Debtor of the mighty - sunflowertalk.ch...Debtor of the mighty 01 The gens Julia Caius Iulius Caesar, who was to become one of the most famous dictators of all time, was born into

Debtor of the mightyCaesar belonged to an ancient, though politically insignificant, family. Instead ofrelying on family relations, he trusted in heretofore unprecedented amounts ofmoney to further his career. By borrowing the money from the most powerfulpoliticians of his day, he ensured that they would support his political career, ifnothing else to get their money back – with interest.

Debtor of the mighty

The gens Julia01Caius Iulius Caesar, who was to become one of the mostfamous dictators of all time, was born into the gens Julia. Thisancient Patrician family produced only few consuls in the 5thand early 4th century before slowly fading into politicalobscurity.

Bust of Caius Iulius Caesar, Altes Museum, Berlin. Photo: Wikicommons/ Louis le Grand / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en


Playing along – but not the first fiddle02The time of Iulius Caesar hardly knew any significantmembers of the gens Julia. One major reason for thisdevelopment was the fact that the last Julian consul had sidedwith Marius. After losing the civil war against Sulla, this wasunfortunately the wrong side to be on. Speaking of which,Marius had also been married to Iulia, Caesar’s paternal aunt.

Denarius of L. Iulius, 101. Obverse: Roma. Reverse: Victoria in biga.


Aeneas – Rome – Caesar03Caius Iulius Caesar nevertheless prided himself on his lineage.Even though distinguished military leaders or politicians werelargely absent from the family tree, he still had an ace up hissleeve. According to legend, the family directly descendedfrom the son of Aeneas, whom the Greeks called Ascanius, theRomans Iulus. This coin shows how Aeneas rescues his fatherAnchises and the sacred Trojan palladium from the flames.The wooden statue would later find a new home in theRoman Temple of Vesta.

Denarius of C. Iulius Caesar, 47/6. Obverse: Venus. Reverse: Aeneascarrying his father Anchises and the Palladium.


Back to the roots04Through the connection with Aeneas, Caesar could traceback his roots to the great Greek epics. It was Roman poetVirgil who would put down the fall of Ilion in verse, the epicthat would become the Romans’ national poem.

The procession of the Trojan horse in Troy. Painting by GiovanniDomenico Tiepolo, 1760. National Gallery, London. Source:


Aeneas: Mythical hero, divine son05Caesar’s legendary family history was particularly interestingwith regard to the fact that Aeneas was the son of Aphrodite,Greek counterpart to the Roman goddess Venus. Even as no-name politician at the beginning of his career, this renderedCaesar superior to the big names in Roman politics. After all,Sulla had merely been a favourite of Venus, not herdescendant.

Flight from Troy. Painting by Federico Barocci, 1598. Galleria Borghese,Rome. Source: Wikicommons / Web Gallery of Art/Wetman.


Climbing the ladder of fame06Caesar’s political career did not really take off until 69 BC. Inrapid succession, he became quaestor and, in 65, aedile. Inthis office, Caesar sponsored circus games of spectacularscope. This only became possible by borrowing largeamounts of money, exceptionally large amounts of money.

Pollice Verso, painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1872. Phoenix ArtMuseum. Source: Wikicommons / WarX/Manuel Strehl /http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en


Money paves the way07That in itself was not unusual. All aediles relied on borrowedmoney. If anything, the amount of money may have beensomewhat unusual. What was really new though was thestrategy Caesar devised for the elections of the PontifexMaximus. Instead of bribing the older members of the collegeof pontiffs into renouncing their candidatures, he spentunprecedented amounts of money on bribing the electorate.With success: Caesar was elected despite allexpectations.What the Pontifex Maximus lacked in politicalpower, he more than made up for in religious power: Whileofficials were re-elected annually, the high priest was electedfor life. No wonder that on his coins Caesar time and againdepicted himself with items specifically linked to priestlyduties.

Denarius of C. Iulius Caesar, 49/8. Obverse: Priestly utensils. Reverse:Elephant trampling down on snake.


Money from a dubious source08Caesar’s main creditor was Marcus Licinius Crassus, the richestman in Rome. Among the more conservative members ofRoman society, he had a decidedly bad reputation. Thesenators were as appreciative of his money as they weresuspicious of its doubtful entrepreneurial origins – andCrassus was an exceptionally innovative entrepreneur.

Portrait, discovered in the Licinia family tomb in Rome, possiblyassociated with Marcus Licinius Crassus. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek,Copenhagen. Photo: Wikicommons / Diagram Lajard /http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.de


Caesar and the Catiline conspiracy09Caesar, who tended to disagree with the general Romantrend, also did so in the Catiline conspiracy. Until this day, nolight has been shed on the exact details of this ‘conspiracy’ – ifit ever existed. Be that as it may, Caius Iulius Caesar was theonly senator to speak up for Catiline and against the deathpenalty. Considering his inferior rank at the time of theconspiracy this constituted a scandal. However, his speechwas so convincing that he would have almost succeeded in hiscause, had it not been for Cato the Younger, who understoodhimself as the voice and moral conscience of the youngerreactionaries.In this affair, Caesar had made more than onebitter enemy.

Cicero denouncing Catiline. Historicising fresco by Cesare Maccari,1888. Villa Madama, Rome. Photo: Wikicommons.


All thanks to a guarantor10In 61 BC, Caesar’s enemies attempted to keep the newlyappointed praetor from visiting his province HispaniaUlterior by prompting his creditors to call in their moneyimmediately. The debt is estimated at 6 million denarii, whichroughly corresponds to a tenth of Rome’s annual income. Theintention behind this move was clearly political because everyRoman knew that a debtor would only be able to pay backthe money after returning from his province. But Caesar waslucky. His biggest creditor, Marcus Licinius Crassus,supported him. Maybe because he wanted his money back.Maybe because he had recognised his debtor’s politicalpotential. Crassus vouched for Caesar and Caesar travelled toSpain.

Map of the Roman provinces in Hispania. Source: Wikicommons.


Lusitania involuntarily pays Caesar’s debts11The obvious reason for Caesar’s expedition to Spain was ofcourse money. And money could only be won in a lucrativewar. This time, the Lusitanians were the victims. They hadlarge resources of silver and gold. By the time Caesar’s term inoffice ended, Lusitania had become part of the RomanRepublic. And Caesar had lined his pockets so thoroughlythat he never suffered from financial worries again.

The Roman province of Lusitania. Source: Wikicommons / AlexandreVigo / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.de


Triumvirate – Pompey12On his return to Rome, Caesar had to confront the fact thatmost of the senate was working against him. He had brokentoo many rules. His solution to the problem was ganging upon the senate with other outsiders, the rich Crassus, whowould have loved to lead a big military campaign someday,and military commander Pompey. The latter had wonconsiderable victories but was now at a loss to provide for hisveterans. Caesar promised them his support in exchange fortheirs, including that of their respective clients, for his electionas consul.

Denarius of Cn. Pompeius Magnus. 49. Obverse: Hermaphrodite’sbust.The reverse alludes to Pompey’s victories: The dolphin stands forhis war against the pirates, while the eagle symbolises Jove, whogranted him the victories. The sceptre symbolises rule.


New paths to old power13Already in Antiquity, people were aware that Caesardeviated from the well-trodden path to achieve his goals.Plutarch for instance wrote about him:‘He was unsparing in hisoutlays of money, and was thought to be purchasing atransient and short-lived fame at a great price, though inreality he was buying things of the highest value at a smallprice. We are told, accordingly, that before he entered uponany public office he was thirteen hundred talents in debt.Again, during his aedileship, he furnished three hundred andtwenty pairs of gladiators, and by lavish provision besides fortheatrical performances, processions, and public banquets,he washed away all memory of the ambitious efforts of hispredecessors in the office. By these means he put the peoplein such a humour that every man of them was seeking out newoffices and new honours with which to requite him.’

Plutarch, illustration taken from the French translation of ‘VitaeParallelae’ by Jacques Amyot, 1565. Source: Wikicommons.

Creditor of the ambitiousInitiating the Gallic Wars made Caesar one of the richest men in Rome. Hestrategically used the money, lending it to young, ambitious politicians who neededit to advance their careers. Thus, he secured their support in the senate and defiedhis enemies.

Creditor of the ambitious

Caesar becomes invincible01Caesar knew very well that he had made many enemies withhis way of doing politics, which is why he went straight fromconsul to proconsul. The office of proconsul conferred to itsholder legal immunity. Consequently, Caesar could not beprosecuted for actions performed in his previous office.

Caius Iulius Caesar, bronze statue at the Via Foro Imperiali, Rome.Photo: Wikicommons / Mharrsch /http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.de


Caesar needs more money02To replenish his money supplies, Caesar asked for theprovinces Gallia Cisalpina, Gallia Narbonensis and Illyria. Heknew that the region held enough potential for armedconflict and war. In early 58 BC, Caesar got on his way to hisprovinces.

Roman provinces and local tribes in the area of what today are Franceand Belgium, late 1st century BC. Source: Wikicommons / Feitscherg /http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.de


The domino effect03Thanks to the Helvetii, Caesar saw an opportunity to start awar against the Gauls. When the Helvetii tried to migrate tothe Atlantic coast due to food shortage, he prevented themfrom doing so and attacked. The rest was a domino effect.Between 58 and 51/50 BC, Caesar destroyed the Gallic tribesone after the other. This brought Rome tremendousterritorial gains and Caesar tremendous wealth.

Map of Gaul showing Caesar’s campaigns in the year 51 BC. Source:Wikicommons / Cristiano64 / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en


(Almost) invincible enemies04The tall and broad-shouldered Celts with their unruly blondhair were the one enemy the Romans feared the most,especially for their fearlessness and ferocity in battle. Just likethe ancient Greeks they drove into battle on war chariots asyou can see here on this coin reverse. Once you defeated anenemy like this, you were invincible. That is the message ofthis motif, which praises Caesar indirectly but no lessmemorably.

Denarius of L. Hostilius Saserna, 48. Obverse: Gallic warrior. Reverse:Biga with Gallic warrior.


One last battle05Towards the end of this war, which turned out to be verysuccessful for Caesar, he nevertheless met with one lastunfaltering enemy, Vercingetorix. It took Caesar all his effortsto defeat the Gallic tribes united under Vercingetorix in theBattle of Alesia 52 BC.

Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar. Paintingby Lionel Royer, 1899. Musée Crozatier, Le Puys-en-Velay. Source:Wikicommons.


Gold swamps the capital06The profit Caesar made by selling tens of thousands of warprisoners was enormous. Added to that was the booty fromplundered cities, sanctuaries and tribal treasures. Modernestimates suggest that Caesar’s fortune after his Gallicproconsulate was no less than 1.2 million sesterces. Goldflowed to Rome in such large quantities that gold prices in thecapital dropped by 25 per cent.

Modern sculptures by Reinhard Dachlauer in front of the FrankfurtStock Exchange. The bull symbolises rising stock prices, the bear fallingones. Photo: Wikicommons / Eva K.


Gold money for Caesar’s soldiers07As a reward for his legionaries Caesar minted part of the goldinto coins like the one you see here. That the gold coins wereworth 25 denarii each facilitated the logistics of the disbursal.After all, each common legionary was to receive a premium of5,000 denarii and each centurion a premium of 10,000denarii.

Aureus of C. Iulius Caesar, 46. Obverse: Female head. Reverse: Priestlyutensils.


Debtors aplenty08While, not long ago, Caesar had asked for money fromCrassus, the successful general was now being asked formoney in turn. Caesar strategically employed his fortune foralliance building with friends as well as enemies. Theadvantage: He could rely on his debtors’ support in thesenate in order to push his own agenda.

Caius Iulius Caesar, statue by Nicolas Coustou, 1696. Musée du Louvre,Paris. Photo: Wikicommons / Marie-Lan Nguyen.


Caesar’s ‘investments’09Caesar’s large-scale strategic investments are also topic in hisbiography ‘The Parallel Lives’. Here Plutarch writes: ‘Caesar[…] now sent his Gallic wealth for all those in public life todraw from in copious streams, and […] freed Curio thetribune from many debts, and […] gave Paulus the consulfifteen hundred talents […].’

Plutarch, illustration taken from the French translation of ‘VitaeParallelae’ by Jacques Amyot, 1565. Source: Wikicommons.


Caesar obliges the aristocracy10During the Gallic Wars Caesar welcomed many young men ofnoble descent as officers to his ranks, thereby binding theirrespective families to him. The mint master of this coin,Decimus Iunius Brutus Albinus, came from such a family. He isthe addressee of Caesar’s famous last words, ‘you too, Brutus’.

Denarius of D. Iunius Brutus Albinus, 48. Obverse: Mars. Reverse: Gallictrumpets and shields.


Will the plan work out?11Do not, however, mistake Decimus Brutus for the leader ofthe conspiracy – that was the considerably older MarcusIunius Brutus.

Brutus and the ghost of Caesar, copperplate engraving by EdwardScriven after a painting by Richard Westall, 1802. Source:Wikicommons.


Exploiting past victories12The Gallic Wars became the most prominent theme in thecoinage of Caesar and his followers. Take for instance thedepiction of a trophy of Gallic weapons: Far from beingpurely decorative, the motif presented the clever politician asalmost invincible leader and favourite of the gods. After all, avictory was considered proof of the leader’s close ties to theRoman pantheon. In the civil war, during which this coin wasissued, Caesar advertised his position by referring back to hisGallic victories.

Denarius of C. Iulius Caesar, 48/7. Obverse: Female head. Reverse:Trophy of Gallic weapons.


A war report from the general himself13It certainly was not a coincidence that Caesar’s owncommentary on the Gallic Wars was published just at the timeof his next candidature for consul.

Caius Iulius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, 1783 edition. Source:Wikicommons.


Rubicon14When Caesar crossed the Rubicon, he did it because his wayto the top was irreconcilable with the values and traditions ofthe longer-established senators. It was a question of thepower of money versus the power of family relations. Andmoney would be the winner in this game. Caesar ended thecivil war victorious and sole ruler of the Roman Republic. Andnot even his assassination would change anything about thefact that a return to the old system had become impossible.

Caesar crossing the Rubicon. Reproduction of an unknown painting.Source: Wikicommons / Wolpertinger.

Rebellion of the reactionariesCaesar’s politics had completely altered the traditional power structures in thesenate. Holding high offices below him did not go hand in hand with more politicalinfluence as it used to. Decisions were made by Caesar alone. And even those whohad helped finance his rise to power felt betrayed.

Rebellion of the reactionaries

Caesar crosses the Rubicon01His victories in Gaul had won Caesar so much influence thathe seemed almost overpowering. That made even his formerallies uncomfortable. Pompey allied with Caesar’s enemiesand demanded his return to Rome. Under no circumstancescould Caesar let that happen because losing his office meantlosing his legal immunity and possible conviction. His enemieshad enough on him to arraign him. This, however, was notacceptable for Caesar and irreconcilable with his pride. Heturned to his loyal soldiers. In the night from 10 January to 11January 49, he and his legions crossed the Rubicon, the smallriver on the border of his province of Gallia Cisalpina andItaly. The civil war had begun.

Caesar crossing the Rubicon. Reproduction of an unknown painting.Source: Wikicommons / Wolpertinger.


Clementia Caesaris02This was not what Pompey had expected. He movedeastwards, where he had many clients. Others, like senatorLucius Domitius and his soldiers, stayed. They tried to defendthe city of Corvinum, but it was futile. Caesar’s troops weresuperior. Surprisingly though, Caesar refrained frommurdering the defeated optimates in the city. Instead, heoffered them to join his ranks. Many took the offer. With hisclemency, the famous clementia Caesaris, he brought all thosestill wavering over to his side. Mercy (clementia) was merelyan instrument used by the dictator for propaganda.

Denarius of P. Sepullius Macer, 44. Obverse: Temple dedicated toClementia. Reverse: Horse acrobat. From CNG auction sale, Triton XVI(2013), 908.


Clash of the enemies03It only took Caesar a few months to bring the western Empireunder his control. Meanwhile, Pompey was able to secure theeastern territories and North Africa. The two armies finallymet in northern Greece. On 9 August 48, Caesar crushedPompey’s army.

Battle of Pharsalus, 48 BC. Source: Wikicommons.


Egypt04Pompey fled to Egypt. But Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII chose themore promising side. On his arrival in Alexandria, Caesar wasgreeted by his enemy’s cut-off head.

Pompey’s death. Painting by anonymous painter, 2nd half of 18thcentury. Musée Magnin, Dijon. Source: Wikicommons.


How Caesar met Cleopatra05In Egypt, 53-year-old Caesar met Cleopatra, an intelligentyoung woman of 21 years of age. He installed her as pharaoh.And there was more to come: She also became his lover andmother of his only son Caesarion.

Cleopatra before Caesar, painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1866. Source:Wikicommons.


Veni, vidi, vici?06Even though the Battle of Zela earned him not only a swiftvictory but also the phrase ‘Veni vidi vici’, it still could not winthe successful general the respect of the other Romansenators.

Iulius Caesar on his triumphal chariot, painting by Andrea Mantegna,


Dictator for life07After the civil war, there were no serious enemies left in thesenate. Caesar staffed all offices with his followers. InDecember 49, he was proclaimed dictator for ten days, in 44dictator for life. He was even offered the royal diadem, whichhe rejected.

Caesar refuses the diadem, illustration from John Clark Ridpath’s‘History of the World’, (1894). Source: Wikicommons.


The old powers are dead08Caesar introduced a new calendar and initiated large-scaleprojects for buildings and settlements. But no matter what hedid, there was one thing he just could not do: Win the respectand approval of the aristocracy. This was largely due to theproblem that high offices had lost their appeal. Even high-ranking officials could not make an impact anymore as Caesarwas the de facto autocrat.

Caesar memorial, Bonn (Germany). Photo: Wikicommons / Jotquadrat /http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.de


Cheaper by the dozen09Caesar had become untouchable. He amassed honours andprivileges. The laurel wreath on the Sella Curulis perhapsalludes to his privilege of sitting in between the two consulsduring sessions of the senate.

Denarius of C. Considius Paetus, 46. Obverse: Apollo. Reverse: SellaCurulis, Caesar’s laurel wreath on top.


Caesar everywhere10On top of losing their political power, angry senators wereconfronted with Caesar wherever they went. One statue ofhim was put up next to the memorials of the seven kings ofRome. Another one in the Temple of Jupiter, bearing theinscription ‘To the invincible god’. An ivory statue of Caesarbecame part of every procession held in honour of the gods.The old elites were furious.

Statue of Iulius Caesar, Via dei Fori Imperiali, Rome. Photo:Wikicommons / Vassil.


Enough!11Perhaps this one, last privilege was the straw that broke thecamel’s back. Since 13 February 44, Caesar was authorised tomint his effigy on coins. This was unheard-of in Rome, this wasunthinkable. Plus, Caesar was wearing a sort of crown onthese coins, inherited from the Etruscans and presumablyreminiscent of the triumphator, who, however, had only wornit on the day of his triumph. This image became iconic. In thedispute about Caesar’s succession it was repeatedly taken upand minted by the followers of Octavian and Marc Antony.

Denarius of Q. Voconius Vitulus, 40 or later. Obverse: Deified Caesar.Reverse: Calf.


A fervent believer in the Republic12More than anyone else, Marcus Iunius Brutus had conveyedthe clear message on his coins that he would not tolerate atyrant. This coin of his shows Lucius Iunius Brutus, thelegendary first consul and founder of the Roman Republic.The reverse portrays Gaius Servilius Ahala, who was knownfor killing a man because he suspected him of striving forautocracy.

Denarius of M. Iunius Brutus, 54. Obverse: Head of Brutus, consul in509. Reverse: Head of Gaius Servilius Ahala.


Caesar’s end13On the Ides of March, 15 March 44, some 60 senatorsassassinated the man who had used his money to turn theirpolitical system of clientilism against them and upset theorder of the Roman Republic.

Caesar’s death. Painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, between1859 and1867. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Source: Wikicommons / WalterArt Museum / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en

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Debtor of the mighty - sunflowertalk.ch...Debtor of the mighty 01 The gens Julia Caius Iulius Caesar, who was to become one of the most famous dictators of all time, was born into