co-predictor considerstopographic influence on the wind speed, whereas,proximity of a region to the measuring stationimproves the reliability of the interpolated data.During interpolation, inconsistent data wereremoved appropriately. This technique wasidentified to be steadfast in situations of datasparseness or irregularity [16]. The 10'×10' spatialresolution wind speed data as climatic averageswere available for all global regions (excludingAntarctica) [17].

Bio-energy Assessment: Uttara Kannada districtis a part of central Western Ghats, where 75% ofthe area is covered with forest. The geographicalheterogeneity is responsible for the diverse growthof vegetation in the district. Taluks of the districtare categorized under 4 different types of forestswhich are

Evergreen forests normally found in Sirsi,Siddapur, Yellapur, Joida and eastern hillyregions of Honnavar, Kumta and AnkolaTaluks.

Semi evergreen and moist deciduousforest, found in slopes of Ankola, Kumta,Karwar, Honnavar, Siddapur and Sirsi.

Deciduous forests (dry) are mostly foundin Haliyal, Supa and Mundgod region.

Forests in the coastal region, normallyfound in Kumta, Honnavar, Ankola,Karwar and Bhatkal region.

Figure 3 gives the climatic zones and forest typesof Uttara Kannada. Extent of the forest cover andtype of forest has a major effect on bio-energysupply. Evergreen forest found in most of theplaces in the central region followed by moist anddry deciduous forests. Bio-energy status

assessment is done based on the resourceavailability and bio-energy requirement in thedistrict. Having the knowledge of current bio-energy usage pattern in different agro-climaticzones, demand for bioenergy is estimated. Energyconsumption sampling in few villagescomplimented the estimated values. Bio-resourcemainly depends on the land use pattern, forestcover and yields of various crops. Using the earlierenergy survey data and by spatio-temporal landuse dynamics analysis, availability of resourcesand corresponding demands are computed. All theestimations are done taluk wise and aggregated foreach agro-climatic zone.

Biogas Resource Assessment: Livestock a vitalcomponent of agrarian ecosystem provides milkand manure. Other uses of livestock are wool,meat, transportation and for ploughing (orsowing). Animal residues from livestock aid inrecharging the essential nutrients of soil. It alsoenhances the quality of organic manure whichincreases the soil fertility. Farmers in UttaraKannada are prominently dependent on livestockfor their agriculture and horticulture practices.Animal residue is the main feedstock for theproduction of biogas as well as manure. There areabout 3,66,949 cattle, 1,18,669 Buffaloes, 2,702Sheep and 11,994 Goats in Uttara Kannada (CattleCensus 2001). Other members of livestock arePigs (900), Dogs (93,403) and Rabbits (277)which are in a smaller number. Total livestockpopulation in the district is about 5,94,929 andpoultry population is 3,61,351. Dung availablefrom each cattle varies from 3-4 kg to 8-10 kg(from coastal to hilly region). Similarly averagedung produced from a buffalo is 12-15 kg andfrom a hybrid one is 15-18 kg. About 0.036 m3 ofbiogas can be produced per kg of dung; is assumedin the biogas resource estimation.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 shows (Figure 4) the village-wise monthlyaverage domestic electricity consumption based onthe data compiled from electricity distributioncompany (HESCOM) and from sampledhouseholds. Average monthly energy consumptionof electricity for domestic purposes is about 34±8kWh/month/household and irrigation requirementis about 3218±2412 kWh/hectare/year. Monthlydomestic electricity consumption ranges from 23(Haliyal) to 44 kWh (Honnavar). The region wiseelectricity demand for domestic and irrigationpurpose computed which shows that coastal taluks(Ankola, Kumta, Karwar, Bhatkal and Honnavar)have higher household electricity consumption.Siddapur and Sirsi taluks with vast extent ofhorticulture crops lead in the per hectareconsumption of electricity for irrigation. A largepart of Uttara Kannada district, except the coastpractice rain fed agriculture and hence do not relyon irrigation. The electricity consumption forirrigation ranges from 1,000 - 5,000 kWh/month.From figure 5 it is seen that in most of the villages,total roof area available is less than 10,000 m2 or itis about 10,000 to 25,000 m2. There are very fewvillages where the total roof area is more than50,000 m2. The knowledge of total number ofhouseholds in the particular village helps inassessing the available rooftop area of eachhousehold.

Table 1: Domestic electricity consumption

TalukElectricity consumption

Household(kWh/month)

Agricultural(kWh/ha/year)

Ankola 34 2900Kumta 42 3200Karwar 40 3100Bhatkal 40 3100

Honnavar 44 1800Haliyal 23 1800

Mundgod 37 2100

Siddapur 26 7700Sirsi 34 7900

Yellapur 25 900Supa 25 900max 44 7900min 23 900

average 34 3218std. 8 2412

Scope for Rooftop PV Systems to meetDomestic Electricity Demand: The domesticelectricity demand of the district can be metthrough solar rooftop PV system, which ensuresreliable and better quality supply of electricitycompared to the present grid connection. Rooftoparea requirement for PV modules was computedand mapped with the knowledge of region-wisehousehold electricity demand considering the solarPV panels of efficiency (η) 14% with modules ofquality factor (Q) 0.5. In most of the regions,except towns, less than 10,000 m2 of rooftop areais sufficient to meet the village’s householdelectricity demand. Figure 6 shows the PVcapacity required to meet their demand. Most ofthe villages require installations within 1,000 kWwhile towns need larger installations up to 14,000kW. Figure 7 shows the share of available rooftoparea required to meet household electricitydemand. It can be seen that, fraction (less than7%) of the roof area is sufficient to meet theelectrical energy demand of the household usingrooftop PV system in the district. Villages in thecoastal region and planes (Mundgod and easternpart of Sirsi) require rooftop area 3% to 8.5%whereas the villages of Western Ghats (Sahyadri)need lower rooftop area (1% - 2%) to meet thedomestic electricity demand through solar.However, less than 8.5% of the available rooftoparea in any village would meet its householdelectricity requirement using solar PV system [18].

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Solar Energy for Irrigation: Village-wise landuse pattern was estimated using IRS (Indianremote Sensing) P6 data of 5.6 m spatialresolution. This analysis provided the details of theextent of wasteland in each village of the district.The proportion of wasteland required to meetelectricity demand for irrigation was calculated,which is given in Figure 8, considering SPVStandalone panels of efficiency (η) 14% andquality factor (Q) 0.5. Villages in the coastal zonecan support the irrigation demand with less than0.5% of the available waste land area. In most ofthe villages in the coastal taluks, the landrequirement is less than 0.5% of wasteland area tomeet the electricity demand for irrigation. In fewplaces land area required is more than 0.5% of thetotal waste/open land area available (villages ofSidapur, Sirsi and Mundgod). However, in all thevillages of the district, less than 10% of waste landcan meet the total irrigation electricity demand ofthe village by installing PV modules.

Bioenergy from Forest Biomass, Agricultureand Horticulture: Figure 9 gives the annualenergy available from agricultural, horticulturaland forest residues in the district, which rangesfrom less than 10,000 GWh to about 3,00,000GWh per year. Majority of the villages inSiddapur, Haliyal, Mundgod and coastal talukshave bioenergy potential less than 10,000GWh/annum from all the sources. Some villagesin Ankola, Karwar, Sirsi, Yellapur and Supa have

annual bio-energy ranging from 10,000 to2,00,000 GWh per year. From the figure 9 it isevident that, villages in the dense forest regionhave higher bio-energy potential compared toother villages [19].

Biogas Potential: Figure 10 gives the annualbiogas production from livestock residues inUttara Kannada. It is apparent that in majority ofthe villages, annual biogas energy generated frombiogas ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 GWh. In 340villages of Mundgod, Haliyal, Karwar andSiddapur taluk, biogas energy generation is 0.5 to1 GWh. Few villages in Bhatkal, Honnavar andMundgod taluk have biogas based energyproduction of 1-12 GWh per annum. The availableenergy from biogas is adequate to meet thecooking fuel demand in the region. Biogascombustion is more efficient, produces lessemission and after the production of biogas fromthe residues, nutrient rich slurry can be used formanure generation. Ministry of New andRenewable Energy (MNRE), Govt. of India (GoI)supports biogas plant installation through schemeslike Central Finance Assistance (CFA) providing50% of the cost and also by implementing theNational Biogas and Manure ManagementProgramme (NBMMP) [20]. However, communityparticipation is indeed required to elevate theinstallation of biogas plants in the rural areas ofthe country.

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Figure 4: Domestic electricity consumption Figure 5: Village wise rooftop area available

Figure 6: Village wise PV rooftop installation capacityrequired to meet the household electricity demand

Figure 7: Share of rooftop area required to meethousehold electricity demand

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Figure 8: Share of waste land area required to meet electricity demand for irrigation using PV

Figure 9: Village wise bioenergy availability Figure 10: Annual biogas energy availability

Wind Power Density Assessment: Village wisewind power density analysis is carried out inorder map the high wind energy potential regionsfor distributed energy planning. Figure 11 givesthe variation in annual average wind powerdensity in the district. Wind speed in the districtranges from 1.7 to 4 m/s where wind power

density is about 3 to 39 W/m2.It is apparent that,coastal villages experience higher wind powerdensity (> 11 W/m2) compared to hilly area andplanes. However, low speed wind generators aresuitable for the region, which can be integratedwith other energy sources.

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Figure 11: Village wise wind power density inUttara Kannada

Coastal villages experience higher wind speed(Karwar, Kumta, Ankola, Bhatka, and Honnavar)followed by hilly areas (Sirsi, Siddapur, Yellapurand Supa) and plane regions. Installation of WindEnergy Conversion Systems (WECS) near thecoastal belt of the district would be optimumbecause it has the highest potential. Since the

wind turbines need a larger disturbance free area,the coastal belt from Karwar to Bhatkal is bestsuited for installation. This also adds attraction tothe natural scenic beauty of the region. Also, withimprovement in technology, integration withother systems and optimisation would reduce theoperating cost of the system [21].

Regions at higher altitude in the district(Sahyadri) experience high wind speedsparticularly in monsoon, which can compensatefor the lower solar insolation. Since these regionslie in Western Ghats which shelters abundantendemic flora and fauna, site selection for windenergy systems must be done without anyecological disturbance. Micro and pico levelinstallation or hybridising wind resource withsolar and biomass is a technically feasible andeconomically viable option in this region. Planesalso have enough potential for wind power whichcould meet the local energy demand particularlythrough wind pumps and mills. Wind pumps canreform irrigation practices by producingcontinuous water without depending on gridelectricity.

CONCLUSION

Uttara Kannada district receives abundant solarinsolation throughout the year which varies from3.9 to 7.2 kWh/m2/day. Annual average insolationin the district is about 5.42 kWh/m2/day where, itexperience more than 5.2 kWh/m2/day for about300 days. Village level energy potential mapswere generated which gives the insights fordistributed generation from rooftop level toinstallation in barren lands. Study shows that,fraction of rooftop (< 8%) and barren land (<1%)area is sufficient to meet the household domesticdemand and irrigation electricity demandrespectively.

District is blessed with abundant bioenergy wherethe 70% of the geographical area is under richvegetation. Most of the people practice agriculturein the region which also yields bioenergy throughagro-horti residues. Quantification of bioenergy iscarried through land use land cover analysis,which shows that about 29368 GWh energyavailable annually. Similarly, district has goodnumber of cattle and buffalo population which cangenerate about 230 GWh of energy from biogasannually. Energy from biomass and biogas can beutilised for low and medium temperature heatingand also for electricity production.

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District experiences wind from west coast whichvaries from 1.9 to 4 m/s where coastal villageshave higher wind power potential (>11W/m2).Low speed wind turbines are most suitable for theregion which can be used for irrigation andelectricity generation. Wind energy generationsystems can also be integrated with solar andbiomass gasifier based generator for reliableelectricity production. However, ecologicallysensitive regions shall be avoided during the siteselection for wind systems.

Adopting renewable energy technologies canaddress the environmental and energy crisis issuesin the developing countries like India. Rooftopelectricity generation using SPV panels canelectrify remote household supplying the energyfor lighting and other minimal domesticapplications. Electricity harvesting for locallyavailable energy sources is a decentralised solutionfor energy crisis problem and to reduce thetransmission and distribution losses. This aids inachieving both economic growth and healthyenvironment in the region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank the NRDMS division, the Ministry ofScience and Technology, Government of India,Indian Institute of Science and The Ministry of

Environment and Forests, GOI for the sustainedsupport to carry out energy research.

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DECENTRALISED ELECTRICITY SUPPLY THROUGH RENEWABLES