Progress Report (work until Nov 2005) of Learning Modes Working Group

A. Duarte1, J. Paasimäki2 & P. Koulouris3

A) Background statement: Interest of the subject of this group to multigrade Education

In Multigrade classes, where students from different levels are involved,

psychological heterogeneity is expected to be greater than in normal classes. If the

issues of variation between pupils and of ways of dealing with this variation are

important in any class, they are critical in Multigrade classes. In Multigrade

education one of the most important dimensions of psychological heterogeneity is

Learning Modes, which refer to the variation observed in the learning process (e.g.

some pupils prefer to learn by hearing, others by seeing and others by touching).

The implication is that multigrade teachers should be aware of the different

learning modes present in their classes and should develop competences for

dealing with learning modes.

Specifically, the subject of Learning Modes can be of interest to Multigrade

education in at least three different ways:

1) By being aware and informed of different learning modes, multigrade

teachers can be better able to pinpoint and understand the variation in

learning that typically occur in multigrade classes.

1 University of Lisbon - Portugal 2 University of Jyväskylä – Finland 3 Ellinogermaniki Agogi - Greece

2) Considering that students improve by using preferred learning modes (e.g.

visual learning) or by using a variety of learning modes (e.g. visual and

auditory learning), multigrade teachers can benefit from knowing how to

vary their teaching practices, as a way of reaching more students.

3) Taking into account that in multigrade class (where individual variation is

higher and teachers must often attend separately to various sub-groups),

students must be particularly able to: independently self-regulate their

learning; to be intrinsically motivated to learn and achieve; to actively

comprehend contents in an organised way; and to learn in a collaborative

way, multigrade teachers can benefit from knowing how to promote such

learning modes.

B) Theoretical study of the subject of the working group

Abstract: Besides a definition of learning modes as the variation observed in the learning

process, a framework of different learning modes is proposed: surface vs. deep-organized

learning; instrumentally vs. intrinsically-achieving motivated learning; externally vs. self-

regulated learning; individualistic vs. collaborative.

Learning Modes might be defined as the variation observed in the learning process (e.g.

learning can be more an individualistic process or more a collaborative one). A student can

vary the Learning Mode according to the learning situation and his or her learning needs

(e.g. revising by rote learning, for a multiple-choice answer test, or revising by

comprehending, for writing for a project).

Therefore, there are a diversity of learning modes which can be more or less adapted to

different students and different learning situations.

When a specific learning mode is consistently used by a student, this can become his or

her Learning Style.

How many Learning Modes?

In order to answer this question learning modes can be conceptualised across three axes,

which reflect various aspects of the learning process: 1) Cognitive; 2) Motivational; 3)

Interpersonal.

Each axe involves different dimensions, reflecting diverse learning modes (e.g. Cognitive

axe involves a dimension of memorising versus comprehending).

Each dimension can be conceptualised as discrete opposed poles or as opposed but in a

continuum (i.e. as opposite processes or as complementing each other).

Each learning mode can appear in different ways; according to personal and

environmental factors (e.g. there are many ways of conducting a self-regulated learning

mode, as opposed to an external regulated learning mode)

Moreover, axes can cross, reflecting the interwoven of different learning modes (e.g.

students might self-regulate their learning in a collaborative way)

For each of the three axes, we propose a focus on particular dimensions, taken as

nuclear.

Considering the cognitive axe, learning can occur via a surface learning strategy (i.e.

mechanically memorizing) versus via a deep-organized learning strategy (i.e. learning

focused less in knowing by heart than in trying to understand the meaning of the contents,

to relate them with previous knowledge, to be open to new contents and to change

personal ideas, to memorise by comprehending, to critically analyse and have an opinion

on contents, to be creative as well as organized and sensible to teachers’ evaluation)

(Biggs, 1987).

Attending to the motivational axe, learning can be based in instrumental motivation (i.e.

learning to avoid failure) versus based in intrinsic-achiever motivation (i.e. learning for the

pleasure and personal full-filing implicated in learning as well as for success). With such a

motivation students normally go beyond what is demanded, perceive tasks as involving,

get a lot of satisfaction from learning, strive for good marks and show a lot of involvement

(Biggs, 1987).

Taking into account the interpersonal axe learning can be external regulated (i.e. learning

is conducted by others or factors besides the learner) versus Self-Regulated (i.e. the

process of managing one’s own learning) (Zimmerman, 1994). By self-regulating

learning learners move from being externally controlled by teachers or others to being

active in the control of their own learning processes. This means the attempt to self-control

cognitive, motivational, behavioural and environmental aspects involved in learning.

Learning can be also more individualistic (i.e. student learns alone, possibly along other

students) or more collaborative (i.e. students work together cooperatively in small groups

toward a common goal, taking care of each other’s learning as well as their own)

(Johnson, Johnson & Holubec, 1991). Trough collaborative learning students can

discuss and help, share, encourage, explain or teach each other.

Figure 1 depicts the three axes, with their referred learning modes.

Figure 1: Learning modes in three dimensions (axes) of the learning process

Each of these learning modes is reflected in specific forms when learning in particular

tasks.

Regarding the potential of ICT for education, we will consider how the learning modes of

the cognitive axe are reflected in ICT-based learning.

Basically, ICT-based learning can happen as learning from ICT (i.e. students are

instructed by ICT) versus learning with ICT (i.e. students construct knowledge with the

help of ICT by representing their knowledge in different, meaningful ways and by engaging

in critical thinking about the content) (Jonassen, 2000).

Figure 2 illustrates reflection of cognitive axe learning modes in ICT-based learning.

AXES

COGNITIVE

RELATIONAL

DEPENDENT

DEEPORGANIZED

SURFACE

INSTRUMENTAL

INTRINSIC & ACHIEVING

COLLABORATIVE

INDIVIDUALISTIC

SELF-REGULATED

Figure 2: Cognitive axe learning modes in ICT-based learning

A teacher can develop, encourage or/and constrain the use of specific learning modes,

according to educational goals and the nature of different learning situations.

What are the practical implications of the existence of different learning modes?

We think it is possible to view this issue according to, at least, two perspectives.

The first perspective is that students improve by using preferred learning modes (e.g.

visual learning) or they benefit from using a variety of learning modes (e.g. visual and

auditory learning). In either case, the practical implication would be that a variation of

teaching practices might be a good way of reaching more students.

The second perspective is that in any class, but especially in a Multigrade class, where

individual variation is higher and teachers must often attend separately to various sub-

groups, students must be particularly able to: independently self-regulate their learning; to

be intrinsically motivated to learn and achieve; to actively comprehend contents in an

organised way; to learn in a collaborative way. Furthermore, a mode of active learning with

ICT can be especially helpful in this context. There are a variety of “ways” (practices) a

COGNITIVEAXE

DEEPORGANIZED

SURFACE

ICT BASED LEARNING

LEARNING WITH ICT

LEARNING FROM ICT

teacher can use to promote such learning modes. These “ways” might depend on previous

training, personal experience, knowledge, competency, culture references, etc.

Figure 3 presents the two stated perspectives regarding practical implications of the

existence of different learning modes.

Figure 3: Two perspectives on practical implications of different learning modes.

Reflection on one’s own practice and other people’s practices can act as a factor of

development.

References

Biggs, J.B. (1987). Student approaches to learning and studying. Melbourne: ACER.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T. and Holubec E. J. (1991). Cooperation in the Classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

Jonassen, D.H. (1996). Computers in the classroom: Mindtools for critical thinking. Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Schunk, D.H. and Zimmerman J. (1994). Self-regulation of learning and performance – issues and educational applications. Hillsdale-New Jersey: Lawrence Elrbaum.

STUDENTS IMPROVE

BY USING PREFERED LEARNING MODES

OR A VARIATY OF MODES

VARIATION OF PRACTICES

STUDENTS IMPROVE WITH CERTAIN

LEARNING MODES

PROMOTION OF PARTICULAR LEARNING MODES:COLLABORATIVE

SELF-REGULATED INTRINSIC & ACHIEVING

DEEP & ORGANIZED

Zimmerman, B. (1994). Dimensions of academic self-regulation: a conceptual framework for education. In D.H. Schunk & B.J. Zimmerman (Eds.) Self-regulation of learning and performance – issues and educational applications (pp 3-21). Hillsdale-New Jersey: Lawrence Elrbaum.

C) Practical classroom activities

C.1. Best practices based on teacher’s experience (see D) for methodology of gathering this data)

Practices of variation of teaching according to pupils’ variety of learning modes:

personalized-teaching; attending alternatively to small groups, while other groups work

autonomously.

Practices for developing a collaborative learning mode: setting of collective reading and

writing situations; group problems; group projects; and collective games.

Practices for encouraging self-regulated learning mode: having several open thematic

spaces/areas in the classroom; setting of problems; distribution of tasks and delegation of

responsibilities; support of autonomous learning or of task definition; defining tasks;

prompting of planning and of joint work evaluation.

Practices for promoting an intrinsic and achieving motivated learning mode: allowing free-

choice of activities; setting of open problems; using familiar examples and tasks; using

easy tasks for pupils with difficulties and using challenging tasks for more competent

pupils; encouraging knowledge appliance; demonstrating enthusiasm and optimism;

reading dramatically; setting situations of reciprocal teaching; inviting parents and guests

to the classroom; encouraging task involvement and self-evaluation; using positive

reinforcement; setting home works that demand assistance.

Practices for stimulating a deep and organized learning mode: opportunities for tactile-

kinestesic learning; of situations of learning by discovery; of open tasks; of tasks of

reciprocal teaching and of writing.

Practices for developing an active ICT-based learning mode: prompting pupils for

computer-based search, organization, transformation and presentation of information as

well as setting of small-group work and communication situations via the computer.

C. 2. Activities based on theory

An activity for promoting a collaborative self-regulated learning mode of a deep and

organized learning mode: the “Strategies Game”4.

The game aims to develop self-regulation of approaches to learning. It can be

played individually or in a group. Playing in a group allows also the development of

self-regulated collaborative learning5.

4 Duarte, A. M. & Fernandes, S. (in press). Self-regulated collaborative learning in the multigrade classroom: Introduction and testing of a game for developing self-regulation of approaches to learning. Proceedings of “EDEN 2005 Annual Conference - Lifelong E-Learning Bringing e-learning close to lifelong learning and working life: a new period of uptake”. Helsinki: Helsinki University of Technology.

5 Normally, self-regulated learning is taken as an individual process. We think that it can also be managed in the context of collaborative learning. Collaborative learning stands for refers to a mode of learning in which students work together cooperatively in small groups toward a common goal, taking care of each other’s learning as well as their own. Trough collaborative learning students can discuss and help, share, encourage, explain or teach each other (Johnson and Johnson, 1999).

Each time the game is played, it involves dealing with a different learning task,

which is a pretext for the development of such competencies.

The game has a board of 85 places distributed in 14 parts. Each part has a

different colour and finishes in a “Card Place”.

Figure 2: The game board

The game starts in the “Starting Place”, where the players have to read a green

“Starting Card”. There is a different green card for each time the game is played

and each proposes a new learning task (e.g. “Read the text ‘From the atom to the

stars’ and answer the questions about its content, in the bottom of the page”). The

goal is to confront the task in phases moving a pawn in the board, by throwing a

dice, until arriving to the last place. Each time the pawn reaches or crosses a “Card

Place” players must read an orange card which is indicated there. Orange cards

question players along the journey, until the end of the game. These questions

represent the main components of self-regulated learning process through its three

main phases: before, during and after the task.

1st self-regulatory phase - Before the task (Card 1 to 7)

These cards introduce players to the habit of preparing or planning before actually

trying to do something. This phase, which takes place before the task, can restrain

students to act impulsively and in an unreflective way toward the learning task.

Card 1 questions “What is the task?” and demands students to acknowledge and

define the task, thus clarifying its nature (e.g. “The task is to read the text ‘From the

atom to the stars’ and to answer the questions in its end”).

Card 2 questions “Which is the task interest?” demanding a motivational analysis

of the advantages of involvement in the task (e.g. “Knowing what is the atom and

discovering something new about the stars”).

Card 3 questions “What is demanded?” and asks for a clarification of the external

demands about the task (e,g, “To read and answer correctly to the questions”).

Card 4 questions “What is the goal?”, requiring a definition of personal objectives

by using the task (e.g. “Comprehending the nature of atoms and stars”).

Card 5 questions “Which strategies and resources to use?” directing players for a

selection of the means they find adequate to confront the task (e.g. “Identification of

main ideas in the text”). This card also refers players for a helping resource (i.e. the

“Strategies File”) which introduces them to a pool of learning strategies (i.e. deep

and achieving strategies) for different tasks. Card 5 also asks “What will be done

by each element?”, stimulating a distribution of roles within the working group.

Card 6 asks “How to use the strategies and resources?” demanding the sketch of a

first plan (“Plan A”) on how to use the selected strategies and resources thus on

how to concretely deal with the task (e.g. “Underlining the text”). This card also

asks “What will be done by each element?” and “How to share information during

the task?”, stimulating a distribution of roles and communication within the working

group.

Card 7 asks “How to change the environment to achieve the goal?”, leading

players to use their immediate context as a learning resource (e.g. “Arrange a

round table to read the text in a group”).

2nd self-regulatory phase - During the task (Card 8 to 9)

These cards encourage players to monitor their implementation of the plan and to

check for needed changes in it.

Card 8 asks “Apply Plan A and, during the task, answer: Is there advancement

toward the goal and the plan is a good plan? If YES: How not to give up? If NOT:

Verify again which is the task (see Starting Card) and answer: Which other

strategies and resources to use? (help: see the “Strategies File”); How to use the

new strategies and resources? (Plan B)”. Therefore, this card directs players to an

implementation and assessment of the first plan in terms of goals attainment. The

card stimulates persistency management, in case of a positive assessment (e.g.

“We will make a break of 5mns and then comeback”) and redefinition of the task

and plan, in case of a negative assessment (e.g. “Since underlining is not working

we will try to write the text key words”). The card extends monitoring and a

possible redefinition of strategies to the group work by asking “How is the team

functioning?” and “How to meliorate team functioning?”

Card 9 asks “Continue to apply Plan A or change to Plan B and then comeback to

the Game Board”, thus encouraging implementation of the chosed plan.

3rd self-regulatory phase - After the task (Card 10 to 14)

These cards prompt players for a final evaluation of learning products and learning

processes, also directing them for new learning attempts in case of negative

results.

Card 10 asks “The goal was attained? If YES (and the teacher confirms): Fill “Self-

regulation Page”; If NOT: Verify again which is the task (see Starting Card) and

answer: Which other strategies and resources to use? (help: see the “Strategies

File”); How to use the new strategies and resources?” Therefore, this card orients

to an assessment of the learning product in terms of goals attainment. The card

stimulates a new redefinition of the task and plan, in case of a negative

assessment (e.g. “Since writing of key words was not effective we will try to

resume the text”).

Card 11 asks “Which is the evaluation of the strategies & resources?”, directing to

an assessment of the learning process (e.g. “Resuming in round table was the

most time consuming but also the most effective strategy”). This card also asks

“Which is the evaluation of the team work?” extending assessment to the process

of group work.

Card 12 asks “If the task was accomplished: How to use, in the future, the applied

strategies & resources? If the task was not accomplished: What different Plan can

be used to achieve the goal? (apply it and jump to Card 10 Place)”. Thus, this card

invites for planning the transfer and generalization of successful learning

procedures and orients to a cycle of new attempts and assessments, until goal

attainment. The card also asks “How to use, in the future, the team work?” inviting

to a generalization of collaborative learning.

Card 13 asks “In which activity experiment, in the future, the ‘Self-regulation Page’6

(bring it later for a presentation)”, orienting players for the transfer of self-regulated

learning competencies. The card also asks “In which activity experiment, in the

future, the team work?” stressing the possibility of transferring collaborative

learning competencies.

Finally, in the end of the game and after the accomplishment of the learning task,

card 14 asks “Pick up an item from the “Surprises List”, allowing players to positive

self-reinforce from a list of valued objects and/or activities.

The game is to be monitored by the educator, allowing him or her to scaffold, not to

evaluate, the players and to stimulate a final discussion on the playing experience

D) Group work methodology (and products of work)

In the reported period the work methodology of learning modes working group involved:

6 This is a page with the phases and the self-regulatory questions.

1) Development of a theoretical framework for the work, based on literature

review: concept of learning modes & of its relation to teaching in multigrade

schools (paper delivered to the NEMED group and to be uploaded in

NEMED site).

2) Development & testing, with two multigrade groups, of an educational

resource that teachers can use to develop a self-regulated, deep &

organized learning mode in multigrade classrooms: “The strategy game”

(presented on June 2005 as “Self-regulated collaborative learning in the

multigrade classroom: Introduction and testing of a game for developing

self-regulation of approaches to learning” in “EDEN 2005 Annual

Conference - Lifelong E-Learning Bringing e-learning close to lifelong

learning and working life: a new period of uptake”, Helsinki:

Helsinki University of Technology; Educational resource to be uploaded in

NEMED site).

3) Development of a template/interview script for gathering data on multigrade

teachers’ practices according to different learning modes (template

delivered to the NEMED group).

4) Testing of the template/interview script, with a group of elementary multigrade

teachers from Portugal and Finland and analysis of answers (Presented on Oct.

2005 as ”Dealing with learning modes in the multigrade classroom: test

and preliminary results of an inquiry to teachers” in “1st NEMED

Conference - Broadband and satellite communications in schools:

challenges and opportunities for the educational community in rural areas”,

Athens: University of the Aegean).

5) Revision of the template/interview script on the basis of the test.

6) Appliance of the revised version of the template/interview script to a larger

group of multigrade teachers from Portugal, Finland and Greece (results to

be uploaded in NEMED site as best practices for dealing with learning

modes in the multigrade classroom).

7) Gather of illustrative images of these best practices for dealing with

learning modes in the multigrade classroom (photos and videos to be

uploaded in NEMED site).

8) Gather of already developed materials & educational resources regarding

learning modes in the multigrade classroom (articles and links to upload in

the NEMED site.

9) Beginning of planning of a training module on learning modes for NEMED

teachers

Activities to be undertaken after the reported period (after Nov. 2005 and during 2006):

Plan the analysis of interview answers

Analyse of interview answers

Based on the answers, inventor good practices for dealing with learning modes in multigrade classes

Finish the plan of the training module on learning modes for NEMED teachers

Edit best practices based on teachers experience and on theory in the training module

Apply training module

Evaluate training

Report the work