2 ExplainingGenreTheory

T hevisesofgenretheorythathelpitaddressinstructionalchallengesunderscoretheJiewwaygenreisbeingdefined.Morethanclassifyinga"kind"ofwriting^poetry,anovel,oraletter,forinstanceatitsheart, emphasizesth"e4(leathatwritingissocSdlyctffistrt\cTefl.CarolyrfR.Miller'slandmark1984 article"GenreasSocialAction"iscreditedwithextendingthetraditionaldefinitionofgenreinwaysthatopenednewavenuesofthought.She arguesthatgenresare"typifiedrhetoricalactionsbasedinrecurrentsituations"(159). Heremphasis isonthe"action fri iff armmplish"(151) ratherthantheformagenretakesoreventhesituationinwhichitarises.

Butthatwasjustthebeginning;heridealedtonewwaysofconsideringgenres^Amorethoroughexplanationiscomplicated,because,intheend,thetheoryisn'tunified.It'sgenretheoriespluralandtheybeginwithtryingtodefinegenres.

DEFININGGENRES

r"Genrespervadelives.P^eopleusethem,consciouslyandunconsciously,creativelyandforiiiulaically,forsocialfunctionsandindividualpurposes,withcrititalawareness^andblindimmersion,inthepastandyettoday.Theyshapeourexperiences, andourexperiencesshape them..As w'^ fftttdyariji'f^ach theSe"way?ofactingsymbolicallywitliothers, maybe'approachinganunderstandingnotjustofgenres butofthemes^y,dqifiplex'waysthathumanbeing;s getalong intheirworlds"(Devitt,Writing219).

Perhapsmessyandcbmplexaretwoperfectwordstobegin todefinegenresascurrenttheoriesconceiveofthem.Defininggenrehasbecomeverydifficult,partlybecause,asPaulW.Richardsonnotes,"aperfectlyusefulwordhasnowbeensoexpandedinmeaningastorenderitimprecise" (12425).AnisBawarshishows that,evenin lookingat the.etymology,thewordis.challenging.HenotesthatgenrecomesfromLatincognatesthrough'French,"suggest[ing] thatgenressort andgenerate"(Devitt,Bawarshi,'^andJieiff550).Inotherwords,genrescanbotharrangewhatexistsandproducesomethingelse,somethingthatmightnothaveexistedbefore.'Theoriginofthewordrevealsahintofgenres'complexity,showingthattheyarecapableofmultiple,sometimesseeminglycontradictory,actibns.

/

Julie Amick CookStart Here!

Chapter2: ExplainingGenreTheory 9

Toexplaingenres,then,itmightbesimplertostartwithwhattheyareriot.Manyeducatorsstillconsidergenresas"(a) primarilyliterary,(b)entirelydefinedbytextual'regularitiesinformandcontent,(c) fixedandimmutable,and(d) classifiable intoneatandmutuallyexclusive

, categoriesandsubcategories"(FreedmanandMedway,"Introduction"^1).Instead,today,genresrepresentallsortsofinteractions(sometextuallandsomenot),aredefinedmorebysituationthanform,arebothdynamicandflexible,andaremoreanexplanationofsocialinteractionthanaclassificationsystem.

GenresAreNotOnlyaboutLiteraryTexts Anymore.In fact,Bazermanindicatesthatconsideringgenresonlyfromaliteraryperspec'tivehasreducedtherecognitionof theirsocialaspect: "Because literatureisoftenwrittenandreadi n contemplativecircumstances,apparently(butnotthoroughgoingly)removedfromimmediateexigenciesof life,thesocialembeddednessofgenrehasbeenlessvisible"("TheLife"20).Thus,althoughliteraturealsorespondsto*asocialcontext,itissuchanabstractonethatweoftenfailto recognizeit.Becausegenrestodayaremoredefinedbytheirsocialsituations, genresincludeall interactionsinvolvingtexts.Infact, everydaytexts,morethanliteraryones,areoftenafocusofcurrentgenrestudy.

GenresAreMoreThanForms.Although,asAnthonyPareandGrahamSmartacknowledge,"repeatedpatternsinthestructure,rhetoricalmoves,andstyleoftextsare themo6treadilvobsewableaspectsofgenre"(147),theseobservablefeaturesdonot,bythemselves,constituteagenre.AvivaFreedmanandPeterMedwayexplainthatregul^itiesinformcomefromthesituation,insteadofexistingwithoutreason:"Genreshavecometobeseenastypicalwaysofengagingrhetoricallywithrecurringsituations.Thesimilaritiesintextualformandsubstanceareseenasderivingfromthesimilarityinthesocialactionundertaken"("Introduction"2).Bazermanextendstheexplanation,showingtha t^ rms notonly comefronrsituatiohsbutalsogiiidejisthrougEsituafiprtsr"Gehfes'arenotjust forms.GenresareformsofiTfe.',.!Genresare.the familiarplac^'We'gotbjcreate.intelligiblecoimmunicativeaction,with&ch othecVndtlteguidepos'tsw e use^oexplore"the urifanfili'af("Life"19). AndMarilynL.Chapmanaffirmstheothers'assertionsaboutform'srelationtogenre:"Ratherthanrulestobefollowed. . . ormodelstobeimitated. . . , genresarenowbeingthoughtofasculturalresourcesonwhichwritersdrawintheprocessofwritingforparticularpurposesand'inspecificsituations"(469). So,althoughformisanaspectofgeilre,formdoesnotdefineagenre.

GenresAreNotFixed.Becausegenresareresponsestosoci^situations(andsituationsarealwayschanging),'^enresaHnot.befixed.Atthesanre.time,asliotedpxeviously/.theyarenottotallywithoutregula?ityeither.AsDevittexplains,"genres,then,arenotarbitraryorrandom,beingtiedtorhetoricalandsocialpurposesandcontexts,butneitheraretheynecessaryandinevitable,beingshapedbyvariousinfluencesatvarioustimes"("Language Standard"47). Genresare stable, butnotunchanging.Theymaysharecharacteristicsovertimeorindifferentsituationsinfact,acertainamountofstabilityisessentialforgenrestocarryouta c t i o n t h e y arener.exactly.the samebecausenotwosituaiionsareexactlytheSEune.

GenresAreNotSortable intoPrecise CategoriesnorAreTheyClassificationSystems.Humanscan'thelpbutseesimilaritiesbetweenresponsestosituationsspecialoccasionsmaywarrantagreetingcard,forinstance.Butselectinganappropriategreetingcarddependspartiyonthesituation^birthday, graduation,death.Mother'sDayso theycan'tbeallthesamegenre.EvenforthesameoccasionMother'sDay,forexampleavarietyofpossibleresponses(cards)isavailable:sweet,sappy, sentimental,humorous,andsoon, dependingontheindividuals'relationship,andcardscanbeforbirthmothers,adoptivemothers,mothersinlaw,andgrandmothers.Becauseofthisconnectiontosituation,Devitt asserts thatalthoughclassificationis an"essentialpartbfunderstandinggenre. . . suchclassificationisdefinedrhetoricallv.ratherthancriticaHy,^by thepeoplewhouseit"(Writing9).CharlesBaz^manandPaulPrioragree:classificationismoreamatterofpeopleattemptingtolocateandgenerategenresthanofpeopleassigninggenrestocategories("Participating"143). Inthisway,rhetoricallyandsocially,genreshaveaspectsthatallowclassification,butnotinthetraditionalsenseofbeingalabelforacategory.bywhichtextscanbeidentified.

So;:ifgenresarenotforms,notfixed,notonlyaboutliterarytexts,andnotclassificationsystems,whatarethey?GuntherKressdefinesthembytheirprocessofdevelopment:"Inanysocietythereareregularlyrecurringsituationsinwhichanumberofpeopleinteract toperformorcarryoutcertaintasks. Wheretheseare accompaniedbylanguageofwhateverkind,theregularityofthesituationwillgive riseto regularitiesinthetexts.wiiich.areproducedinthatsituation"("GenreasSocial"27)rSatheyaretextsdevelopedihand.respondingtoTecurringsjtuatioris.That'satthecenterof genretheory.Buttheoristsarecontinuing toenlargetheconcept.AsBawarshimaintains,"weoversimplifygenreswhenwedefinethemonlyasthetypifiedrhetoricalwaysinwhichindividualsfunctionwithinsociallydefinedandapriorirecurrentsitiaations"("Genre

Chapter2: ExplainingGenreTheory 11

Function"356;emphasisadded).PareandSmartseparateoutthefunctionsBawarshimentionsanddescribegenreasJiaving''a,distinctiveprofileofregularitiesacross fourdimensions"(146). Thesedimensionsinclude(1)thetextsthemselves,(2)theprocessesusedtocomposethetexts,(3) thepracticesreadersusetounderstandthetexts,and.(4)'"thesocialroles"thetextsandpracticesestablish(146).Thisexpansionoftheideaofgenrebeyondtextandintoactions,processes,andrelationshipsbringsusbacktogenresasmessyandcontplex.ItisdifficulttodefineHfiPlv:froma of ppr^pprtivps.^w'eran,however,char_

social '' rhetorical dynamic historical cultural situated ideological

I\yilldiscusseachaspectofgenreseparately,butitwillsoonbeclearthat.theseaspectsofgenrearenotdiscrete.Theydependoneachotherandinterrelateincomplexways.

SocialGenresares o c i a l . TO e f aigusMto'actlnsgeg^ i tu l t i pns , afidtheya r i s | _ ^ fromsocialin terSiws^Because^ot thosecha7ac'teFistic'^, the^both'rellpg|.tljqsocial'ijjteraSSnandhelppeoplemal

12 PartI:Theory

"howpeoplegetonwithoneanother"("Anyone" inFreedmanandMedway57); tHeyate"a socialTodeofbehaviorestablishedbetweenthfereader arid.author"aec^Drding toBawarshi("Genre Function"343).Freadmansuggestsweconsiderthe"rules"ofgenrestobemannersmorethanlaws;'bydoingso,wecanseehowgenresnotonlyactforpurposesbutalsocreate optionsforouractions,optionswecanchoosetoadoptorreject,withrnrrespnndinp;social rnnspqiipnrps.Ifwechoosetosubmitapoemwhenaresumeisexpected,wemightnotgetthepositionthatis,ofcourse,unlessthepositionisforapoet.Sogenresaresocialinhowtheyfunctionandinhowtheyrespond,intheireffectsandintheirorigins.

Becausegenresaresocial, partofthemeanifigtheycarryresidesinthesocial contextthatcreates thegenre.As BazermanandPriorassert,"cflti}{|?art t5f themeaningresidesinthepa^icularquantres,oflhetexts,"Wh'|lemuchsitswithinthesodohistoricaf^genesisofthesocial,instittitional,and'materialsystemswithinwhjfchthe texts,users, andinteractionsareboundtog6thet"("Participating"137). Forexample,theylistmultiplepvirposesforfillingoutaform: to"makeapplication,complywitha regulation,orreportanevent"(144). Thetexts (forms)mayseemsimilar,butthem^anin^eachcarriesdiffersdependingonthesocialsituationinwhichitoccurs.And,aspeopleuseagenreinaparticularactivity,theybegintoseeitaspartofthatactivity,aspartofthesocialwebofthecommunity.

Genresarenotonlywaysusersactsocially.Theyalsohaveaso^ cialaspectinthemselves: theyinteractwitheachother,bothexplicitly"i andimplicitly,innoticeableformsandinlessnoticeableusesoflanguageO ^ (Bazerman,"Intertextuality"8687)1Theseinteractionsarereferredtoas^ t i^^iBiaEtextualiijiandtheyoccurinanumberofways.Somegenresdevelop

outofothers,carryingelementsofthosepreviousgenresintonewsituaX5" tions;somerespond toideas andlanguageinothergenres, usingthat

langviageorthose ideasas supportor as thebasisfor argument.Onespecific typeof intertextuality,called "p^pnrg rha^nc"byChristineM.TardyandJohnM.Swales (570),describesgenresthatalwaysactinresponsetopriorgenres.Anassignmentpromptfromateacherfollowedbythestudents'completedassignmentfollowedbytheteacher'scommentsandgradeontheassignmentthatwouldbeagenrechain.

Asa resultofthis(orinterwovenwiththis)socialactivitybuildingaspect,genrespositionparticipants, creatingsocial rolesfor thelii.DavidQuammenaddressesthisroleassignmentwhenhewritesaboutcompilinghis rhagazinecolumnsfor abook: "I mentionthatsenseofrelationshipbecauseacolurrmis,inmyopinion,differentfromothersorts

Chapter2: ExplainingGenreTheory 13

/ofmagazinewriting.'Partofacolumnist'sspecialtaskistoturnoneselfintoanagreeablehabit,yettomaintainanedgeofsurpriseandchallengethatpreventsreadersfromlettingthe.habitbecomesornnolentr o t e . . . . Therelationshipbetweenamagazinewriterandthereaderstends,inmostcircumstances,tobefleetingandshallow.Ina book,ontheotherhand,areaderundertakesasustainedandseriousconnectionwiththewriter.. . . Acolumncanbethemostconversationalformofjournalism,buttocreate thesenseofa conversationwithreaders,thewritermustconsenttobeaperson,notapundit"(1112).AsQuammendemonstrates,differentgenrescreatedifferentrelationships.Tomakeanyrelationshipwork,theparticipantsagreetotakeoncertainroles.AsPareandSmartexplain,"thesegenericcharacteristicsofroleandrelationshipdeterminewhatcanandcannotbedoneandsaidbyparticularindividuals,aswellaswhen,how,where,andtowhom"(149).WhenIreceiveanemailmessagefrommysupervisor,Itakeadifferentstance(wordchoice,levelofformalityintone,etc.)inmyresponsethanIdowhenIreplytoanemailmessagefromastudent.Samegenredifferentroles.Theassigrimentandacceptanceofrolesandtheresultingrelationshipsarepartofthesocialaspectofgenres.

Rhetorical^eqausetheyjbothestablishand.enforcerelationships^^^eiiresarethetoricafrfhatjs,they'allowuserstochoosearridngoptionstaeffectivelyacsemplishthey:purposesineachparticularsituation.EdwardP. J.CorbettandRobertJ.Connorsidentifythe"choiceofavailableresourcestoachieveanend"aspartofwhatmakessomethingrhetorical(2). Certainly, ifgenresareviewedasmaimers,choiceisanelement,asisadaptingtosituation: mannersshiftfor differentsituations, andpeoplecanchoosetoobserveexpectationsornot.Genreusers,then,consideroptionsforcommunicatingtheirownpurposeswithinthesituation,choosingtofollowgenericexpectationsornot,toonedegreeoranother.

Devittposits thepresenceofbothstabilityandflexibility inthenatureofanygenre;"stabilitytopnsurpthatthpgenrecontinuestoful ^ Rc^Ui .

r.^^Pf^carYiiinrtions.flexibility.toensurethatindividualscanadant .the circunistances"{Writing135). Theflexibility shementions andusers'ability toadaptgenresshowtheirrhetoricalaspects.TerenceT. T. Pangdescribestheserhetoricalchoicesasmoves:"Movesarepurposefulfunctionalunitssustainingthecommunicativeintentofthespeaker"(147).Genreuserscanchooseamongobligatorymovesthoseaspectsof agenrethatarees

14 PartI:Theory

sential toothers' identificationofit asa genreandoptionalmovesthoseaspectsofagenre thataremoreflexible.Forexample,inamoviereviewi t wouldb e obligatorytoinckidethereviewer'soverallevaluationof themovie,examplesto supportthatevaluation,andreferencestothe acting,cinematography, orother aspectsof theproduction.Optionalmovesmightinclude choices regardingthearrangementof thereview'scontent(givingtheevaluationfirstorlast),thetonethereviewertakes(objectiveorsatiric),ortheoverallpurpose(toinformorpersuade).Decidingtofollowexpectedmovesandselectingamongoptionalonesarerhetorical choices.Theelementofstrategicxhoice, ofbeingabletg

^ considersituation,purpose,timing^udience.culture,andavailableopdonswhenusingagenre,7swh^makes genresrhetorical.

DynamicPartlybecausetheyarebothsocialandrhetorical,genreschange,andtheycreatechangeintheircontexts.JeanneFahnestockprovidesaninterestingexamplethatshowshowgenresaffectcontext.Sheliststhreedifferentapproachesadeancantaketoaddressfacultyaboutbudgetcuts:listingthecutsinathisishowitwillbeformat;explainingtheneedsand,togetherwiththefaculty,brainstormingpossibilitiesforaddressingthecuts; orexplaining theproblemandarguingfora particularcourseofaction(266).Althoughtheinitialsituationisthesame,Fahnestockarguesthateachrhetoricalchoicewillcreateadifferentresultingsituation;thus,thechoiceofgenrecanchangethesituation:"Theabilityofgenretoshapecontextis,then,animportantpoint"(266).Thisabilityofgenrestoboth

^ respondtoandaffectsituationispartofwhatmakesthemdjmamic.Anotheraspectofgenres,theirabilitytobeflexible,alsocontrib

utestotheirdynamicnature:becausegenrescanadapt,theyalsochange.DeborahHicksnotes thatgenres"donotfullydetermine theparticularrhetoricalmovesthatcanoccurinagivensetting.Participantscan,anddo,interpretandsubtlyalterthediscoursesthatmightotherwisebeconstitutiveofasocialaction" (467). Echoingthissentiment aboutgenres'flexibility,Carol BerkenkotterandThomasN.Huckinassertthisinterestingclaim:"We feelthatgenericnessisnotan,allornothingproposition.. . . Instead,communicatorsengagein(andtheirtextsreveal)variousdegreesofgenericactivity"("Rethinking"492).Inotherwords,'^OTheexaiifpleioia.'genremightbeoncffeiiketheexpectti

Chapter2; ExplainingGenreTheory 15

Researchersreviewingspecific genresthroughtimehavedocumentedthisdynamicnature.Forexample, DevittsummarizesJoAnneYates'sreviewofAmericanbusinessgenresfromthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenfuriesasanexamplenotingthefactorsinfluencinggenrechangeaswellasthewaysgenresinfluenceculturaltransformations(Writing9396,1026,11012).Inhersurveyofseveralsuchstudies,Devittdemonstratesthatcontextualfactors aswell asindividualsworkingwithingenres(resistingthemasweffasadaptingthem)contributetogenrechange.Devitt,Reiff,andBawarshiassertthatthisdynamicaspectofgenresisverymuchafactorofpeople'suseofthem;"Genresdonotchangemagicallyop theirp,wn: peoplechangegenres, usuallyslowlyandimperceptibly,astheybegintorecognizethewaysinwhichgenresnolongerfullyservetheirneeds"(163).Suclichangecantakeplaiceatdifferentpacesbecauseofvaryinginfluences,butthereisnodoiibtthatpeopleusinggenrestoaccomplishsocialandpersonalgoalswillhaveaneffectonthegenrestheyuse.

HistoricalGenresarehistoricalinthesensethatwhentheychangeorwhennewgenresdeveloptheydependonpreviousgenres,antecedentgenres,fortheirdevelopment.Inexplainingthischaracteristicinorallanguage,M.M.Bakhtindeclared,"Anyutteranceisa linkinaverycomplexlyorganizedchainofotherutterances"(69).EchoingEal^Jitin,MargaretHimleyassertsthat"inlearningtowrite(orspeak),thelearner..learnsthewaysofmakingmeaningofaparticularlanguagecommunitybyappropriatingandreworkingthosewaystowhichshehasaccess"(138).^,^ausegenresdon'texistinavacuum,because,as.Devittaffirms,"ourresponseto^s^TKIatToncan"Feguided\?y pgstresponses,"antecedent^genresr^v ^ l i h e historicalaspectofgenres("Generalizing"576). Infact, bWiftarguesthat"whennewgenresdevelopabruptlytheymayderivemore 1 ^ ^fromthecontextofgenres[i.e.,previousrelatedones]thanfromthecon ^ e>textofsituation"(Writing99).

KathleenJamieson'sstudyofGeorgeWashington'sfirstStateoftheUnionaddressshowstheincredibleinfluenceofpriorgenresindevelopingnewones:

Theumbilicaltieswerestrongerthantheframersof.theConstitutionsuspected.Facedwithanunprecedentedihetoricalsituation,Washington responded to theConstitutional enjoinder that thepresidentfromtime to timereporttoCongresson thestateofthe.unionand recommendnecessaryandexpedient legislation, by

16 PartI:Theory

deliveringaspeechrootedinthemonarch'sspeechfromthethrone.TheCongress,whichhadrejectedas toomonarchicalthetitle"HisHighnessthePresidentof theUnitedStates ofAmericaand Protectorof theRightsoftheSame," promptlyreactedas Parliamenttraditionallyreacted totheKirig,anddrafted,debated,anddeliveredan"echoing speech" inreply. (411)

AsDevittconcludes,^vRen'nd'genreekists foranew^ action,the"situat i o n ' d ^ r t d s heavilyonthefirstrhetortochooseAntecedentswjsSjy"(Writing97).Certainlywhenthefirstchoiceisn'tasappropriateasitcouldbe,itwillbechangedeventually.Untilthen,though,theconsequencesoftheineffectivegenreareatworkinthesituation.Becausegenresgrowoutofpastgenresanddevelopinto newones,becausetheymayevendependmoredeeplyonthosepastgenresthanweexpect, theyarehistorical.

CulturalInasociallybasedtheoryofwriting,contextmatters.GenresareculturalinthesensethattheyoccurinandrespondtowhatDevittcallsa"macrolevelofcontext"acontextbroaderthantheimmediatesituationofthegenreorculture{Writing31).Othertheoristsrefertothislargerconceptofcontextas discourse community,activity system,commurtity, orsimplycontext.Allof theseothertermshaveaspectsuniquetothembutsharetheideaofbroadcontext,whichIgeneralizeherewiththelabelofculture.Mygeneralization,tiowever,isn'tintendedtosimplifytheconceptofculture.Milter,notingthat"RaymondWilliams(1976)hascalled'culture'oneofthetWoorthree'mostcomplicat^' ^ rd^in_the^Englishlanguage,'"'definesitthisway:'tPUlfOleasa'parHcular^ y oflife'ofaiimeandplatfe,in allits'complexity,experiencedbyagroupthatundersta^idsitsfelf$is an'identifiatl'egroup'"^("Rhetorical"'68). Devitt^ d s speci&swhenshedefinesculture("loosely")as"^sharedseT6Fniaterlalcontextsand learnedbeh&viors,values,beliefs, andtempfates"{Writing 2^ _.tfiltureTepresentsthebfoadcontextthatmfluencisgenresWhatgenres^arg'usfe'd,whenandhow,andbywhom.

Despitetheseclarifications,theconceptofculturediscoursecommunity,context,whateveris,asBerkenkotterandHuckincallit,"slippery"becauseitisn'ta"staticentity" ("Rethinking"497). Peoplemoveinandoutofcultures^ d belongtoseveralsimultaneously.Devittalsoacknowledgesthatpeoplealsoformgroupswithcommonalitieswithinculturesandbetweencultures.Shedelineatesthreekindsofsuchgroups:

5 VtdmmuritttSS,Vwhich are"peoplewhosharesubstantialamountsoftime0r ^ togetherincommonendeavors"^ollectives^hichare"peoplewhogather

Chapter2: ExplainingGenreTheory 17

aroundasinglerepeatedinterest,withoutthefrequencyorintensityofcontactofacommunity";andfsocffl/'networks^ tvhichare"peoplewhoareconnectedonceormoreremoved,throughhavingcommoncontactwithanotherpersonororganization"(Writing63).Thesedifferentdegreesofinteractionamongpeopleinvarioustypesofrelationshipsexemplifythedifficultyinpinningdowncultureorcontext.

Inaddition,genresspancommunities,enabling^relationshipsbetweenandamongthem,andgenresthatdevelopwithinacommunityaresometimesmeantforusebythoseoutsideit.So therelationshipsbetweengenresandculturearevariedandcomplex.Millerapproachesthecomplexityirithisway:"Ratherthanseeing[community]ascomfort4ableandhomogeneousandunified,Iwanttocharacterizeitas funda\mentallyheterogeneousandcontentious"("Rhetorical"74).Withinthis'disunity,though,sheseesgenresasa stabilizingaspect: l^lrttheirpr^gimaticidimferisipn,genres notonlyhelppeopleinspatio.temporalcommunitiesdo'theirwork'atidcarryoubtheirpurposes;thfeyalsohelpvirtualcommim,ities,therelationship^wecarryaroundinr>ur.heads;toireproduceand*reconstructthemselves,tocontinuetheirstories"(75).So,genrescanprovidecohesivenesstoaculture,butculturealsohasarolein"defin[ing]whatsituationsandgenresarepossibleorlikely"(Devitt,Writing25). EchoingDevitt,Coeindicatesthat_genresdefineculturesaS'S^muchascultures;Hpfinpgpnrpc "partofwhatdefinesadiscoursecommunityis thegenresystemitsanctionsandempowers"("NewRhetoric"199). Indeed,hereturnsto thereciprocityofculture andgenrebypointingoutthatusingagenre"usuallymeans. . . invokingand/or reconstructingboththecommunity'svaluesanditsviewoftherhetoricalsituation"(199). Thus,ctiltureinfluencesgenresandis,asaresult, alsoinfluencedbythegenresemployedbyparticipantsintheculture.

SituatedGenresarealsosituatedinsmallercontexts;thatis,theyareloeatjedinorplacedinrelationtomoreparticularaspectsoftheirsurroundings.UsingDevitt'sterm,|theccmtextjofsituatiorureferstothe"microlevel"ofcontext(Writing31),Suchacontextdiffersslightlyiromtraditionalviewsoftherhetoricalsituation,(audience,purpose^occasion) byaddingsocialaspectssuchasparticipantrol^aandtherelationoftherecurringsituatiorrtopurposeandtousesoflanguage(Devitt,Writing16). Toclarifyhowsituationis inherenttogenre. RandyBomergivesanexampleofseeingapieceofpaperunderhiswindshieldwipeKitcouldbeeitheraparkingticketoraflyeradvertisingsomething.Dependingonthesitua

18 Part1: Theory

tion,hecananticipatewhichismostlikely.Whenhe'shandedapaperby.anusherinaBroadwaytheater,itisprobablyaprogram:"Evenbeforewelookatit,wehaveorientedourselves towaysof readingthatgenreandwillreaditonlywiththosequestionsinmindthatareusuallyansweredbyaplaybi l l , p v p r y pif^eofwriting.PVPrytpvfW P r^aH

^ J=

Chapter2.: ExplainingGenreTheory 19

ideologiesofthosedetached,detailedrecordsrepresentedthevaluesoftheurbanculture,nottheclose,almostfamilial,relationshipsoftheInuitculture,andthiscreatedaconflictforworkers:"Theworkers'dilemmaindicateshowparticipationinworkplacegenressituateswritersinrelationsofpower"(63). Theuseofthesegenresdividedthe"individual'ssenseofidentity"(66).InsituationslikethisonewiththeInuitworkers,faWKfl'atltGea&uggegtg^thatusersniay.uffei:from.the"extracognitive ^work"thatocctjrsJjecause.ofconflictsbetweentheideologiesofi h e ^nresl^ifigused;andthepersonalideologiesofthe^ysers(158).T'hesfejcons^ueiigeSsSothei'deoidgiesofgenresarenotallb^d,Hoiygver/sometirnest^eningnewwaysofviewingtheworldrnighljbebeneficial.'Devittclaimsthat"ideologicalpowerisnotnecessarilygoodorevilbutrather. . atT^hivalg'nt it prndandbad."(Wriimz t^uttheseconsequences^whetherthey'reperceivedtobegoodofbaddoservetoillustratethatteachingandactingwithgenrescarrysocialandpoliticalimplicationsbecauseofgenres'ideologicalaspects.

Becauseofideology,whatgenresgettaughtinschoolandtowhom,andwhetherthey^ retaughtasamatterofcomplianceorresistance,areallmattersofconcern.PeterClementsassertsthat"teachersareneverjustinstructingwritersinthemeansandmethodsforrealizingth^irthoughts,moreeffectivelyonpaper,butratherarecoercingstudentsintospecificpoliticalchoices abouthowtoalign themselveswithinvariousdiscourses"(203).Certainlyteachersneedtobeaw^reoftheideologieso | Jth^enrestheyt e a c h p v o i d whatTomHomnoqays,"agenrgrut"whenstudentsbecome"JohnnyOneGenres""("Teaching"174).Journalsrepresentanideologyasmuchasfiveparagraphessays do. Romanourgesteachersto "examineourcoursesandschool curriculafor genrehegemony.Doesonegenredominate?"(174).Ifitdoes,whatideologiesarewereinforcingforstudents?Whatonesareweignoring?

Asa resultofthese political/ideologicalaspects, some theoristsurgethatacritiqueof genresis essentialto students'adequateunderstandingofthem.Afterexplainingthatrulescontrolbutresourcesenable, Lemkeargues that"tot^ach genreswithoutcritiqueis notonlyunethical,itisintellectuallyfaulty.Thecritiqueofagenreiswhatmakesitintoaresource.Itisonlywhenweunderstandtheorigins,history,andsocialfunctionsofagenre,i.e.itspolitics,thatweareempoweredtomakeintelligent,informeddecisionsinourowninterestabouthoww^shalluseitorchangeit"(5).However,teachingstudentstoresisttheideologiesofgenrescanbedifficult:whentheyuseagenre,eveninimitationincfassroomsettings,theyareactingsomewhataccordingtotheideologyinherentinthatgenre.HeatherMarieBastianarguesthat"whenwe

"

20 PartI:Theory

performgenres,wearepositionednotonlyassituationspecificgenresubjectsbutalso[as] anoverarchinggenericsubject.Andbothofthesepositioningsworktocreate complacentsubjects" (7). By performinggenres,then,studentsmaynotlaterbeabletoresisttheideologiesofthosegenres.

Aswecansee,thesearethecharacteristicsofgenre:social,rhetorical,dynamic,historical,cultural,situated,andideological.Differenttheo"riesaboutgenreplacevaryingdegreesofemphasisonthesecharacteristics,anddoingthisresultsindifferentviewsofwhatitmeanstouseorlearnagenre.Thosedifferencesarethefoundationforandtheresultsoftherangeofgenretheories.

GENRETHEORIESTraditionalgenretheory,asexplainedearlier,dealswithcustomarydefinitionsofgenre: literary, formfocused,andfixed.Morerecentrhetoricalgenretheoryfocuseson(1) everyday,workplace,orschool'texts;(2)situationandcontextastheyrelatetotextualtegularities;(3) thedynamic,fluid natureofgenres;(4)" theblurringofboundaries;and(5) thewaysgenresdevelopfromothergenres.Intontrasttotraditionalgenretheory,thiscontemporarynotionofgenretheoryrecognizesgenresasideological andconceptualratherthanneutralandconcrete. FreedmanandMedwayalsoobserve thatcontemporarygenretheoryis "descriptive,rather'thanprescriptive"("Introduction"3).

Within thisbroadgeneralizationofcontemporarygenre theory,though,arearangeof'theoriesthatdifferonthevariousimplicationsofgenreconcepts.Somieofthisdifferencehastodowithplace:theoriesthatdevelopedoutoftheAustralianlinguisticfoundationhavedifferentconcernsandtheoretical origins thandothosethatdevelopedoutof the

^^Nor th Americanfoundation.AsCoenotes,"|?^nratheoriesvarysignifixantlv"heraiisp thev"arp thpin;plvpgTr>r.t|vated andsituated"("NewRhetoric"198). InAustralia,concernsWithhelpingmarginalizedgrdilpsga'maccess to thesocialandeconomicmainstreamwereaddressed'bylinguistslooking forapplication oftheirideasin schools. Widespreaddissatisfactionwiththentoreexpressivistaspectsofthewritingprdcessmbvefnentthereinfluencedanapproachtogenrethatemphasizedpracticalaspects,includingform.Incontrast,intheUnitedStates,wherethewritingprocess'movementhadverystrongsupport,rhetoricians'interestsinthesocialaspectsofWritingweremoretheoreticalthanpractical.S6althoughsimilarissueswereatplayinbothregions,thosestressedinAustraliawerenotasvitalintheUnitedStates.Asaresult,thfediffering

i o V \ )

[

Julie Amick Cook

Julie Amick Cook

Julie Amick CookStrop reading here!

Chapter2: ExplainingGenreTheory 21

Concrete Abstract

Genreas . . . Text Rhetoric Practice

Figure1.TheGenreTheoryContinuum

needsandinputcreateddifferenttangentsfor thedirectionofgenretheory.Whateventuallydevelopedamongtheoristsacrosstheworldwasarangeofideasforwhatgenretheoryreallyis:genretheoriesplural. Huuri^

Baze'rmanandPriorsummarizetherangeofgenretheoriesinthis ^way:"Genrehasbeenexploredinrecentdecadesfromthreequitedifferentperspectives:astext,asrhetoric,andaspractice"("Participating"138).AsIinterprettheirsummary,wecouldlookatthesedifferenttheoreticalperspectivesalongacontinuum,withgereastextasthemostconcretetheoryandgenreas practiceasthemostabstract.Theoristswiththesevariousperspectivesemphasizedifferentelementsofcommonaspectsoftheory(Figure1). '

Genrea s Text Genretheoriesatoneendofthecontinuum,genreastext,tendtowardaformalistperspective.Althoughtheoristslook atthewaysthefeaturesoftheformreflectthesocialsituation,theygenerallybeginwiththeform.Thus,fromthisperspective,resumesputimportantinformationinprominentpositionsgroupedunderconunonheadingseducation,experience,referencesandinnoticeablestyles becausetheaudience is usuallyabusyprofessionallookingquicklythroughanumberofdocuments.Despiteanunderstandingof therelationshipbetweehcontextandtext,though,fKfeifeisatendencyforthosew i ^ thisperspectivetoemphasizeformmorethansituation.

This theoreticalposition,genreas text,dependsona somewhattraditionalconceptofgenrestable,thoughstillresponsivetocontextsincethis pointofview"rest[s] notonwhatagenreis. ..butonhowgervresaretextuallyrealized"(BazermanandPrior,"Participating"138).Instructioningenresoftenstemsfromthistheoreticalposition.Becauseinstructionalplansinclassroomsremovemostgenresfromactualcontextsandmustrelyonthestabilityofgenresforteaching,formsareanobviouswhat'slefttAmajorgoalformanyinthegenreasteXtgrQup'istohelpTtiSirginalizedgroupsfindwaysintofherofesofpower:ifaperson

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22 PartI:Theory

can'twriteabusinessletter,howlikelyis thatpersontogeta jobthatwillallowhertomoveintocirclesofinfluence?Thisgoalexplainsapedagogicalinclinationtowardfocusingontextualfeatures:studentswouldneedfairlystablemodelsandinstructioninformalfeaturestohelpthemleamthegenres.

However,FreedmanandMedwaynotethatprovidingequalaccess isn'tassimple as teachingtheforms ofgenres: "Students fromnondominantpositionscannotbecomepowerfulbysimplyadoptingthegenresof power,since thelatterembodyvaluesandassumptionsopposedtothoseheldbypeopleoutsidethecentresofpower"("Introduc

copytheforfns,toassumeaninsiHprpnsitinn.And evenifallit tooktobeconiep S ' o f thepow^'ful'w ttheformsofthatculture,Kress

.stresses anotherproblemwiththistheoreticalposition: "Theemphasis\onaccess tothegenresofpowerwouldleadto aspuriovis kindofeqiluity,inwhichtherewasnochallengetotheexistingstatusquoofsocialilarrangements"("GenreandtheChangingContexts"464).Inotherwords,IJstudentsmightbeabletojointhecommunitybutmightneverbeawareoftheideologicalimplicationsofthatassociation.Also,thegenreastextperspectivemaydiminishstudents'understandingofthedynamicaspectofgenreandfailtoacknowledgegenres'fullcomplexity.Toomuchfocusonformmightsuggestthatgenres are formulaicandmightnotprovidestudentswithasensethatusershaveoptionsthatcanreflectsituationsandindividualneeds.withinthosesituations.

Gen r e a s Rhe t o r i c ^ (An^$Theoristsin themorecentral position,genreas rhetoric, emphasizethesocial actionsthatgive riseto agenre. Becausecertain situationshavedevelopedformsforactinginthosesituations,forthesetheorists,genresarewaysofacting:"Writingis notonlyaskill; itis alsoawayofbeingandactingintheworldataparticulartime,inaparticularsituation,fortheachievement of particulardesires" (Bawarshi,Genre 156). AsBazermanandPriorexplain it, thistheoretical position"staysfocusedontextualfeatures,butreadsthosefeaturesaspartsofasociorhetoricalsituation"("Participating"138). Visibletextualfeaturesareseenasperspectivesintoasituation,notasendsinthemselves.Thesetheoristsmightbeginwiththetextbutmoveintoaconsiderationofthewaysthetextstheyexplorebothrespondtosituationsandallowforvarietyandchangeinthosesituations. Ifformsarise fromcontext, usingthoseforms as awaytolookbackatthecontextseemslogical,asJosephM.Williamsand

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Chapter2: ExplainingGenreTheory 23

GregoryG. Colombassert: "Whenwelearnsodalcontext,wearealsolearningitsforms; butwhenwelearnforms,wemayalsobelearningtheirsocialcontexts"(262). Fromthisperspective,writingisn'tonly,orevenprimarily,aboutthetextanymore;it'salsoaboutthesituationsurroundingthewriting,aboutunderstandingthatsituation,andaboutensuringthattherhetoricalchoicesmadeinusingagenreareeffectiveforthesituationandtheuser.

Devittnoteslimitationstothisperspective,though:"Interpretingdiscoursefeatures thusrequiresnotonlysituationalbutalsoculturalastuteness.. . . Itis difficultfor thosewhohavenotactedthroughthegenrestorecognizethefullmeaningandsignificanceoftextualfeatures"(Writing53). Thus,whentextsareconsideredin relationtocontext, allthevaluesandideologiesinherentinthecultureandsituationmightnotbevisibletooutsiderswholookatthetextalone.

Gen r e a s Pract ice OA mJt)svvvThethirdperspective,genreas practice,begins"withtheprocessofmakinggenres"ratherthanwiththegenresthemselves(BazermanandPrior,"Participating"139).Theoristsinthisrangesee"textualpracticesasfundamentaltogenericaction"andemphasizethe"dynamic,fluid,heterogeneous,andsituated"aspectsofgenres(138).Thesetheoristsfocusmoreonthecontextsandprocessesrelated togenre use thanonthegenresthemselves,ortheyseegenresasactions,ways'ofbeing,ratherthantexts.Becausethosewiththisperspectiveemphasize thedynamicaspectofgenrestheir"fragility, plasticity,andheterogeneity"(139)ascentraltogenretheory,theyaremorelikelytotrytodescribegenrechangeinaparticularsettingandfocusontheinstabilityofgenresthantheyaretolookatatextasanartifactthatwouldprovidealensintoasituationorasatextthatwouldrepresentasituation^astheothertwoperspectivesdo.

Thegrii^tswiththisperspectiverarelypromoteapedagogicalapplicationoftheorybecause"learninggenresinvolves'learningtbact'Withotherpeople,*artifacts,andenvironments,*all ofwhicharethemselvesinongoingprpcessesofchangeanddevelopment"(BazermanandPrior,"Participating"147). Forthese'theorists;thefocusisonthecharacteristicsofgenreinteraction,onwaysofcreatingrrieaning,ontheactionsgenresenable.Notonlycanagenrebeawayofmakingatextandaway 'ofactinginacertainsituationbutitcanalsobeawaytomakesenseofasituation,awaytoviewtheworld.Thus, thistheoretical positionemphasizesideologiesandperspectives,actionsratherthantexts.

Julie Amick Cook

24 PartI:Theory

Ci

1. then,movBstoward*aTnoi*ethe'Oretiicallyrichunderstandingofgenrcb)^having studentsinvestigatecontextbefore lookingatsample textsandcritique.the,genre/j/iercreatingtheirownimitations.

Theinterestinequityexhibitedbythosewhofavorthistheoreticalpositionisadmirable;thepotentialforfocusontextfornis,sometimestothepointofformulas,islessrepresentativeofgenretheorythansometheoristslike.Giventhefirsttryatmakingthisnfiodelworkinclassroomsandhowformulaicitbecame,critics,feelthattherevisedapproachmaystillendorseatendency,insometeachers'hands,todiminishtheideaofgenreuntilit'salmostafillintheblankconcept,especiallyifthereislimitedvarietyintheexamplesofthestudiedgenreandafocusonreplicatingoneexample.However,whenJulieE. WollmanBonillaobservedteachersfollowing a processsimilar to thismodel,she notedthatthe

Julie Amick Cook

Chapter2: ExplainingGenreTheory 25

teachers"didnotexplicitlydiscuss grammaticalchoices" butrathermodeledthegrammaticalandstructuraloptions ininteractivewritir\gwithihestudents,thusmovingawavfromteachinggenresasformulas(41).Therefore,itseemsthatanapproachbasedongenreastextmaybehighlydependentoneachindividualteacher'suseoftheinstructionalmodelandherunderstandingoftheoryasitinformspractice.

QFhegenreasrhetoricgrou^ooksattextsasresponsestosituationsandtherebylinksthetwoaspectsofgenretheorythat aremostconsistentamongthedifferentapproachestextandcontext.Themethodofinstructionis lesspatternedthanthegenreastext'splan,butitgenerallyinvolves examiningaspecific context, thepeopleinvolvedinthatcontext,andthetextstheyuse.Studentsanalyzeavarietyofsampletextsandaskquestionsaboutthenoticeablefeatures,notprimarilytoidentifythefeatures butmoretodeterminehowthosefeaturesbothreflectandrespondtothesituationsthegenrescomefromandtoevaluatehoweffectivetherhetoricalchoicesmightbeinaparticularsituation.AsCoenotes,thisperspectiveofgenrealterssomebasicconceptions*abouttheteachingofwriting;attheveryleast,hesays,itshouldencouragewritersto"recognizethatdifferentwritingsituationsrequirediffeoenttypesofwriting,thatwhatisgoodinapieceofacademicliterarycriticismmaynotbegoodinanewspaperbookreviewandwillverylikelynotbegoodinabrochure"("NewRhetoric" 200). Itshouldhelpstudentssee howwritingderivesfromandrespondstosituationsthatrequireaction.

Insomecasesofpracticefromthistheoreticalperspective,studentsreplicatethegenres; inothers theinvestigationof therelationshipbetweentextandcontextisthesolepurposeofthequestioning.Sometheoristsworrythatthisapproachstillfocuses toamuchonthetext,notallowingenoughroomforthechangeandvariationthatis partofgenretheory,especiallyif thesamplesstudentsinvestigatearetoolimitedinnumberortoosimilartoeachother.Othertheoristswonderifit'sreallypossibletoseethewholesituationfromoutsidethecontext,justbylookingatthetext.Theybelievethismethodofexploration^wouldprovideasomewhatsuperficialsense ofthesituationand thereforea somewhatlimitedabilitytodeterminerhetoricaleffectiveness.

(Thegenre aspracticegrniip^fopuspsmostonthecontextandthedynamicnatureofgenres, tothepointthatsohieadherentsassertthatgenresareimpossibletoteachinaclassroom. Instead,proponentstakeanapproachsimilartoGee'sapplicationsoflearnedversusacquiredliteracy,inwhichhestatesthat"someonecannotengageinaDiscourseina less thanfullyfluentmanner. You areeitherinitor you'renot.Discoursesareconnectedwithdisplaysofanidentity"(155).Applyingthis

Julie Amick Cook

26 PartI:Theory

{6

4

perspectivetowritingandwritinginstruction,SidneyI.Dobrinexplains:"Thesystems bywhichweinterpretarenotcodifiable inanylogicalmannersincediscoursedoesnotoperateinanylogicosystemicmannerandneverremainsstaticlongenoughtodevelopconcreteunderstandingsof thecommunicativeinteraction, ha otherwords,there are nocodifiableprocessesbywhichwecancharacterize,identify,solidify,graspdiscourse,and,hence,j|iereisnowavtoteach discourse,discourseinterpretation,ordiscoursedisruption"(13233).

Theoristsfromothertheoreticalpositions(genreastextandgenreasrhetoric)mightquestionthevalueofthetheoryifitcan'thaveanimpactineducatingstudentsinwritingandreading,althoughDobrindefendsthat,too:"Classroomapplicationneednotalwaysbethemeasureforvalueoftheory" (133).Still, teachersmightwonderhowtopreparestudentsforwritingoutsideofschoolifthereisnowaytoreplicatesituationalcontexts inclasses andthereforenowaytoteach aboutgenrestm'tilstudentsencounterthemontheirown.Sometheoristsatthisendofthecontinuumrecommend,instead,teachingawarenessofgenres"toinculcatereceptiveskills ... turn[ing]awayfromdevelopingrhetoricalskillsandtowarddevelopmentvofrhetoricalsensibilities"(Petraglia62).Thus,teacherswiththisperspectivemightbemorelikelytote&chaboutcontextthanabouttexts.Thosewithothertheoreticalperspectivesandsocialagendasmightfindsuchanapproachanevasionofthehardworkofteachingwritingaswellasaroutetoreducedopportunitiesforequity.

Inaverygeneralway,thisisanoverviewofcontemporarygenretheoryanditsusesintheclassroom.Like thetipofaniceberg,thereismorecomplexityanddetailtothetheorythanispresentedhere.ApassageinDevitt'sbookhintsatthedepthofthinkingthathasoccurred,isoccurring,andwilloccurrelatedtogenre theory:"Manyareasofgenretheorystillneedfurtherresearchandexploration.Forexample, notallgenresallow asimple matchupwithaparticularsetof contexts;somemightinteractwithmultiplecontexts.Notallcontexts thatpeopledefine as recurringproducerecognizedgenres, andsomemayproducemorethanone genre. Peoplemay, ofcourse, mixgenres andmixcontexts,andtheymayusegenresbadly.Genresmaybeunsuccessful,fail,or'dieout.Genreristoorichasubjecttobeminedcompletelyinjustonevolume"{Writing31). Withthesewords,Devittacknowledgessomeofthequestionsstilltobeaddressedbytheorists.In'theappendixes,laddresssomeadditionalquestionsandissuesrelatedtogenretheory.Inan efforttoaddresssomeoftheconcernsDevittmentions,Ialsoexplainalittlemoreaboutsomeof thenewdirectionsinwhichgenretheoryismoving.

Julie Amick Cook

Theory&ResearchIntoPractice

iJt^ [^Kio(Ki0 wi^ oiroiK) ^ m m eoG^

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