13Making and Using Composts

The reason of our thus treating composts of various soils and substances, is not only to dulcify, sweeten, and free them from the noxious qualities they other-wise retain. . . . [Before composting, they are] apter to ingender vermin, weeds, and fungous . . . than to

produce wholsome [sic] plants, fruits and roots, fit for the table.

—J. EVELYN, SEVENTEENTH 17TH CENTURY

Decomposition of organic materials takes place naturally in forests and fields all around us. Composting is the art and science of combining available or-ganic wastes so that they decompose to form a uniform and stable finished product. Composts are excellent organic amendments for soils. Composting reduces bulk, stabilizes soluble nutrients, and hastens the formation of hu-mus. Most organic materials, such as manures, crop residues, grass clippings, leaves, sawdust, and many kitchen wastes, can be composted.

The microorganisms that do much of the work of rapid composting perform well at elevated temperatures with plenty of oxygen, and moisture. These compost-adapted organisms cover the entire range of warm, or mesophilic (up to 110°F), and hot, or thermophilic, conditions, (from 110° up to 130°F and even higher), conditions. Temperatures above 160°F can develop in com-post piles, helping kill off weed seeds and disease organisms, but this over-heating usually slows down the process, since it may cause extreme drying and triggers a die-off of all but the most heat- resistant organisms. At temper-atures below 110°F, the more prolific mesophylic mesophilic organisms take over and the rate of composting again slows down, especially as it drops to-wards ambient temperatures, a process known as “curing.” The composting process is slowed by anything that inhibits good aeration or the maintenance of high enough temperatures and sufficient moisture.

Composting farm wastes and organic residues from off the farm has be-come a widespread practice. Accepting and composting lawn and garden wastes provides some income for farmers near cities and towns. They may

charge for accepting the wastes and for selling compost. Some farmers, espe-cially those without animals or perennial forage crops that help increase build [which word is preferred? INCREASE] organic matter, may want to utilize the compost as a source of organic matter for their own soils.

[H1]MAKING COMPOSTS

[H2]MoistureThe amount of moisture in a compost pile is important. If the materials mat and rainwater can’t drain easily through the pile, it may not stay aerobic in a humid climatic zone. On the other hand, if composting is done inside a barn or under dry climatic conditions, the pile may not be moist enough to allow microorganisms to do their jobs. Moisture is lost during the active phase of composting, so it may be necessary to add water to a pile. In fact, even in a humid region, it is a good idea to moisten the pile at first, if dry materials are

used. However, if something like liquid manure is used to provide a high-nitro-gen material, sufficient moisture will most likely be present to start the com-posting process. The ideal moisture content of composting material is about 40% to 60 percent%, or about as damp as a wrung-out sponge. If the pile is too dry—35 percent% or less—ammonia is lost as a gas, and beneficial organ-isms don’t repopulate the compost after the temperature moderates. Very dry, dusty composts become populated by molds instead of the beneficial or-

Even Birds Do It?The male brush turkey of Australia gathers leaves, small branches, moss, and other litter and builds a mound about 3 feet high and 5 feet across. It then digs holes into the mound repeatedly and refills them — helping to fragment and mix the debris. Finally, the pile is covered with a layer of sticks and twigs.

The female lays her eggs in a hole dug into the pile, which heats up to close to 100°F around the eggs while the outside can be around 65°F. The heat of the composting process frees the birds from having to sit on the eggs to incubate them.

—R.S. SEYMORE, 1991

Types of “Composting”Some people talk about “low- temperature” composting — different types are calledincluding “sheet,” worm (vermicomposting), and small- pile composting — and “high- temperature” composting. We like to use the term “composting” only when talking about the rapid decomposition that takes place at high temperatures.

ganisms we want.

[H2]Types of Starting MaterialsThe combined organic materials used should have lots of carbon and nitrogen available for the microorganisms to use. High-nitrogen materials, such as chicken manure, can be mixed with high-carbon materials like hay, straw, leaves, or sawdust. Compost piles are often built by alternating layers of these materials. Turning the pile mixes the materials together. Manure mixed with sawdust or wood chips used for bedding can be composted as is. Com-posting occurs most easily if the average C:N ratio of the materials is about 25 to –40 parts carbon for every part nitrogen (see chapter 9 for a discussion of C:N ratios).

There are too many different types of materials that you might work with to give blanket recommendations about how much of each to mix to get the moisture content and the C:N into reasonable ranges so the process can get off to a good start. One example is given in the box “on the following pageA Sample Compost Recipe.” below.

Cornell Univer-sity’s web site for composting issues (http://cwmi.css.-cornell.edu/com-posting.htm) fea-tures formulas to help you estimate the different pro-portions of the specific materials you might want to use in the compost pile. Sometimes it

will work out that the pile may be too wet, too low in C:N (that means, too high in nitrogen), or too high in C:N (low in nitrogen). To balance your pile, you may need to add other materials, or change the ratios used. The exam-ples given abovee problems can be remedied by adding dry sawdust or wood chips in the first two cases and or nitrogen fertilizer in the third. If a pile is too

A Sample Compost RecipeStart with the following:

•a) grass clippings (771% moisture, 45% C, and 2.4% N)• b) leaves (35% moisture, 50% C, and 0.75% N)• c) food scraps (80 % moisture, 42% C, and 5.0% N)

The ratio of the materials needed to get 60 per-cent% moisture and a C:N of 30:1 C:N is:

d) 100 lbs. of grass, 130 lbs. of leaves, and 80 lbs. of food scraps.

dry, you can add water with a hose or sprinkler system.One thing to keep in mind is that not all carbon is equally available for

microorganisms. Lignin is not easily decomposed (we mentioned this when discussing soil organisms in chapter 4 and again in chapter 9, when we talked about the different effects that various residues have when applied to soil). [chapter refs ok?OK] Although some lignin is decomposed during compost-ing—probably depending on factors such as the type of lignin and the mois-ture content—high amounts of carbon present as lignin may indicate that not all of the carbon will be available for rapid composting. When residues contain high amounts of lignin, it means that the effective C:N can be quite a bit lower than indicated by using total carbon in the calculation [from “by us-ing” may need clarification; check sentence I THINK IT’S OK AS IS] (table 13.1). For some materials, there is little difference between the C:N cal-culated with total carbon versus and using calculated with only biodegradable carbon. [edits ok? YES][table 13.1 about here]

It’s important to avoid using certain materials such as coal ash and espe-cially wood chips from pressure-treated lumber. It isAnd it’s a good idea to go easy using manure from pets, and or large quantities of fats, oils, and or waxes. These types of materials may be difficult to compost or either result in compost containing chemicals that can harm crops or are difficult to compost.

Wood chips or bark are is sometimes used as a bulking agent to provide a “skeleton” for good aeration. These materials may be recycled by shaking the finished compost out of the bulking material, which can then be used for a few more composting cycles.

Table 13.1

Total versus vs. Biodegradable Carbon and Estimated C:N RatiosMATERIAL % CAR-

BONC:N % CAR-

BONC:N %

LIGNIN% CELL WALL

% NITROGEN

(Total) (Biodegradable)Newsprint 39 11

518 54 21 97 0.34

Types of “Composting”Some people talk about “low- temperature” composting — different types are calledincluding “sheet,” worm (vermicomposting), and small- pile composting — and “high- temperature” composting. We like to use the term “composting” only when talking about the rapid decomposition that takes place at high temperatures.

Wheat straw 51 88 34 58 23 95 0.58Poultry manure 43 10 42 9 2 38 4.51Maple wood chips

50 51 44 45 13 32 0.97

—RICHARD, TRAUTMANN &, and KRASNY, (1996b). [OMITTraubman is spelling in Sources.]

Figure 13.1. On-farm composting facility. T, in which tarps are used to con-trol moisture and temperature. Piles The piles in the background are curing. [photo credit?]

[H2]Pile SizeA compost pile or windrow (figure 13.1) is a large, natural convective struc-ture—something like many chimneys all next to each other—moving. Oxygen moves into the pile as carbon dioxide, moisture, and heat rise from it. [edits ok? OK] The materials need to fit together in a way that allows oxygen from the air to flow in freely. On the other hand, it is also important that not too much heat escape from the center of the pile. If small- sized sizes of organic materials are used, a “bulking agent” may be needed to make sure that enough air can enter the pile. Sawdust, dry leaves, hay, and wood shavings are frequently used as bulking agents. Tree branches need to be “chipped” and hay chopped so that it doesn’tthese ingredients don’t mat and slow com-posting. Composting will take longer when large particles are used, especially those resistant to decay.

[fig. 13.1 about here]

The pile needs to be large enough to retain much of the heat that develops during composting, but not so large and compacted that air can’t easily flow

in from the outside. Compost piles should be 3 to 5 feet tall and about 6 to 10 feet across the base after the ingredients have settled (see figure 13.12) [this shd be 13.2? YES]. (You might want it on the wide side in the winter, to help maintain the warm temperatures, while gardeners can make compost in a 3-feetfoot- tall by 3-feet foot-wide pile in the summer.) Easily condensed material should initially be piled higher than 5 feet. It is possible to have long windrows of composting materials, as long as they are not too tall or wide.[fig. 13.2 about here]

Composting Dead AnimalsIt is also possible to compost dead farm animals, which are sometimes a nuisance to get rid of. Chickens and even dead cows have been successfully composted. Cam Tabb, a West Virginia beef and crop farmer, starts the process for large animals by laying the carcass that’s, which has been in the open for one day, on a 3- to 4 ft-foot bed of sawdust and horse manure —a good insulating material for the foundation. Then he covers it with 3 to 4 feet of sawdust/ and horse manure and. He then turns the pile after three or four months, although it can be left for months without turning (the Cornell Waste Management Institute recommends leaving letting it sit for 4 to 6 months). After turning, he places some more sawdust/ and horse manure mixture on the surface to cover any exposed materials from the decomposing animal. [clarify?] Other materials with lots of available energy for organisms to use to help decomposition [“energy available for organisms” clear? BETTER?], such as corn silage, can also be used for the base or pile covering, such as corn silage. [I can’t access the end of this box

Figure 13.2. Compost pile dimensions and turning techniques. [source of figure? OURS]

[H2]Turning the PileTurning the composting residues exposes all the materials to the high-tem-perature conditions at the center of the pile, and heat convection further ex-poses upper reaches of the pile (figure 13.3). Materials at the lower sides of the pile often barely compost. Turning the pile rearranges all the materials and creates a new center. If piles are gently turned every time the interior reaches and stabilizes for a few days at about 140°F for a few days, it is pos-sible to complete the composting process within months—, all other factors of moisture and aeration being equal. On the other hand, if you only turn the pile only occasionally, it may take a year or longer to complete, especially if it has settled down too densely. Equipment is now available to quickly turn long compost windrows at large-scale composting facilities. Tractor-powered com-

Minimum Turning TechniqueFarm-quality composts can be produced by turning the pile only once or twice. To do Ythis you need to carefully construct the pile — building it up to reasonable dimensions, using and thoroughly mixing materials that give very good porosity, and making sure the pile stays moist. A pile that is uniformly heating means it is getting sufficient air to decompose, and therefore may not need turning. As the heat declines, the pile may be getting too dense, or not getting sufficient air, and it it may be a need to be turned. good time to turn it.

post turners designed for composting on farms are also available, and some farmers also will utilizeuse manure spreaders to remix and throw out piles.

[fig. 13.3 about here]Although turning compost frequently speeds up the process, too much of-

turning it may also dry out the pile and cause more nitrogen and organic mat-ter loss. If the pile is too dry, you might consider turning it when it’s rainingon a rainy day to help moisten it. If the pile is very wet, you might want to turn it on a sunny day, or cover it with moisture protective material like chopped straw or compost fleeces—, a type of breathing cover that is now widely avail-able. Very frequent turning may not be advantageous, because it can cause the physical breakdown of important structural materials that aid natural aer-ation. The right amount of turning depends on a variety of factors, such as aeration, moisture, and temperature. Turn your compost pile to avoid cold, wet centers, ; break up clumps, ; and make the compost more uniform later in the process before use or marketing. Use caution turning in cold, windy weather if the pile is warm, for it may never reheat.

Figure 13.3. Turning a compost pile at a commercial facility. (Photo by Alison Jack).

[H2]The Curing StageFollowing high-temperature composting, the pile should be left to cure for

about one to three months. Usually, this is done once pile temperatures cools

to 105°F and high temperatures don’t reoccur following turning. Curing is es-pecially needed if the active (hot) process is short or poorly managed. There is a reduced need to turn the pile during curing because the phase of maxi-mum decomposition is over and there is significantly less need for rapid oxy-gen entry into the pile’s center when the decomposition rate is slow. [(How-ever, the pile may still need turning during the curing stage if it is very large or it didn’t really finish composting (—determining when compost is finished is sometimes difficult, but if it reheats, it is not finished), —or if the pile is soaked by rain.] .) Curing the pile furthers aerobic decomposition of resistant chemicals and larger particles. Common beneficial soil organisms populate the pile during curing, the pH becomes closer to neutral, ammonium is con-verted to nitrate, and soluble salts are leached out if the pile is outside and sufficient precipitation occurs. Be sure to maintain water content at the mois-ture- holding capacity (around 50 percent% or less during curing) to ensure that active populations of beneficial organisms develop. It is thought that the processes that occur during the early curing process give compost some of its disease-suppressing qualities. On the other hand, beneficial organisms require sources of food to sustain them. Thus, if com-posts are allowed to cure for too long—depleting all the available food sources—disease suppression qualities may decrease and eventually be lost.

[H1]OTHER COMPOSTING TECHNIQUESHigh-temperature piles account for most of the composting in the U.S.volume [where?], but other methods are also used. Instead of making piles, small farmers in developing countries often use dugdig pits for composting (figure 13.4), especially in dry and hot climates. The pits can be covered with soil material to prevent animals from getting into them, and they also better re-tain moisture in the compost material better.[fig. 13.4 about here]

Figure 13.4. Small farmers in tropical countries often use An example of a below-ground composting pitspit, often used by small farmers in tropical countries. [photo credit? OURS]

Vermicomposting involves the use of earthworms—typically red worms—to perform the decomposition process. The method is, in a way, still mostly bacterially- based, but the process occurs in the gut of the worm. The end- product is worm casts, coated with mucus consisting of polysaccharides that make them into somewhat stable aggregates. The system requires bedding material—like newspaper strips, cardboard, hay, and similar materials—that mimics the decaying dried leaves that worms experience find in their natural habitat—like newspaper strips, cardboard, hay and similar materials. The process is fast and efficient—worms can process half their weight in organic material in one day! . The final product has an attractive feel and smell and is very appealing to consumers and has an attractive feel and smell.

Vermicomposting is often used to process kitchen scraps and can be done indoors in small bins. More rRecently, vermicomposting methods have been developed for large commercial operations. Two main approaches are used, using windrows and or raised beds. With the windrows, new materials are added on one side of the bed, and the backside [the other side? YES] is harvested for compost after about 60 sixty days. With the raised- bed or con-tainer system—preferred for indoor operations in colder climates—the worms are fed at the top of the beds and the castings are removed at the bottom.

Some vermicomposting operations are connected with livestock farms to process manure for export of excess nutrients off the farm as a value-added product.

[H1]USING COMPOSTSFinished composts generally provide only low relative amounts of readily available nutrients. During composting, much of the nitrogen is converted into more stable organic forms, although potassium and phosphorus availability remains unchanged. However, it should be kept in mind that composts can vary significantly and some that have matured well may have high levels of nitrate. Even though most composts don’t supply a large amount of available nitrogen per ton, they still supply fair amounts of other nutrients in available forms and greatly help the fertility of your soil by increasing organic matter

Disease Suppression by Composts

Research by Harry Hoitink and co-workers at Ohio State University shows that com-posts can suppress root and leaf diseases of plants. This suppression comes about be-cause the plants are generally healthier (microorganisms produce plant hormones as well as chelates that make micronutrients more available) and, therefore, are better able to resist infection. Beneficial organisms compete with disease organisms for nutri-ents as well asand either directly consume the disease-causing organisms or produce antibiotics that kill bacteria. Some organisms, such as springtails and mites, “actually search out pathogen propagules in soils and devour them,” according to Hoitink. In ad-dition, he Hoitink found that potting mixes containing composts “rich in biodegradable organic matter support microorganisms that induce systemic resistance in plants. These plants have elevated levels of biochemical activity relative to disease control and are better prepared to defend themselves against diseases.” This includes resistance to both root and leaf diseases.

Composts rich in available nitrogen may actually stimulate certain diseases, as was found for phytophthora root rot on soybeans, as well as fusarium wilts and fire blight on other crops. Applying these composts many months before cropping, allowing the salts to leach away, or blending them with low nitrogen composts prior to application re-

and by slowly releasing nutrients. Compost materials can be tested at se-lected commercial agricultural and environmental laboratories, which is espe-cially important if certification is sought. Composts can be used

“I don’t make compost becauseit makes me feel good. I do it

because composting is the only thingI’ve seen in farming that costs less,saves time, produces higher yields

and saves me money.”—CAM TABB, WEST VIRGINIA

BEEF AND CROP FARMER,WEST VIRGINIA

on turf, in flower gardens, and for vegetable and agronomic crops. Composts

can be spread and left on the surface or incorporated into the soil by plowing or rototilling. Composts also are used to grow greenhouse crops and form the basis of some potting soil mixes. Composts should not be applied annually at high applications rates. This That is a recipe for overloading the soil with nu-trients (see discussion in chapter 7).

[H1]ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSTING

Composted material is less bulky than the original material, and easier and more pleasant to handle. During the composting process, carbon dioxide and water are lost to the atmosphere and the size of the pile decreases by 30– to 60 percent%. In addi-tion, many weed seeds and disease-causing or-ganisms may be killed by the high tempera-

Protecting Drinking Water Supplies

Composting of manure is of special interest in watersheds that supply drinking water to cities, such as those that serve New York. The parasites Giardia Lamblia lamblia (beaver fever) and Cryptosporidium parvum cause illness in humans and are shed through animal manure, especially young stock. These organisms are very resistant in the environment and are not killed by chlorination. Composting of manure, however, is an economical option that kills the pathogen and protects drinking water.

The reasons for composting and using composts need to be balanced by good practices such as lo-cating the pile to minimize runoff and possible pollution of surface waters. In addition, cCompost piles may produce odors when turned, so it’s best to site piles away from where neighbors might get a more powerful whiff than they’d like! . Care is also needed when cComposting in dry regions or under cover. These may produce composts may

tures in the pile. Unpleasant odors are eliminated. Flies, a common problem around manures and other organic wastes, are much less of a problem with composts. Composting reduces or eliminates the decline in nitrogen availabil-ity that commonly occurs when organic materials, such as sawdust or straw, are added directly to soil. Composting is also very useful for recycling kitchen wastes, leftover crop residues, weeds, and manures. Many types of local or-ganic waste, such as apple pumice, lake weeds, leaves, and grass clippings, can be composted.

There is evidence that compost application lowers the incidence of plant root and leaf diseases (see above), as mentioned. In addition, the chelates and the direct hormone-like chemicals present in compost stimulate the growth of healthy plants. Then there are the positive effects on soil physical properties that are derived from improving soil organic matter. All of these factors together may help explainThese are some of the broad benefits to plant growth that are attributed to compost.

If you have a large amount of organic waste but not much land, composting may be very helpful and may create a valuable commercial product that im-proves farm profitability. . Also, since making compost decreases the solubil-ity of nutrients, composting may help lessen pollution in streams, lakes, and groundwater. On many poultry farms and on beef feedlots, where high animal populations on limited land may make manure application a potential envi-ronmental problem, composting may be the best method for handling the wastes. Composted material, with about half the bulk and weight of manure, and its a higher commercial value than the manure, can be economically transported significant distances to locations where nutrients are needed. In addition, antibiotics used in animal production that end up in manures and can be taken up by crops growing on manured land. Tthe high temperatures and biological activity during the composting process can help to decrease antibiotic levels in manures., which can be taken up by crops growing on ma-nured land.

Compost can also be stored easily for periods of time, so it can be applied when soil and weather conditions are optimal.

Without denying the good reasons to compost, there are frequently very good reasons to just add organic materials directly to the soil, without com-posting. Compared with fresh residues, composts may not stimulate as much production of the sticky gums that help hold aggregates together. Also, some uncomposted materials have more nutrients that are readily available to feed plants than do composts. If your soil is very deficient in fertility, plants may need readily available nutrients from residues. Routine use of compost as an

nitrogen source may cause high soil phosphorus levels to develop, because of the relatively low N:P ratio. Finally, more labor and energy usually are needed to compost residues before applying than to simply apply the uncomposted residues directly.

[H1]SUMMARYComposting organic residues before applying them to soil is a tried and true practice that can, if done correctly, eliminate plant disease organisms, weed seeds, and many (but not all) potentially noxious or undesirable chemicals. Compost provides extra water- holding capacity to a soil, is also a slow- re-lease form of N, and may help to suppress a number of plant disease organ-isms as well as enhance the plant’s ability to fight off diseases. Critical to good composting is to have (a) plentiful decomposable C- and N-containing materials, (b) good aeration, (c) moist conditions, and (d) enough size to maintain allow high temperatures to develop, and e). It is also necessary to turning the pile or windrow to ensure that all the organic materials have been exposed to the high temperatures. While these and other good reasons to make and use compost are important considerations, there are also good rea-sons to directly apply uncomposted organic residues to soil.

SOURCESCornell Waste Management Institute Website., http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/.Hoitink, H.A.J., D.Y. Han, A.G. Stone, M.S. Krause, W. Zhang, and W.A. Dick.

1997. Natural suppression. American Nurseryman. (October 1, 1997): 90–97.

Epstein, E. 1997. The Science of Composting. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Pub-lishing Company.

Martin, D. L., and G. Gershuny, (eds.). 1992. The Rodale Book of Composting: Easy Methods for Every Gardener. Rodale Press. Emmaus, PA.: Rodale Press.

Millner, P.D., C.E. Ringer, and J.L. Maas. 2004. Suppression of strawberry root disease with animal manure composts. Compost Science and Utilization 12: 298–307.

Natural Rendering: Composting Livestock Mortality and Butcher Waste. Cor-nell Waste Management Institute. , http://compost.css.cornell.edu/natural-renderingFS.pdf.

Richard, T. 1996a. Solving the moisture and carbon-nitrogen equations simul-

taneously. http://compost.css.cornell.edu/calc/simultaneous.html.Richard, T.L., N.M. Traubman, and M.E. Krasny. 1996b. Cornell composting

websiteThe effect of lignin on biodegradability.. , http://compost.css.cornel-l.edu/calc/lignin.htmlhttp://www.cfe.cornell.edu/compost/. [site not found--CORRECTED]

Rothenberger, R.R., and P.L. Sell. Undated. Making and Using Compost. Uni-versity of Missouri Extension Leaflet (File: Hort 72/76/20M). Columbia, MO.: University of Missouri.

Rynk, R., (ed.). 1992. On Farm Composting. NRAES-54. Ithaca, NY: Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service. Ithaca, N.Y.

Seymour, R.S. 1991. The brush turkey. Scientific American. (Dec. 1991em-ber).

Staff of Compost Science. 1981. Composting: Theory and Practice for City, In-dustry, and Farm. The JG Press. Emmaus, PA.: JG Press.

Weil, R.R., D.B. Friedman, J.B. Gruver, K.R. Islam, and M.A. Stine. Soil Quality Research at Maryland: An Integrated Approach to Assessment and Manage-ment. Paper presented in Baltimore, MD at the 1998 ASA/CSSA/SSSA meet-ings, Baltimore. This is the source of the quote from Cam Tabb.