The Renaissance's humanist belief in universal education, even for women, gave way to the suspicions and fears of education for women during the Reformation, before the expansion of commerce during the 18th Century lead to a growing need for educated women to assist in family businesses. Most of the articles question not a woman's capacity to learn but if they were worthy and in need of an education. Of the periods in question, the Renaissance was the most supportive of the education of women. The Reformation and Counter Reformation were negative and fearful towards the education of women. While the Age of Enlightenment saw clashing opinions, some regions of Europe began to see the potential economic gains that would exist if women were educated. The Renaissance, and the humanist views of the time, strongly supported the education of women. Humanists valued the education of all people regardless of sex and social standings. With the education provided to them, women became philosophers, poets, and lawyers. Women were educated independent of their social status. Castiglione believed that all woman needed to be educated so that they were able to carry on a conversation with a person (Doc A-1). Education made women better people. With study, a woman would not be idle and would learn how to act virtuously (Doc A-3). The poet Louise Labe found that education brought a woman honor, glory, and pleasure (Doc A-4). In Erasmus' The Abbot and the Learned Lady the woman is able to convince the Abbot that her education is important. The lady uses logic to support her views, whereas the man rebuts her argument with an illogical statement relating chastity and Latin. The lady is portrayed as the smarter of the two in the conversation (A-2). Queen Elizabeth I is an example of a woman who excelled in her schooling. Her teacher, Roger Ascham, praised the achievements that she had made by the age of sixteen. Her dignity and gentleness were apparent to her tutor. She was quick and eager to learn and never stopped trying to improve herself (Doc A-5). Even during the heightened time of the Renaissance, some people, such as the historian

Theodore Agrippa D'Aubigne, opposed the education of middle class women. He claimed that educating women of the middle class caused them to think of themselves above housekeeping, poverty, and a less intelligent husband. The mere fact that he is concerned with a wife being more intelligent than her husband, proves that during the Renaissance it was generally accepted that woman were as intelligent as men. He believed that the only women who needed education were royalty (Doc A-5). With a few exceptions, the Renaissance advocated the education of women of all social ranks. The theologians of the Reformation and Counter Reformation were particularly opposed to the education of women. The Catholic Church thought that laymen had no need for education. The priests of the Church were the only ones who needed to be able to read Latin. Therefore, education was limited only to men, because only men could become priests. Martin Luther, who was originally interested in reforming the Church instead of forming a new religion, went so far as to claim that women should not be educated because of their wide hips and narrow shoulders. He thought that women should stay at home to do housekeeping and care for children (Doc B-1). Emond Auget, a Catholic, claimed that women should not be educated because, if educated, they would read the Bible and misinterpret its meaning. He supports Saint Paul's opinion that women should not be heard in church (Doc B-2). Marie Dentier, an educated Calvinist, was in the minority that disagreed with both the Protestant and Catholic Churches' suppression of women. She found it ironic that her Church prevented her from using a gift God gave to her and other women (Doc B-3). The Protestant and Catholic churches of the Reformation and Counter Reformation feared and opposed the education of women. During the Age of Enlightenment women began to receive education again, in some areas it was limited to upper class but in others it was more inclusive. Some religious writers, such as John Milton, still believed that no women were worthy of an education and were to follow their husbands (Doc C-1). Women of the middle class were being educated, but many people were opposed to their education. Because they were voicing their discontent, it proves that middle

class women were receiving educations. Madame de Maintenon, a teacher of girls and wife of Louis XIV, believed that education for women of the middle class should be limited. She believed that women should learn what is needed for their social status and the occupations within their social ranks. Middle class women did not need to learn fancy writing, instead they only needed to be taught arithmetic and enough writing to keep accounts. She states that a person who transcends their social status displeases God (Doc C-4). Moliere, a satirical playwright, ridicules the opinion that only upper class women should be educated in his play The Learned Ladies. The man in his play writes his sister expressing his concern that educated middle class women are not meant to know so much of the world. Although he is opposed to the education of them, the man proves that women of the middle class are becoming educated by talking about it. He fears that the women of his house know too much about the moon and telescopes and are neglecting the chores in the house (Doc C-2). The Netherlands, and other countries that relied heavily on trade, found that women were important to successful economies. Men needed to trusts their wives to manage their business if they were gone on a voyage or died. Men were less likely to sell their trades if they knew that their business could survive under the management of his wife. Sons and daughters were educated equally in the Netherlands (Doc C-3). Women of the early 18th Century were educated based on the skills needed for their social class. Humanism during the Renaissance supported the education of all people, leading to the fears of education that arose in the Reformation, which preceded the contradictory opinions of thinkers during the Age of Enlightenment. During all three periods most people, excluding a few religious people, believed that women had the potential to learn but were not certain if they needed or were worthy of an education. The criteria for the education of women changed from period to period. During the Renaissance, all women were educated because expanding the mind was the righteous thing to do. The theologians of the Reformation were opposed to the education of women and only educated men who were becoming clergy. The Age of Enlightenment educated women based on social standings, in which middle class woman were taught what was

needed for them to carry on their husband's business.