Data Collectionwe often use irrelevant information to make judgments

seek to obtain comprehensive information about a student

obtain all relevant information on which to make informal designs

we are often tempted to make designs on what students say, not what they do

cannot trust intuition for instructional and behavioral objectives

must have sound data

Choosing a System

1. Frequency

2. Rate

3. Duration

4. Latency

5. Topography

6. Force

7. Locus

Anecdotal Recording(pp100)

anecdotal recording is a written narrative describing critical incidents (like a diary)

focus is on specific types of events

may be used for 4 major purposes:

1. can confirm the existence of a hypothesized problem

the entries note both the frequency in which they occur and the intensity & severity of the reactions

2. they can reveal the conditions that provoke the or cause the problem behavior

time of day, professional responsible, peers present, instructional demands, other factor

3. may indicate events that reinforce or punish the the problem behavior

4. may help identify alternative positive social behaviors that may be used to replace disruptive response

note book is kept handy and a narrative is written when ever behavior occurs

narrative includes objective description of the reaction, time & place, professionals & peers involved, significant events surround

important the recording be accomplished during or immediately after the reaction

should be factual & objective

should only report discrete details of the reaction

subjective opinions should be clearly marked or omitted

may use form, with headings

Antecedent Behavior Consequences (ABC) Recording

another method of structuring anecdotal accounts

most directly useful for obtaining diagnostic information prior to constructing intervention program

specific targeted behaviors are identified, antecedents and consequences are are described in relationship to the targeted behavior

ABC is used to observe the student all or large portion of the day (math class, recess, lunch, unstructured time)

depends on the scope of the intervention program

may involve parents in ABC recording if intent is to extend intervention into community setting

may be able to teach adaptive students to record their own behaviors (intervention)

Frequency and Rate Recording

may be most useful and least time consuming

performance levels are determined by tallying and counting each occurrence of a behavior over a specified time period

every time a behavior occurs (positive or negative) a tally is marked

frequency is appropriate when beginning & ending of behavior is easily discernible

frequency recording also requires that behavior has relatively consistent duration

tantrums, aggressive episode - answers, ?

frequency recordings made from one day to the next may not be comparable

other conditions must be the same(swearing)

convert to rate of response, divide number of occurrences by time

may need mechanical assistance

Recording Permanent Products(pp103)

most efficient, yet reliable methods of monitoring student behavior

self-care skills can easily be recorded by monitoring the permanent results

hands clean, hair combed, nails trimmed

on-task behavior can be recorded by quantity & quality of work actually completed

can be very simple or complex

assembly & packaging, count products

students writing, more complex

Task Analysis Recording

task analysis is a procedure for reducing complex behaviors into component parts

for the purpose of systematized instruction

may include forward or backward chaining

Instruct first component of skill until mastery, then proceed to next skill

quality and effectiveness depends on the use of continuous recording of student performance

introducing new skills too soon will likely produce frustration

delaying introduction will likely lead to boredom

4 levels if prompts

self initiated

verbal

modeling

physical

use least intrusive at all times

complex recording - level of prompt needed

less complex - only record was or was not performed

Summarized in a number of ways

when prompt levels recorded: report the average prompt level of each session

when reporting only independent performances: may report the averaged number of sub-skills performed successfully each day

has less diagnostic information

one trial per class period vs. multiple trials

Duration and Latency Recording(pp128)

Duration Recording is used to monitor increases or decreases in the amount of time an individual spends engaged in a response

only when when targeted behavior has very discrete and easily identified beginning and end ( aggressive behavior, fits)

episodes varied in length

Latency recording is time elapsed between a specific event and a student response

a directive and student compliance

must have clearly identifiable signal and start to response

of all methods, most difficult to sue

must pay attention to behavior and time

may need to use alternative methods

Interval Recording (pp117)

may be more efficient alternative to latency recording

can also be use when discrete start and stop times and varies in length

involves breaking school day into brief time periods (from 10 seconds -60 minutes)

often not convenient to monitor all day, collect during brief periods throughout day

+ signs indicate occurrence of behavior

two approaches;

whole-interval recording- noting if the targeted response is occurs throughout the interval (entire time)

Partial-interval recording - target response occurs anytime during interval (once )

time on task and time on task each interval

Several critical judgments needed:

1. Identify targeted behavior, clear and complete descriptions

2. Whether to observe a long or short period- the longer the more accurate- highly variable responses

3. Brief or long intervals during the observation period (10 - 60 seconds)

the longer the less sensitive to monitoring

4. Consider using noncontiguous observational control

observe, score, observe, score

5. Observe for many periods or few periods each day

large number of periods dispersed throughout provides greater sensitivity

use few periods as possible while retaining sensitivity

Time Sampling

closely related to interval recording

same recording sheet can be used

break period into equal intervals

only record if behavior is present at end of the interval

can be less accurate or more accurate

adjust intervals

Technology in Recording

micro-computer programs - reliable - keyboard skills

can be used to record data for clerical skills, stores data

video camera can be used to accurately perform direct observation

helps correct unexpected deficiencies in an observation system

Stop action allows for tallies, note duration's, interval markings

fast forward allows for efficiencies

Reliability (pp132)

several sources of errors

1. expectancy error - tendency of teachers to identify anticipated changes regardless whether they actually occur

May result from changing standards in defining or identifying the targeted behavior

may lessen but not change

may not pay as much attention as closely

2. Complexity or difficulties inherent in applying the observational system -

the more students and responses observed at one time, the greater chance for error

The more judgment needed, more room for error (mad at others vs. hitting)

3. Observer drift - gradual change in the stringency with which the targeted behavior is identified

may result from a change in your expectations as data collections proceed

varying levels of attention to process

observation reveals improvement- instead - change in observations

General recommendations:

1. Response definitions should be clear

2. Recording procedures should be as simple and practical as possible

3. Observers should be trained in the observation system

4. Observers should be evaluated periodically to determine actual reliability

Procedures for Evaluating Reliability

interobserver agreement - extent to which independent individuals agree on the occurrence or duration of a specific behavior

1. Reliability of Frequency and Rate Data: two people independently observing at same time 12/14=.86

(smaller frequency / larger frequency)

2. Reliability of Permanent Product Data:

collect product, two people evaluate with same set of criteria, smaller / larger number

3. Reliability of Task Analysis: two people observe independently

rate of agreement is established by the number of sub-skills in the task sequence which the two observes agree

Smaller/larger number

Duration and Latency Recording:

shorter time divided by longer time reported by two independent observers

Interval Recording and Time Sampling:

occurrence of the two observers both indicating behavior has occurred, divided by the total number of intervals

agreements/all intervals

to be considered reliable-should exceed .80