Data of NOX, SOX, CO and CO2 emission in different energy sector in Bangladesh

Data of NOX, SOX, CO and CO2 emission in different energy sector in Bangladesh

INTRODUCTION

Air is indispensable for the survival of all living organisms on earth, including human beings.

It is even more important than water - without water a person can survive for days, but

without air no more than a couple of minutes. Air pollution is one of a variety of manmade

environmental disasters that are currently taking place all over the world. Air pollution may

be defined as an atmospheric condition in which various substances are present at

concentrations high enough above their normal ambient levels to produce a measurable effect

on people, animals, vegetation, or materials. ‘Substances’ refers to any natural or manmade

chemical elements or compounds capable of being airborne. These may exist in the

atmosphere as gases, liquid drops, or solid particles. It includes any substance whether

noxious or benign; however, the term ‘measurable effect’ generally restricts attention to

those substances that cause undesirable effects.

Recently, air pollution has received priority among environmental issues in Asia, as well as

in other parts of the world. Exposure to air pollution is the main environmental threat to

human health in many towns and cities. Particulate emission is mainly responsible for

increased death rate and respiratory problems for the urban population. This problem is acute

in Dhaka being the capital of the country and also the hub of commercial activity. The other

urban areas i.e. Chittagong, Khulna, Bogra and Rajshahi have much lesser health problem

related to urban air pollution. The ambient atmospheric conditions have progressively

deteriorated due to the unprecedented growth in numbers of motor vehicles, and continuous

housing and industrial development.

Bangladesh is one of the least developed agrarian nations in the world. However, since it’s

birth in 1971, there has been some growth in the industrial sector. Industries are mainly

concentrated in major urban areas like Dhaka (the capital), the seaport cities like Chittagong

and Khulna, the inland port city Narayanganj, and other divisional towns. Naturally, the air

pollution problem is more acute in these areas. Apart from unplanned industrial development

in these areas, the severity of the pollution is increased mainly due to exhausts from two-

stroke engine and diesel-run vehicles.

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STATE OF AIR POLLUTION

A continuous monitoring scheme is essential to evaluate air quality and for the development

of any plan for mitigation of health risks caused by polluted air. The six “criteria pollutants”,

particulate matter (PM 10, PM 2.5), CO, SO2, NOx and ozone have to be monitored more or

less continuously at a reasonably large number of locations. Other pollutants (e.g., ammonia,

hydrocarbons, lead, carbon dioxide, etc.) should also be measured, where their levels are

considered to be significant. Again, the salient problems in the cities of Bangladesh are not

like those in other developed countries. The, developed countries are able to manage these

problems, but in Bangladesh cost is a major criteria. There is also a general lack of expertise

to evaluate, the problems, or prepare cost-effective solutions, and therefore, the air quality is

not yet managed effectively. Monitoring of ambient air quality in Bangladesh is a very recent

phenomenon, initiated on a very limited basis by DOE using high volume samplers, with the

help of development partners. However, the acuteness of the problems caused by air

pollution, and awareness campaigns organized by different mass media, have made the

government aware of the necessity of monitoring ambient air quality. Accordingly, the

Department of Environment has set up four monitoring stations at four divisional towns,

namely, Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, and Bogra. Monitoring has been done mostly in Dhaka

at various places, and samples collected analyzed for the three pollutants SPM, SO2, and

NOx. Very limited monitoring has also been done at Chittagong for these three parameters.

The Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and

Technology (BUET) has been conducting ambient air quality surveys since 1995. The most

recent one, conducted by the Department of Civil Engineering over a prolonged period in

1998, includes the measurement of SOx and NOx at 14 different locations of Dhaka city at

different times of the day.

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Recently, BAEC reported results from a study on the nature and extent of air pollution in

urban and rural areas of Bangladesh during 1993-1998. This study was based on the

realization that from the point of view of health effects, the particle size of Airborne

Particulate Matter (APM) is important, as well as its suspension time in air, and hence extent

of long distance transportation. In 1993, as part of an internationally coordinated research

program by International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), BAEC started work on the

analysis of the size fractionated APM. Size fractioned samples were collected from both rural

and urban areas of Bangladesh over a period of three years. The average mass load in the air

during the low rainfall period (LRF) for both fine and course fractions during 1997-98 have

been published. It was found that the mass loads of both the APM of particulate mass PM 10

and PM 2.5 were higher that USEPA and WHO standards.

The Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC) and the Bangladesh Council of

Scientific and Industrial Research (BCSIR), in association with the DOE, recently conducted

research studies primarily aimed at measuring the concentration of lead in the ambient air.

The Dhaka Shishu (Children’s) Hospital also conducted research in association with the

BAEC on the level of lead in the blood of children of Dhaka city, and also studied the

possible impact of leaded gasoline on them. The Bangladesh Road Transport Authority

(BRTA) is also setting up a vehicle emission monitoring station at Mirpur, Dhaka. The

survey conducted by the scientists of Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC) prior

to introduction of unleaded gasoline showed that the air that city dwellers breathe on the

roads contains lead in concentrations almost ten times above the government safety standard

set by the DOE. The BAEC study found alarmingly high quantity of lead in the air of Dhaka

city which was 463 nanograms per cubic meter - the highest in the world.

However, during July 1999 the GOB executed the decision to provide only unleaded gasoline

in the country. According to recent measurements between late 1999 and 2000 by BAEC and

Eastern Refinery Ltd (ERL), the gasoline dispensed at pumps in Bangladesh is now

confirmedly free of lead (Shah et. al., 1999). However, measurements on lead levels in

ambient air after introduction of unleaded gasoline are still not available.

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Table 1: Average Suspended Airborne Particulate Matter (µg/m3) during the Collection

Periods in Urban Areas of Bangladesh

EMISSION OF CARBON COMPOUNDS FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES:

Total CO2 emissions represent the mass of CO2 produced during the combustion of solid,

liquid, and gaseous fuels, from gas flaring and the manufacture of cement. These estimates

do not include bunker fuels used in international transportation due to the difficulty of

apportioning these fuels among the countries benefiting from that transport. Carbon dioxide

emissions are often calculated and reported in terms of their content of elemental carbon. For

these data, their values were converted to the actual mass of CO2 by multiplying the carbon

mass by 3.664 (the ratio of the mass of CO2 to that of carbon).

The primary difference between Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC,

reported here) and International Energy Agency (IEA) CO2 emission estimates (also

available from Earth Trends) is that the CDIAC data include emissions from sources other

than fossil fuel combustion, primarily cement manufacture.

CO2 emissions from solid fuels represent the mass of carbon dioxide emitted primarily, but

not exclusively, from burning coal Carbon dioxide emissions from liquid fuels are primarily,

but not exclusively, from burning of petroleum products. These estimates do not include

bunker fuels used in international transportation due to the difficulty of apportioning these

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fuels among the countries benefiting from that transport. Carbon dioxide emissions from

gaseous fuels are primarily, but not exclusively, from burning of natural gas

Carbon dioxide emissions from gas flaring result from the burning of gas released in the

process of petroleum extraction. CO2 emissions from cement manufacturing are produced as

cement is claimed to produce calcium oxide. Approximately 0.5 metric tons of carbon is

released for each metric ton of cement production. Per capita CO2 emissions figures are

obtained by dividing total emissions of carbon dioxide by the population for a particular

country and year. Total CO2 emissions represent the mass of CO2 produced during the

combustion of solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels, from gas flaring and the manufacture of

cement. These estimates do not include bunker fuels used in international transportation due

to the difficulty of apportioning these fuels among the countries benefiting from that

transport. CO2 emissions per unit of GDP were calculated by WRI using CO2 emissions data

compiled by CDIAC and GDP data provided by the World Bank. Total CO2 emissions

represent the mass of CO2 produced during the combustion of solid, liquid, and gaseous

fuels, from gas flaring and the manufacture of cement. These estimates do not include bunker

fuels used in international transportation due to the difficulty of apportioning these fuels

among the countries benefiting from that transport. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measures

the total output of goods and services for final use occurring within the domestic territory of

a given country, regardless of the allocation to domestic and foreign claims. To obtain

comparable series of constant price data, the World Bank rescales GDP and value added by

industrial origin to a common reference year, currently 1995.

CO2 Emissions by Sector:

Carbon dioxide emissions from public electricity, heat production, and auto producers

include the sum of emissions from combustion of all fossil fuel types used for public

electricity generation, public combined heat and power generation, and public heat plants.

Public utilities are defined as those undertakings whose primary activity is to supply the

public. Carbon dioxide emissions from unallocated auto producers include the sum of

emissions from combustion of all fossil fuel types used for generation of electricity and/or

heat by auto producers. Auto producers generate electricity and/or heat wholly or partly for

their own use to support their primary activity. Most of these emissions are attributed to the

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sector that the auto producer falls within, but some autorproduction cannot be attributed to

the end user and is represented here. Carbon dioxide emissions from other energy industries

include the sum of emissions from combustion of all fossil fuel types used by energy

industries. This includes fuel combusted in petroleum refineries, for the manufacture of solid

fuels, coal mining, oil and gas exploration, and other energy-producing industries. Carbon

dioxide emissions from manufacturing industries and construction include emissions from

combustion of fossil fuels in all industries and construction.

Carbon Dioxide emissions from all transportation include emissions from combustion of

fossil fuels for road, rail, air, and other forms of transportation, and agricultural vehicles

while they are on highways. The emissions include all sectors of the economy, but do not

include international aviation or ship emissions, which are accounted for under bunker fuels.

Emissions associated with international transport of people and goods are accounted for in

the global total emissions and under bunker fuels. Carbon dioxide emissions from residential

sources include emissions from combustion of all fossil fuel types in households. Carbon

dioxide emissions from "other" sectors include the sum of emissions from combustion of all

fossil fuel types used by Includes the commercial, agricultural, and public service sectors, as

well as international bunkers.

Figure 1: Comparison of CO2 emission in different countries in world including Bangladesh.

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Figure 2: Per capita and total CO2 emission in Bangladesh in 1998

Figure 3: CO2 emission by sector, 1999.

In the energy sector, the two largest GHG emitting sources are electricity generation and non

energy use (urea fertilizer production). These emit approximately 50% of all the GHGs. The

other significant GHG emitting sources are traditional biomass burned for energy (non-CO2

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Figure 4: CO2 emission by sector, Bangladesh.

emission - CH4 and N2O), diesel for transport, kerosene for rural lighting, and coal for

manufacturing bricks. In 1990, total emissions from Bangladesh including those from land

use and forestry were 72,000 Kt of CO2 equivalent, of which 21,186 Kt was from the energy

sector, 1,491 Kt from the industrial processes sector, 28,667 Kt from the agriculture sector,

19,738 Kt from the forestry and land use change sector, and 918 Kt from the waste sector.

Thus the energy sector’s contribution was approximately 30%. Tables 3 and 4 present CO2

emissions by source for the base year (1990) and Figures 5 and 6 present the 1990 GHG

inventory. The first number gives the GHG emissions due to fuel use by the different sub-

sectors of the demand side. The second number gives the total GHG emissions resulting from

the different fuels.

Figure 5: CO2 Emission from Energy Sources in 1990

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Many factors will play a role in determining future GHGs emission of which the supply of

natural gas is an important one. But the fact that the emissions from coal and oil will also

increase implies that the supply of natural gas is limited due to lack of infrastructure and

cannot be used to meet the demands. Increase demand for oil is due to the increase demand

of transport sector, and captive generation for uninterrupted power supply for industrial units.

The reason for the significant growth of demand for biomass fuels, despite the increase in

rural population, is that there will be a perceptible shift in cooking fuel preference from

biomass to commercial fuels like LPG, coal and kerosene.

The 2020 emissions inventory is shown in Figure 6 and 7 reflecting the following noteworthy

features:

Emission from Biomass has become an insignificant category in relative terms.

Energy and Transformation Industries is the single largest category.

Industry sector has become the largest category among the demand sub sectors.

Residential sector has dramatically shrunk in size.

Transport sector has gained importance.

Figure 6: Energy Demand Sector GHG Inventory in CO2 Equivalent in 2020

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Figure 7: GHG Emissions from Different Types of Fuels in 2020

Figure 8: CO2 Emission from Forestry and Land Use Sector, 1990 to 2013

Carbon monoxide, or CO, is a precursor gas of ground-level ozone, which can trigger serious

respiratory problems. When CO enters the bloodstream, it reduces the delivery of oxygen to

the body's organs and tissues. Exposure to elevated CO levels can cause impairment of visual

perception, manual dexterity, learning ability and performance of complex tasks. CO is

formed when carbon in fuel is not burned completely, and is a component of motor vehicle

exhaust. Other sources of CO emissions include industrial processes (such as metals

processing and chemical manufacturing), residential wood burning, stoves, and natural

sources such as forest fires.

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Energy Consumption in Different Sector and Emission from it:

Bangladesh depends heavily upon traditional biomass fuels, but the proportion of natural gas

in commercial fuels mix is increasing rapidly primarily because of gas being a indigenous

source. Commercial energy consumption by different sectors has increased rapidly after

1984-85, and an increasing trend has been observed for all sectors except for the commercial

and service sectors. Significant increase has been observed in transport and residential

sectors, which go above the consumption level of industrial sector in 1992- 93. Commercial

energy of the country comes from both indigenous and imported sources. Natural gas,

hydropower and a little amount of petroleum product comes from indigenous source and the

country import a significant amount of petroleum product. Over time, the share of oil in total

energy mix has declined and conversely the use of natural gas has increased. In 1980-81, the

share of oil in the total energy was about 56%, which reduced to 36% in 1994-95 and on the

other hand share of natural gas has increased from 32% to 54% over the same period.

Figure 9: Consumption of Commercial Fuels by Sectors in 1998-99

Commercial energy consumption in Bangladesh is growing at a rapid rate (>5% per year).

With population growth and economic development, energy consumption will increase

further. The energy sector is a high priority area for the government because industrial

production and commercial activity are being severely hampered due to the chronic shortage

of electricity. The highest priority is on power generation, and the shortfall is being met

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through the participation of Independent Power Producers (IPP). In the natural gas sector, the

government is trying to increase supply by leasing out exploration and development of gas

blocks through Independent Oil Companies (IOC). Other energy sector priorities are rural

electrification, which is undoubtedly a moral obligation of the government, and the

introduction of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as a transport fuel, which arises out of the

need to reduce the reliance on foreign oil.

EMISSION OF SULPHUR COMPOUNDS FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES:

In Bangladesh, major Sulfur Dioxides emitting sources are tailpipe emissions of vehicles,

brick kilns where coal are extensively burnt, paper and pulp industries, oil refineries, sulfuric

acid production plants. In our country we don’t have any specific study to identify the

sources of Sulfur Dioxides.

Emission Factors of Sulphur Dioxide:

Table 2: Percent share of different fuel consumed in Bangladesh

Year Consumption in Mtoe

Coal Petroleum Natural Gas Electricity

1984-85* 3.02652 2.25 44.13 45.46 8.16

1985-86* 3.4524 2.99 40.58 48.18 8.25

1986-87 3.67668 4.39 40.03 47.43 8.16

1987-88 3.40704

1988-89 4.37472 0.86 41.65 48.27 9.22

1989-90 4.8006 8.14 37.38 46.09 8.40

1990-91 4.282 2.92 36.81 50.49 9.79

1991-92 4.502 2.60 35.54 50.36 11.51

1992-93 4.919 0.89 35.39 53.65 10.06

1993-94 5.31859 0.77 33.94 55.35 9.94

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1994-95 6.09197 0 35.97 54.24 9.79

Source: Statistical Yearbook ’87,BSS

Stationary sources:

Table 3: Sector wise energy consumption (in Mtoe)

Year Domestic Industrial Commercial TransportOther energy

use

Non-energy

useTotal

1996-97 1.09116 1.03572 0.14112 1.2222 0.4788 1.95048 6.019499Source: Monthly Statistical Bulletin-April 1999, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics

Mobile Sources:

Vehicle Category

Number of

Vehicles ('000)

Average hours/ Day

Vehicle hours

Traveled

Energy Consumption-

n (Liters of fuel)

Fuel Consumption

(Ton)

Energy Consumption

(Mtoe)

Motor Cycle (2 & 4 Stroke)

179611 0.7 125728 295091 218 225

Gasoline Cars & light trucks (Average of all engine capacity)

135169 1 135169 1288748 954 984

Heavy Trucks (predominantly diesel)

72128 0.5 36064 1101166 958 955

Mini-Buses (Diesel)

26732 8 213857 8265832 7191 7171

Motorized Three Wheelers (Auto Rickshaw)

92381 3 277144 970057 718 740

Table 4: Energy Consumption-Mobile Sources(per day) Estimates/Projection on the basis of BBS-97, DUTP Report

EMISSION OF NITROGEN COMPOUNDS FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES:

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The main emitting sources of Nitrogen Oxides are Energy Use, Industrial Process, and Agriculture (Source: ALGAS Report). The breakdown of these sources is given below:

i) All Energy Use Energy and Transformation Industries Industry

Transport

Commercial Institutional

Residential

Traditional Biomass Burned for Energy

(ii) Industrial Process Metal (Iron & Steel)

(iii) Agriculture Field Burning of Agricultural Residues

Table 5: NOx Emitted from different source in 1990Source and Sink N2O (Gg) NOx (Gg)

Total (net) National Emissions 4.51 203

1. All Energy(Fuel combustion +Fugitive) 4.4 200

Fuel Combustion

1. Energy and Transformation Industries 40

2. Industry 0.44 16

3. Transport 1.5

4. Commercial Institutional 0.01 0.2

5. Agriculture

6. Residential 1.75 63

7. Others

8. Traditional Biomass Burned for Energy 2.20 79

2. Industrial Process

A. Cement Production

B. Others

1. Ammonia Production

2. Metal (Iron & Steel) 0.01

3. Agriculture 0.11 3.84

Field Burning of Agricultural Residues 0.11 3.84

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Source: ALGAS Report,Table1-2,Page 7

Table 6: NOx Emitted from Energy Sector in Gg in 1996

GHGs Source N2O NOx

Energy and Transformation Industries

Petroleum Refining 0.8

Electricity Generation

Gas-Steam Turbine 13.4

Gas Turbine 21.6

Gas-Combined Cycle 1.3

Oil 3.4

Total 40.5

Industry

Iron and Steel+

Pulp and Paper

Fertilizer+

Cement+

Brickmaking 0.03* 1.5*

Others 0.01* 0.3*

Total 0.04* 1.8*

Transportation

Cars +2-wheelers+3-wheelers 1.5

Total 1.5

Small Combustion

Residential 63.0*

Commercial 0.01* 0.2*

Small/Cottage 0.40* 14.3*

Agriculture

Other 0.5

Fugitive Emissions

Oil

Grand Total 2.20 120

Table 7: Emission Factors of Nitrogen Oxide

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Vehicle Category

NOx

Average ppm

Average gm/l

Average gm/Minute

Average gm/km

Average gm/pass-km or Ton-km

Motor Cycle (2&4 Stroke) 4.36 2.42 0.0947 0.11 0.0846

Gasoline Cars & light trucks (Average of all engine capacity)

18.72 10.39 1.6515 1.4848 0.6749

Heavy Trucks (predominantly diesel)

57 31.648 16.1053 22.6056 2.8257

Mini-Buses (Diesel) 34 18.88 5.9691 7.55 0.236

Buses (Diesel) 44.24 24.56 12.5 20.469 0.2408

Motorized Three Wheelers (Auto Rickshaw)

4.32 2.3986 0.1399 0.1333 0.0606

Source: Environmental Impact of Improved Bus Services in Dhaka city, M. Sc Thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, BUET, 1998

Table 8: NOx Emission from Biomass Burning in 1990 in Gg

Source N2O NOx

Industry

Brick Making 0.03 1.5

Other 0.01 0.3

Total 0.04 1.8

Small Combustion

Residential 1.75 63.0

Commercial 0.01 0.2

Small/Cottage 0.4 14.3

Total 2.20 79.3

EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION

Impacts on Human Health

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According to the World Health Organization, health is a “state of complete physical, mental,

and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. The air we breathe

not only has life supporting properties, but also life-damaging properties, particularly when

the balance among the air components is disturbed, or otherwise becomes polluted. All the

impurities in inhaled air do not necessarily cause harm. The prime factors affecting human

health are the nature of a pollutant, concentration of pollutants, duration of exposure, and the

state of health and age group of recipients.

Impacts on Livestock

An interest in the effects of air pollution on animals has generally developed as a corollary to

concern about human health. Livestock get poisoned through a two-step process; firstly there

is an accumulation of airborne contaminants in the vegetation and

Impacts on Human Health

The air we breathe not only has life supporting properties, but also life-damaging properties,

particularly when the balance among the air components is disturbed, or otherwise becomes

polluted. All the impurities in inhaled air do not necessarily cause harm. The prime factors

affecting human health are the nature of a pollutant, concentration of pollutants, duration of

exposure, and the state of health and age group of recipients.

Impacts on Vegetation

Air pollution has long been known to have an adverse effect on plants. A number of air

pollutants affect plants, but the commonly encountered ones are sulfur dioxide, nitrogen

oxides, and ammonia. Absorption of pollutant gases by plants depends primarily on light

intensity, humidity, moisture supply to roots, and temperature. Therefore, knowing pollutant

concentrations and trans-boundary migration of pollutants alone is not enough for assessing

the impacts. Moreover, mitigation requires an integrated approach that considers seasonal

variability of the weather.

Impacts on Ecosystem

There is also a direct impact from air pollution on aquatic ecosystems through acid rain.

Transportation of air pollutants occurs not only through wind movement, but also by water

flow. Therefore, an integrated regional level assessment is required.

CONCLUSION:

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Bangladesh is a developing country in South Asia with a comparatively low natural resource

base, but a high growth rate of population, with almost half below fifteen years of age. Most

of the over 130 million people are among the poorest in the world, and depend mainly on the

natural resource base for their livelihood. But now the resource base is under serious threat,

as most natural resources are either being over-exploited or used sub-optimally. The low

'land-man' ratio in the country is often further threatened by natural hazards, besides

anthropogenic stresses. Thus, for the survival of Bangladesh's dense population, it is essential

to have environmental planning that conserves and sustains the ecosystems that support

them.

Air pollution has emerged as one of the most serious environmental problems in Bangladesh

in recent years. With unplanned urbanization and rapid vehicular growth, air quality in major

cities of Bangladesh is deteriorating fast. But until recently, the government and

environmental groups didn't pay much attention to the declining air quality of Bangladesh.

From the late 1990s, air pollution has become a major concern for the inhabitants of Dhaka,

one of the most densely populated cities of the world. When scientists from Bangladesh

Atomic Energy Commission revealed in 1996 that the level of lead pollution in the air of

Dhaka was the highest in the world, people got panicked and environmental groups began

their outcry against the government for its inaction. The issue was ultimately raised in the

parliament with several MPs calling for immediate action to lower the level of air pollution

in Dhaka. Industries and motorized vehicles are the two major sources of urban air pollution

in Bangladesh. The pollutants that have been as found out so far in the air of the country are

dust particles, Sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, lead and

ammonia.

SOURCES

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1. Alam, M; Rahman, A. A; Huq, S.; “A Clean Development Mechanism

(CDM) Project Country Scoping Bangladesh”, Bangladesh Centre for

Advanced Studies.

2. Alauddin, M. (1999) Leaded Vs Unleaded Gasoline: Some Technical Issues, The

daily Star, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

3. BBS (1997a) Bangladesh Compendium of Environmental Statistics, Bangladesh

Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

4. BBS (1997b) Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics,

Ministry of Planning, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

5. Chowdhury, K.I. (1999) State of Environment Report, Bangladesh, 1999, Forum of

Environmental Journalist of Bangladesh (FEJB), Dhaka, Bangladesh.

6. DoE (1999) National Action Plan for Bangladesh on Control and Prevention of Air

Pollution and its Likely Transboundary Effects, Baseline Studies, Department of

Environment and Ministry of Environment and Forest.

7. DoE (2000) Personal Communication Gain P. (1998) Bangladesh Environment:

Facing the 21st Century, Society for Environment and Human Development, Dhaka.

8. Hussain, A. (1998) Analyzing Air Samples Collected from the Shewrapara Area of

the City, George Mason University,Virginia, USA.

9. Khaliquzzaman, M., Biswas, S.K., Tarafder, SA and Islam, A. (1999) Nature and

extent of airborne particulate matter pollution in urban and rural areas of Bangladesh

during 1993-1998. Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission, December 1999.

10. Khaliquzzaman, M. (2000) Introduction to low smoke lubricants for baby taxis and

other vehicles with two stroke engine in Dhaka: Prospects and Problems, Consultant,

The World Bank, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

11. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). 2001.

UNFCCC Status of Ratification. Bonn: UNFCCC.

12. Secretariat for the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol . 2002. Status of

Ratification/Accession/Acceptance/Approval of the agreements on the protection of

the stratospheric ozone layer. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Program.

13. Internet:

http://earthtrends.wri.org

http://www.sdnpbd.org/sdi/international_days/wed/2005/bangladesh/index.htm

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http://earthtrends.wri.org/

Documents

Data of NOX, SOX, CO and CO2 emission in different energy sector in Bangladesh