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cumene to phenol 2
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A Report on
Production of Phenol from 99.9% pure Cumene from Naptha Cracker Production of 99.9% pure Bisphenol A from 99.9% pure Phenol February -14-2015
Major Project Report Submitted by
Chandrakant Verma
Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Roorkee
1 | P a g e
Index
1. Material and Energy Balance
1.1 Material Balance
1.2 Energy Balance
2. Environmental Protection & Energy Conservation
2.1 Air Pollution
2.2 Liquid Effluents
2.3 Solids disposal
2.4 Noise Pollution
2.5 Energy conservation
3. Organizational Structure and Manpower Requirement
3.1 Organizational Principles and Basics
3.2 Hierarchy
3.3 Manpower Requirement
4. SITE SELECTION & PROJECT LAYOUT
4.1 Plant Location
4.2 Plant Layout
2 | P a g e
1. MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
1.1 Material Balance
BASIS: 20684 kg/hr production of phenol
1.1.1 Overall reactions:
1. Oxidation of Cumene:
NaOH
C6H5CH(CH3)2 + O2 C6H5C (CH3)2OOH
(120) (32) (152)
2. Decomposition of Cumene hydroperoxide:
C6H5C (CH3)2OOH + H2S04 C6H5OH + CH3COCH3
(152) (94) (58)
1.1.2 Molecular weights of components:
Cumene (Isopropyl benzene) = 120 kg moles
Cumene Hydroperoxide = 152 kg moles
Oxygen = 32 kg moles
Phenol = 94 kg moles
Acetone = 58 kg moles
Mass of inlet of Cumene and oxygen = 120+32=152 kg moles
Mass of outlet of phenol and acetone = 94+52= 152 kg moles
INLET = OUTLET
1.1.3 Feed:
Cumene = 1650 kg (For 1000 kg of Phenol)
Required oxygen = 440 kg
1 kg of air contains 0.23 kg of O2
X kg of air contains 440 kg of O2
Amount of air supplied = 1913 kg of air
25% excess air supplied = 478 kg of air
Actual amount of air supplied = 2319 kg of air
1.1.4 Balances:
3 | P a g e
OXIDIZER:
COMPONENTS INLET kg/hr OUTLET kg/hr
Cumene 33902.55 8588.646
Air 49127.877 ---
Cumene hydroperoxide ---- 34354.584
Off gases ---- 40087.197
Total 83030.427 83030.427
ACIDIFIER:
COMPONENTS INLET kg /hr OUTLET kg /hr
Cumene hydroperoxide 34354.584 8590.7007
Cumene 8588.646 ---
Cleavage --- 34362.8028
H2SO4 10.2735 ---
Total 42953.5035 42953.5035
SEPARATOR:
COMPONENTS INLET kg /hr OUTLET kg /hr
Cumene hydroperoxide 34362.8028 8590.7007
Carryover Cleavage --- 858.8646
Cleavage 8590.7007 33503.9382
Total 42953.5035 42953.5035
WASH TOWER:
COMPONENTS INLET kg /hr OUTLET kg /hr
4 | P a g e
Cleavage 33503.9382 ---
Water 493.128 ---
Acid free Cleavage --- 33401.2032
Acidified wash water --- 595.863
Total 33997.0662 33997.0662
ACETONE COLUMN:
COMPONENTS INLET kg /hr OUTLET kg /hr OVERHEAD
BOTTOM
Cleavage 33401.2032 --- ---
Acetone --- 10248.8436 ---
Carryover cleavage --- 102.735 ---
Carryover acetone in
residue --- --- 102.735
Residue --- --- 22946.8896
Total 33401.2032 10351.5786 23049.6246
CUMENE COLUMN:
COMPONENTS INLET kg /hr OUTLET kg /hr OVERHEAD
BOTTOM
Feed 23049.6246 --- ---
Cumene --- 1670.4711 ---
Carryover acetone in
Cumene --- 102.735 ---
Residue --- --- 21276.4185
Total 23049.6246 1773.2061 21276.4185
- METHYL STYRENE COLUMN:
5 | P a g e
COMPONENTS INLET kg /hr OUTLET kg /hr OVERHEAD
BOTTOM
Feed 21276.4185 --- ---
- methyl styrene --- 468.4716 ---
Residue --- --- 20807.9469
Total 21276.4185 468.4716 20807.9469
PHENOL COLUMN:
COMPONENTS INLET kg /hr OUTLET kg /hr OVERHEAD
BOTTOM
Feed 20807.9469 --- ---
Phenol --- 20606.5863 ---
Carryover acetophenone --- 78.0786 ---
Acetophenone --- --- 102.735
Total 20807.9469 20684.6649 102.735
The amount product phenol = 20684.6 kg/hr
Purity of the product phenol = 99.9 %
6 | P a g e
1.2 Energy Balance
OXIDIZER:
A) Inlet heat@ 70C:
1. Cumene @ 30C
mass 1 33902.55 kg
Cp1 0.415 kcal/kg C
5 C
Q1 70347.79125 Kcal
294405.5064 KJ
2. Air @ 30C
mass 2 49127.877
kg
Cp2 1.005 kJ/kg C
5 C
Q2 246867.5819
KJ
3. Total heat inlet
Q = Q1+ Q2= 294405.5064 + 246867.5819
Q = 541273.0883 kJ
B) Outlet heat@ 110C:
1. Cumene Hydro peroxide @ 110C
mass 1 34354.584
kg
Cp1 0.45 kcal/kg C
85 C
Q1 1314062.838
Kcal
5499352.977
KJ
7 | P a g e
2. Cumene @ 110C
mass 1 8588.646
kg
Cp1 0.455 kcal/kg C
85 C
Q2 332165.8841
Kcal
1390114.225
KJ
3. Off gases @ 110C
a) Oxygen
mass 3 2260.17
kg
Cp3 0.936 kJ/kg C
25 C
Q3 52887.978
KJ
b) Nitrogen
mass 4 37827.027
kg
Cp4 1.035 kJ/kg C
25 C
Q4 978774.3236
KJ
4. Total heat outlet Q= Q1+ Q2+ Q3+ Q4
Q = 7921129.5036 KJ
Heat of reaction of Cumene Hydroperoxide = 736 KJ/kg
For 1672 kg of Cumene Hydroperoxide = 25284973.82
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT kJ OUTLET HEAT kJ
Cumene 294405.5064 1390114.225
Air 246867.5819 ---
8 | P a g e
Cumene hydroperoxide 25284973.82 ---
Cumene hydroperoxide --- 5499352.977
Off gases --- 1031662.302
Heat removed by water --- 19894575
Total 25826246.91 27815704.5
COOLER:
A) Inlet heat @ 110C:
Heat taken by Cumene Hydroperoxide =5499352.977 KJ
Heat taken by Cumene = 1390114.225 KJ
Total heat inlet = 6889467.202 KJ
B) Outlet heat @70C:
1. Cumene hydroperoxide @ 70C:
mass 1 34354.584
kg
Cp1 0.45 kcal/kg C
45 C
Q1 695680.326
Kcal
2911422.164
KJ
2. Cumene @ 70C:
mass 2 8588.646
kg
Cp2 0.435 kcal/kg C
45 C
Q2 168122.7455
Kcal
703593.6897
KJ
3. Total heat out let
9 | P a g e
Q= Q1+ Q2 = 2911422.164 +703593.6897
Q = 3615015.854 KJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT kJ OUTLET HEAT kJ
Cumene hydroperoxide 5499352.977 2911422.164
Cumene 1390114.225 703593.6897
Heat removed by water --- 3638279
Total 6889467.202 7253294.854
ACIDIFIER:
A) Inlet heat @ 70C:
Heat taken by Cumene Hydroperoxide = 2911422.164 KJ
Heat taken by Cumene = 703593.6897 KJ
Total heat inlet in product (Q1) = 3615015.854 KJ
1. H2SO4 @ 30C:
mass 2 10.2735
Kg
Cp2 1.44 kJ/kg C
45 C
Q2 665.7228
KJ
Total heat inlet Q = Q1+Q2 =3615015.854 +665.7228=3615681.577 KJ
B) Outlet heat @ 80C:
Mass of cleavage = 34362.8028 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 21305.1843 2.29
Acetone 10651.5648 1.481
10 | P a g e
Cumene 1717.7292 1.842
- methyl styrene 482.8545 1.406
Acetophenone 209.5794 1.97
Q1=((23672.42.29)+( 11835.0721.481)+( 1908.581.842)+( 536.501.406)+( 232.8661.97))
(80-25)
Q1= 3785081.385 KJ
1. Cumene hydroperoxide@ 80C:
mass 2 8590.7007
kg
Cp2 0.45 kcal/kg C
55 C
Q2 212619.8423
Kcal
889814.0401
KJ
Total heat outlet
Q = Q1+Q2 = 4674895.42
Heat of reaction of cleavage = 2983 KJ/kg
For 38180.9 kg of cleavage =113893624.7
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Cumene Hydroperoxide 2911422.164 889814.0401
Cumene 703593.6897 ---
H2SO4 665.7228 ---
Heat of reaction of
cleavage 113893624.7 ---
Cleavage --- 3785081.385
11 | P a g e
Heat removed by water --- 112716720.4
Total 117509306.3 117391615.8
SEPARATOR:
A) Inlet heat @80C:
Heat in Cumene Hydroperoxide = 889814.0401 kJ
Heat in Cumene = 3785081.385 kJ
Total heat inlet = 4674895.425 kJ
B) Outlet heat @80C:
Heat in Cumene Hydroperoxide = 889814.0401 Kj
Heat in cleavage = 3785081.385 kJ
Total heat outlet = 4674895.425 kJ
WASH TOWER:
A) Inlet heat @80C:
Mass of Cleavage = 33503.9382 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20773.017 2.29
Acetone 10386.5085 1.481
Cumene 1674.5805 1.842
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.406
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q1= 3690090.621 kJ
1. Water @ 30C
mass 2 493.128
kg
Cp2 4.18 kJ/kg C
12 | P a g e
5 C
Q2 10306.3752
KJ
Total heat inlet Q = Q1+Q2 = 3700396.997 kJ
B) Outlet heat @75C:
Acid free cleavage = 33401.2032 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20707.2666 2.29
Acetone 10351.5786 1.462
Cumene 1670.4711 1.821
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.367
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q1=3664796.155 kJ
1. Acidified wash water @ 40C
mass 2 493.128
kg
Cp2 4.18 kJ/kg C
15 C
Q2 30919.1256
KJ
Heat taken by carryover cleavage Q3=5201.9 KJ
Total heat outlet
Q= Q1+Q2+ Q3= 3700917.18 kJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Cleavage 3690090.621 ---
13 | P a g e
Water 10306.3752 ---
Acid free cleavage --- 3664796.155
Acidified wash water --- 30919.1256
Carryover cleavage --- 5201.9
Total 3700396.997 3700917.18
HEATER:
A) Inlet heat @75C:
Cleavage
Mass of cleavage = 33401.2032 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20707.2666 2.29
Acetone 10351.5786 1.462
Cumene 1670.4711 1.821
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.367
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q = 4071995.728 kJ
B) Outlet heat @90C:
Mass of cleavage = 33401.2032 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20707.2666 2.29
Acetone 10351.5786 1.509
Cumene 1670.4711 1.863
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.445
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
14 | P a g e
Q = 3697423.517 kJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Cleavage 3664796.155 3697423.517
Heat added by steam 36252.62 ---
Total 3701048.775 3697423.517
ACETONE COLUMN:
A) Inlet heat @90C:
Mass of cleavage =33401.2032 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20707.2666 2.29
Acetone 10351.5786 1.509
Cumene 1670.4711 1.863
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.445
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q = 4369682.338 KJ
B) Outlet heat:
1. Acetone vapours @ 56C
Mass 1 10248.8436
Kg
212.3
kJ/kg C
Q1 2175829.496
KJ
2. Cleavage vapours @ 56C
Mass 2 102.735
Kg
15 | P a g e
109.96
kJ/kg C
Q2 11296.7406
KJ
3. Total heat outlet as v apour = 2187126.237
4. Bottom residue @90C
Mass of residue= 2399.8896 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20645.6256 2.32
Cumene 1670.4711 1.863
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.445
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q3= 1822924.631 kJ
5. Carryover acetone @90C
mass 4 102.735
kg
Cp4 1.509 kJ/kg C
65 C
Q4 10076.76248
KJ
6. Total heat outlet
Q = Q1+Q2+ Q3+ Q4
Q =4020127.631 kJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Cleavage 4369682.338 ---
Vapour acetone --- 2175829.496
Vapour cleavage --- 11296.7406
Bottom residue --- 1822924.631
Carryover acetone in residue --- 10076.76248
16 | P a g e
Total 4369682.338 4855203
OVERHEAD ACETONE CONDENSER:
A) Inlet heat @ 56C:
1. Acetone vapours @ 56C
Mass 1 10248.8436
kg
212.3
kJ/kg C
Q1 2175829.496
KJ
2. Cleavage vapours @ 56C
Mass 2 102.735
kg
109.96
kJ/kg C
Q2 11296.7406
KJ
3. Total heat inlet as vapour Q = Q1+Q2
Q= 2187126.237 KJ
B) Outlet heat@50C:
1. Acetone
mass1 10248.8436
kg
Cp1 1.397 kJ/kg C
25 C
Q1 357940.8627
KJ
Heat produced by Cleavage Q2 = 4837.75 kJ
2. Total heat outlet Q = Q1+Q2
Q = 362778.6127 KJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Vapour acetone 2175829.496 ---
17 | P a g e
Vapour cleavage 11296.7406 ---
Heat removed by water --- 2027590.4
Condensed acetone --- 357940.8627
Condensed cleavage --- 4837.75
Total 2187126.237 2390369.013
HEATER:
A) Inlet heat @90C:
Mass of residue= 2399.8896 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20645.6256 2.32
Cumene 1670.4711 1.863
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.445
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q1 = 1822924.631 kJ
1. Acetone
mass2 102.735
kg
Cp2 1.509 kJ/kg C
65 C
Q2 10076.76248
KJ
2. Total heat inlet Q = Q1+Q2
Q =1833001.394 kJ
B) Outlet heat @95C:
Mass of residue= 2399.8896 kg
18 | P a g e
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20645.6256 2.32
Cumene 1670.4711 1.863
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.445
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q1=1822924.631 kJ
1. Acetone
mass2 102.735
kg
Cp2 1.51 kJ/kg C
70 C
Q2 10859.0895
KJ
Total heat outlet
Q = Q1+Q2 =1833783.721 kJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Residue 1822924.631 1822924.631
Carryover acetone 10076.76248 10859.0895
Heat added by steam 869.25 ---
Total 1833870.644 1833783.721
CUMENE COLUMN:
A) Inlet heat @95C:
Mass of feed= 2399.8896 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20645.6256 2.32
Cumene 1670.4711 1.863
19 | P a g e
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.445
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q1=3645849.263 KJ
1. Acetone
mass2 102.735
kg
Cp2 1.51 kJ/kg C
70 C
Q2 10859.0895
KJ
Total heat inlet
Q = Q1+Q2 = 3656708.352 kJ
B) Outlet heat:
1. Cumene vapours @ 90C
Mass 1 1670.4711
kg
343.9
kJ/kg C
Q1 574475.0113
KJ
2. Acetone vapours @ 90C
Mass 2 102.735
kg
212.3
kJ/kg C
Q2 21810.6405
KJ
3. Residue @ 95C
Mass = 21276.4185 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
20 | P a g e
Phenol 20645.6256 2.32
Cumene 1670.4711 1.863
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.445
Q3 = 3645849.263 kJ
Total heat outlet
Q = Q1+Q2+Q3=4242134.914 kJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Feed 3645849.263 ---
Vapour Cumene --- 574475.0113
Vapour acetone --- 21810.6405
Residue --- 3645849.263
Carryover acetone in feed 10859.0895 ---
Total 4713483 4242134.914
CUMENE VAPOUR CONDENSER:
A) Inlet heat:
1. Cumene vapours @ 90C
Mass 1 1670.4711
kg
343.9
kJ/kg C
Q1 574475.0113
KJ
2. Acetone vapours @ 90C
Mass 2 102.735
kg
212.3
kJ/kg C
21 | P a g e
Q2 21810.6405
KJ
Total heat inlet Q
Q1+Q2 = 596285.6518 kJ
B) Outlet heat@80C:
1. Cumene
mass1 1670.4711
kg
Cp1 1.842 kJ/kg C
55 C
Q1 169235.4271
KJ
2. Acetone
mass1 102.735
kg
Cp1 1.51 kJ/kg C
55 C
Q1 8532.14175
KJ
Total heat outlet
Q = Q1+Q2 = 177767.5689 kJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Vapour Cumene 574475.0113 ---
Vapour acetone 21810.6405 ---
Heat removed by water --- 465020.1
Condensed Cumene --- 169235.4271
Condensed acetone --- 8532.14175
Total 596285.6518 642787.6689
22 | P a g e
HEATER:
A) Inlet heat @ 95C:
Mass = 21276.4185 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20645.6256 2.32
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.445
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q = 3428003.127 kJ
B) Outlet heat @ 110C:
Mass = 21276.4185 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20645.6256 2.32
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.445
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q=4162575.225 kJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Residue 3428003.127 4162575.225
Heat added by steam 816191 ---
Total 4244194.127 4162575.225
- METHYL STYRENE COLUMN:
A) Inlet heat @ 110C:
Mass =21276.4185 kg
23 | P a g e
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20645.6256 2.32
- methyl styrene 468.4716 1.523
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q=4165681.192 KJ
B) Outlet heat :
1. - methyl styrene vapours @ 100C
Mass 1 468.4716
kg
449.1
kJ/kg C
Q1 210390.5956
KJ
2. Residue @110C
Mass = 20807.9469 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20606.5863 2.32
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q2 = 4097336.651 KJ
Total heat outlet
Q = Q1+Q2 = 4307727.246 KJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Residue 4165681.192 ---
- methyl styrene --- 210390.5956
Bottom residue --- 4097336.651
Total 4165681.192 4628534.5
24 | P a g e
- METHYL STYRENE CONDENSER:
A) Inlet heat:
1. - methyl styrene vapours @ 100C
Mass 1 468.4716
kg
449.1
kJ/kg C
Q1 210390.5956
KJ
B) Outlet heat:
1. - methyl styrene condensed @ 95C
mass 1 468.4716
kg
Cp1 1.445 kJ/kg C
70 C
Q1 47385.90234
KJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
- methyl styrene 210390.5956 ---
Heat removed by water --- 181116.3
- methyl styrene --- 47385.90234
Total 210390.5956 228502.2023
HEATER:
A) Inlet @110C
Mass =20807.9469 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20606.5863 2.32
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
25 | P a g e
Q=4097336.651 kJ
B) Outlet @130C
Mass =20807.9469 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20606.5863 2.32
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q=5061415.863 KJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Residue 4097336.651 5061415.863
Heat added by steam 1071199 ---
Total 5168535.651 5061415.863
PHENOL COLUMN:
A) Inlet @130C
Mass =20807.9469kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20606.5863 2.32
Acetophenone 201.3606 1.97
Q=5061415.863 KJ
B) Outlet heat
1. Phenol vapours @ 120C
Mass 1 20606.5863
kg
296.7
kJ/kg C
26 | P a g e
Q1 6113974.155
KJ
2. Acetophenone vapours @ 120C
Mass 2 78.0786
kg
116.1
kJ/kg C
Q2 9064.92546
KJ
3. Bottom acetophenone @130C
mass 3 102.735
kg
Cp3 1.97 kJ/kg C
105 C
Q3 21250.73475
KJ
Total heat outlet
Q= Q1+Q2+ Q3= 6144289.815 kJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Feed 6826988.5 ---
Vapour phenol --- 6113974.155
Vapour Acetophenone --- 9064.92546
Acetophenone --- 21250.73475
Total 6826988.5 6144289.815
PHENOL VAPOUR CONDENSER:
A) Inlet heat
1. Phenol vapours @ 120C
Mass 1 20606.5863
kg
296.7
kJ/kg C
Q1 6113974.155
KJ
27 | P a g e
2. Acetophenone vapours @ 120C
Mass 2 78.0786
kg
116.1
kJ/kg C
Q2 9064.92546
KJ
Total heat in let
Q= Q1+Q2=6123039.081 kJ
B) Outl et heat@ 100C
Mass = 20684.6649 kg
COMPONENTS MASS kg SPECFIC HEAT KJ/KgC
Phenol 20606.5863 2.32
Acetophenone 78.0786 1.97
Q=3597082.129 KJ
COMPONENTS INLET HEAT KJ OUTLET HEAT KJ
Vapour phenol 6113974.155 ---
Vapour Acetophenone 9064.92546 ---
Heat removed by water --- 2806618
Condensed phenol &
acetophenone --- 3597082.129
Total 6123039.081 6403700.129
28 | P a g e
2. Environmental Protection & Energy conservation 2.1 AIR POLLUTION
In this section, air emissions are characterized by location, effective emission heights, and emission
factors for criteria pollutants and selected pollutants; the hazard potential of each pollutant is
quantified, and the affected population is determined; the national and state emission burdens are
were obtained through industry cooperation.
SELECTED POLLUTANTS
Compounds identifi ed as potential emissions from the manufacture of acetone and phenol from
cumene are listed in Table 12. A sampling program was undertaken to quantify these compounds
plus others which may not previously have been known to be present.
TABLE 12. SUSPECTED EMISSIONS FROM ACETONE AND PHENOL MANUFACTURE FROM CUMENE
PRIOR TO SAMPLING
Acetaldehyde
Acetic acid
Acetone
-Hydroxyacetone
Diacetone alcohol
Acetophenone
Benzene
Ethylbenzene
n-Propylbenzene
Methyl isobutyl carbinol
Cumene
Cumene hydroperoxide
Dicumyl peroxide
1,1,2, 2 Tetramethyl l,2 diphenylethane
Formaldehyde
Formic acid
2-Methylbenzofuran
Methylgioxal
Heavy tars
2, 6 Dimethyl -2, 5 heptadiene 4-one
l-Hydroxyethyl methyl ketone
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Lactic acid
Methanol
-Methylstyrene
-methylstyrene
2-Methyl -3, 4-pentanediol
29 | P a g e
4-Hydroxy -4-methyl - 2-pentanone
Phenol
2,4,6-Tris (2-phenyl -2-propyl)phenol
Toluene
2-Phenyl-2- (4-hydroxyphenyl) propane
TABLE 13. CHARACTERISTICS OF EMISSIONS IDENTIFIED DURING SAMPLING OR REPORTED FROM
ACETONE AND PHENOL PLANTS USING CUMENE PEROXIDATION
TABLE 14. EMISSION SOURCES BY PROCESS TYPE AT A PLANT MANUFACTURING ACETONE AND
PHENOL FROM CUMENE
Process
technology
Emission source
Allied Cumene peroxidation.
Cumene hydroperoxide concentration vent.
Separation column vent.
Acetone concentration column vent.
Cumene column vent.
-methylstyrene column vent.
Phenol column vent.
Acetophenone column vent.
Cumene tank vent.
Acetone tank vent.
Catalyst tank vent.
Acetone transport loading vent.
-Methylstyrene transport loading vent
Phenol transport loading vent.
Acetophenone transport loading vent.
Acetophenone transport loading vent.
Hercules Cumene peroxidation vent.
Cumene hydroperoxide wash vent.
Cumene hydroperoxide concentration vent.
MATERIAL EMITTED HEALTH EFFECTS
Acetaldehyde Local irritant; central nervous system narcotic
Acetone Skin irritant, narcotic in high concentrations
Acetophenone Narcotic in high concentrations
Benzene Carcinogen
Cumene Narcotic ; toxic
Ethyl benzene Skin and mucous membrane irritant
Formaldehyde Irritant ; toxic
Toxic
Naphthalene Moderate irritant
Phenol Toxic & irritant
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Vent of cuxnene hydroperoxide cleavage and product wash operations
combined.
Separation column vent.
Acetone column vent.
Separation column vent.
Dewatering column vent
Hydrogenation column vent
Acetone tank vent
-Methylstyrene tank vent
Phenol tank vent
Buffer tank vent
TABLE 15. EMISSION SOURCES AT A REPRESENTATIVE PLANT MANUFACTURING ACETONE AND
PHENOL FROM CUMENE
1. Cumene Peroxidation Vent
The cumene feed is contacted with air in a reaction vessel to peroxidize the cumene. Air is
continuously introduced and removed. The off gas stream carries vaporized hydrocarbons and
some volatile trace elements. Cumene is recovered from the spent gas for recycle by condensation.
The emission control equipment is the last piece of equipme nt before the gas is emitted to the
atmosphere. That is, any prior equipment is process equipment, and the control of any material
released to the atmosphere is performed by the last piece of equipment prior to release. For
example, in the Allied process t he emission control equipment is the carbon bed system, and in the
Hercules process it is the refrigerated condenser, unless another piece of equipment is added on.
1. Cleavage Section Vents, Combined
The composite emission factors, Table 18, are determined by aggregation of the emission factors
available from sampling and industry communication. These emission factors combine values for
the cumene hydroperoxide concentration vent (Allied process technology) and the cumene
hydroperoxide wash vent, the cumene hydroperoxide concentration vent, and the combined cunene
hydrperoxide cleavage and product wash vent (Hercules process technology).
TABLE 18. AVERAGE EMISSION FACTORS FOR THE CLEAVAGE SECTION
Material emitted g/kg phenol produced
Total nonmethane hydrocarbon 0.17
Acetone 0.0000060
Acetophenone 0.0000044
Benzene 0.000031
2 Butanone 0.0000018 0.0000018
2 Butenal 0.000000085
t Butylbenzene 0.000023
Cumene 0.14
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Ethylbenzene 0.0000050
Formaldehyde
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Emissions in the cleavage section are most often controlled by condensation. Absorptio n and
incineration are also used.
Emissions in the product purification section are controlled by condensation, adsorption,
absorption, and incineration.
Floating roofs are used to control emissions from tanks, particularly acetone and cumene storage
tanks. Condensation, sealed dome roofs, and conservation vents are also used for this purpose, but
not as commonly as floating roofs.
Product transport loading emissions are controlled by absorption or vapor recovery. Not all plants
control this emission sou rce.
The Scope of fugitive emissions and control methods are under study by EPA.
VARIOUS EMISSION CONTROL METHODS IN USE AT CUMENE PEROXIDATION PLANTS
VAPOUR CONDENSATION
Organic compounds can be removed from an air stream by condensation. A vapor will condense
when, at a given temperature, the partial pressure of the compound is equal to or greater than its
vapor pressure. Similarly, if the temperature of a gaseous mixture is reduced to the saturation
temperature (i.e., the temperature at which the vap or pressure equals the partial pressure of one of
the constituents), the material will condense. Thus, either increasing the system pressure or
lowering the temperature can cause condensation. In most air pollution control applications,
decreased temperatu re is used to condense organic materials, since increased pressure is usually
impractical. Equilibrium partial pressure limits the control of organic emissions by condensation. As
condensation occurs, the partial pressure of material remaining in the gas d ecreases rapidly,
preventing complete condensation.
ACTIVATED CARBON ADSORPTION
Adsorption is a phenomenon in which molecules become attached to the surface of a solid. The
process is highly selective, and a given adsorbent, or adsorbing agent, will adsorb only certain types
of molecules. The material adhering to the adsorbent is called the adsorbate. Adsorption involves
three steps.
First, the adsorbent comes in contact with the stream containing the adsorbate, and separation due
to adsorption resul ts. Next, the unadsorbed portion of the stream is separated from the adsorbent.
Finally, the adsorbent is regenerated by removing the adsorbate.
Activated carbon is the most suitable adsorbent for organic vapors. Carbon adsorbs 95% to 98% of
all organic v apor from air at ambient temperature regardless of variations in concentration and
humidity given a sufficient quantity of carbon. The adsorption of a mixture of organic vapors in air
by carbon is not uniform, however, higher boiling point components are p referentially adsorbed.
When a contaminated gas stream is passed over an activated carbon bed, the organic vapor is
adsorbed and the purified stream passes through. Initially, adsorption is rapid and complete, but as
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the carbon bed approaches its capacity to retain vapor, traces of vapor appear in the exit air. This is
the breakpoint of the activated carbon. If gas flow is continued, additional amounts Of Organic
material are adsorbed, but at a decreasing rate .
SOLVENT ABSORPTION
Absorption is a process f or removing one or more soluble component from a gas mixture by
dissolving them in a solvent. Absorption equipment is designed to insure maximum contact
between the gas and the liquid solvent to permit interphase diffusion between the materials.
Absorption rate is affected by factors such as the solubility of gas in the particular solvent and the
degree of chemical reaction; however, the most important factor is the solvent surface exposed.
A vent gas scrubber -cooler system used on a cumene peroxidation ve nt is illustrated in figure. In this
system off gases are scrubbed in a tray tower to absorb hydrocarbons into the scrubbing liquid,
which is an aqueous Na2CO3 solution. Some of the scrubbing liquid is sent to the oxidation section,
and some is recycled th rough the scrubber with makeup solution. The scrubbed gas is cooled,
condensate is removed and sent to the oxidation section, and the gas is re leased to the atmosphere.
INCINERATION
Complete combustion of the hydrocarbons present in the emissions from a cumene peroxidation
phenol plant produces carbon dioxide and water. NOx may be produced depending on the method
of combustion the temperature. SOx production depends on the sulphur content of the auxiliary
fuel, if any. The types of incinerators (i.e., dir ect flame afterburners, catalytic after burners, or flares),
used to combust hydrocarbons at plants manufacturing acetone and phenol from cumene were not
reported.
STORAGE TANKS
Six kinds of evaporation loss from storage of organic materials occur: breat hing, standing storage,
filling, emptying, wetting, boiling. Vapors expelled from a tank because of thermal expansion,
barometric expansion, or additional vaporization are breathing losses. Vapor loss from such areas
as seals, hatches, other openings (but not due to breathing or level changes) constitute standing
storage loss. Vapors expelled from a tank is filled constitute filling loss. Vapors expelled from tank
during emptying (due to the fact that vaporization occurs slowly, air enters to equalize press ure,
vaporization stabilizes, and there is excess vapor in the tank) are emptying loss. Wetting loss is the
vaporization of liquid from wetted exposed wall in a floating roof tank when the roof is lowered.
Vapors expelled because of boiling are boiling los s.
FLOATING ROOF TANKS
Floating roof tanks are of various designs but the basic concept is that the roof floats on the surface
of the stored material. A seal provides intimate contact between the roof and the tank wall. These
tanks reduce breathing and f illing losses by reducing the space available for vapor accumulation.
Wetting losses are small and not a problem.
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SEALED DOME ROOF TANKS
This type of tank can withstand relatively large pressure variations without incurring a loss. There is
little or no breathing loss. Filling loss will depend on the tank design.
CONSERVATION VENT FOR TANKS
The conservation vent is a device to inhibit evaporation loss while protecting the tank from possible
damage due to under pressure or overpressure. The vent has two set points, an upper a lower
pressure. If the pressure is outside this range the vent opens to allow pressure equalization with the
atmosphere. This reduces evaporation losses.
VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEM ON PRODUCT LOADING FACILITIES
This control device collects the vapors produced from product loading and disposes of them by one
of the control methods previously described, such as condensation, adsorption, etc. Vapor recovery
is a general term for emission control practices.
2.2 Liquid effluents
Acetophenone
Acetophenone is a colorless liquid with a sweet, pungent odor that is sparingly soluble (0.55 wt % at
20C) in water. Acetophenone is used as a chemical Intermediate for resins, pharmaceuticals,
corrosion Inhibitors and dyestuffs; as a solvent for gums, resin dyestuffs and high melting aromatic
chemicals; as a polymerization catalyst and photosensitizer . In organic synthesis; as a flavoring agent
for tobacco and in perfumery. If acetophenon e is released to water, microbial degradation and
volat ilization are expected to be the major environmental fate and transport processes.
Biodegradation studies have shown that acetophenone is significantly biodegradable. The
volatilization half life from a river 1m deep flowing at 1 m/sec with a wind velocity of 3 m/sec was
estimated to be 3.7 days. Hydrolysis, oxidation, adsorption to sediments and bioconcentration are not
expected to be significant. When acetophenone is released to the ambient atmosphere, reaction with
photochemical)y produced hydroxyl radic als is expected to be the dominant removal mechanism;
the half life for th is reaction has been estimated to be 2 days (U.S. EPA. 1981). In the atmosphere,
acetophenone will exist almost entirely in the vapor phase.
If acetophenone is released to soil, mic robial degradation is likely to be
the major degradation process. Based on various adsorption studies
acetophenone is expected to be mobile in soil and susceptible to significant leaching. Acetophenone
is also expected to evaporate from dry soil surfaces. Acetophenone occurs naturally . In var ius plant
oils, in the buds of balsam poplar and In Concord grapes (Dorsky et al., 1963; NIcholas, 1973). It has
been detected i n drinking waters, surface waters, groundwaters and waste effluent waters. The
presence of acetophenone in environmental waters is most likely the result of discharges from
industrial sources. Metabolism and toxicity data indicate that ac etophenone i s absorbed by both
gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. Studies using rabbits indicate that a cetophenone Is
metabolized to ( )1 phenylethanol, which is excreted in the urine as glucuronide and sulfate
conjugates.
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Health Hazard Information
Acute Effects:
Acute exposure of humans to acetophenone vapor may produce skin irritation and
transient corneal injury. One study noted a decrease in light sensitivity in exposed
humans.
Acute oral exposure has been observed to cause hypnotic or sedative effects,
hematological effects, and a weakened pulse in humans.
Congestion of the lungs, kidneys, and li ver were reported in rats acutely exposed to
high levels of acetophenone via inhalation.
Tests involving acute exposure of rats, mice, and rabbits have demonstrated
acetophenone to have moderate acute toxicity from oral or dermal exposure.
Reproductive/De velopmental Effects:
No information is available on the reproductive or developmental effects of
acetophenone in humans.
In one study of pregnant rats exposed dermally, no effects on reproduction or
development were noted.
Cancer Risk:
No information is av ailable on the carcinogenic effects of acetophenone in humans or
animals.
EPA has classified acetophenone as a Group D, not classifiable as to human
carcinogenicity.
Potential Health Effects
Inhalation:
May cause irritation to the respiratory tract; symptoms may include sore throat, coughing,
headache, and dizziness. Higher concentrations may cause narcosis.
Ingestion:
May cause sore throat, abdominal pain, nausea, coughing, headache, dizziness, anesthetic
effects, and central nervous system effect s.
Skin Contact:
May cause irritation with redness and pain.
Eye Contact:
May cause severe irritation, redness, pain, and transient corneal injury.
Chronic Exposure:
Prolonged or repeated skin exposure may cause dermatitis.
Aggravation of Pre -ex isting Conditions:
No information found.
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First Aid Measures
Inhalation:
Remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give
oxygen. Call a physician.
Ingestion:
Induce vomiting immediately as directed by medical personnel. Never give anything by
mouth to an unconscious person. Call a physician.
Skin Contact:
In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes.
Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash clothing b efore reuse. Call a physician.
Eye Contact:
Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, lifting lower and upper
eyelids occasionally. Get medical attention immediately.
Fire Fighting Measures
As in any fire, wear a self -containe d breathing apparatus in pressure -demand, MSHA/NIOSH
(approved or equivalent), and full protective gear. During a fire, irritating and highly toxic gases may
be generated by thermal decomposition or combustion. Use water spray to keep fire -exposed
containe rs cool. Combustible liquid and vapor.
Extinguishing Media: Use water spray, dry chemical, carbon dioxide, or appropriate foam.
Flash Point: 77 deg C ( 170.60 deg F)
Autoignition Temperature: 570 deg C ( 1,058.00 deg F)
Explosion Limits, Lower: 1.1%
Upper: 6.7%
Accidental Release Measures
Ventilate area of leak or spill. Remove all sources of ignition. Wear appropriate personal protective
equipment as specified in Section 8. Isolate hazard area. Keep unnecessary and unprotected
personnel from entering . Contain and recover liquid when possible. Use non -sparking tools and
equipment. Collect liquid in an appropriate container or absorb with an inert material (e. g.,
vermiculite, dry sand, earth), and place in a chemical waste container. Do not use combust ible
materials, such as saw dust. Do not flush to sewer! Environmental Regulations require reporting spills
and releases to soil, water and air in excess of reportable quantities.
Handling and Storage
Keep in a tightly closed container, stored in a cool, d ry, ventilated area. Protect against physical
damage. Isolate from any source of heat or ignition. Isolate from oxidizing materials. Containers of
this material may be hazardous when empty since they retain product residues (vapors, liquid);
37 | P a g e
observe all wa rnings and precautions listed for the product. Keep away from heat and flame. Keep
away from sources of ignition. Store in a tightly closed container. Store in a cool, dry, well -ventilated
area away from incompatible substances.
Exposure Controls/Personal Protection
Airborne Exposure Limits:
- Threshold Limit Value (TLV): 10 ppm (TWA)
Ventilation System:
A system of local and/or general exhaust is recommended to keep employee exposures below the
Airborne Exposure Limits. Local exhaust ventilation is gen erally preferred because it can control the
emissions of the contaminant at its source, preventing dispersion of it into the general work area.
Please refer to the ACGIH document, Industrial Ventilation, A Manual of Recommended Practices ,
most recent editi on, for details.
Personal Respirators (NIOSH Approved):
If the exposure limit is exceeded, a respirator with an organic vapor cartridge may be worn for up to
ten times the exposure limit. Since this compound has been identified as possibly existing in b oth
vapor and particulate phase, a dust/mist prefilter is recommended. For emergencies or instances
where the exposure levels are not known, use a positive -pressure, air -supplied respirator.
WARNING: Air-purifying respirators do not protect workers in oxyg en-deficient atmospheres.
Skin Protection:
Wear protective gloves and clean body -covering clothing.
Eye Protection:
Use chemical safety goggles and/or a full face shield where splashing is possible. Maintain eye wash
fountain and quick -drench facilit ies in work area.
Stability:
Stable under ordinary conditions of use and storage.
Hazardous Decomposition Products:
Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide may form when heated to decomposition.
Hazardous Polymerization:
Will not occur.
Incompatibiliti es:
Strong oxidizers.
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Conditions to Avoid:
Heat, flame, other sources of ignition.
Maharashtra Pollution Control board Standards under Water Act
The daily quantity of trade effluent from the factory shall not exceed 18 m 3.
The daily quantity of sewage effluent from the factory shall not exceed 7 m 3.
(i) Trade Effluent Treatment: The applicant shall provide comprehensive treatment system consisting
of Primary / secondary and / or tertiary treatment and is warranted with reference to influent quality
and operate and maintain the same continuously so as to achieve the quality of the treated effluent
to the following standards:
pH Between 5.5 to 9.0
Suspended Solids Not to Exceed 100 mg/l.
BOD Not to Exceed 100 mg/l.
COD Not to Exceed 250 mg/l
Oil & Grease Not to Exceed 10 mg/1.
TDS Not to Exceed 2100 mg/1.
Chlorides Not to Exceed 600 mg/1.
Sulphates Not to Exceed 1000 mg/1.
Chromium Not to Exceed 0.1 mg/l
Total Chromium Not to Exceed 2.0 mg/l
Total metal Not to Exceed 10 mg/l
Iron Not to Exceed 5.0 mg/l
(ii) Trade Effluent Disposal: The treated effluent shall be used in the process to the maximum extent
and remaining shall be used on land for green belt development.
(iii) Sewage Effluent Treatment: The applicant shall provide comprehensi ve treatment system as is
warranted with reference to influent quality and operate and maintain the same continuously so as
to achieve the quality of treated effluent to the following standards.
(1) Suspended Solids - Not to exceed 100 mg/I.
(2) BOD 3 days 27 C - Not to exceed 100 mg/I.
(iv) Sewage Effluent Disposal: The treated domestic effluent shall be soaked in a soak pit, which shall
be got cleaned periodically. Overflow, if any, shall be used on land for gardening / plantation only.
(v) Non-Hazardous Solid Wastes:
Sr. No. Type of waste Quantity Disposal
1 Slag 158267MT/Yr Landfill
2 Machine returns 10000 MT/Yr By reuse in own sinter
plant
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3 Flue Dust 24000 MT/Yr By reuse in own sinter
plant
4 Fly ash 12000 MT/Yr Sale to brick & cement
mfg. & landfill
(vi) Other conditions: The industry shall monitor effluent quality regularly. The applicant shall comply
with the provisions of the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Class Act, 1977 (to be referred as
Class Act) and Rules there under: The daily water consumption for the following categories is as under:
(i) Domestic -80 CMD
(ii) Industrial Processing CMD
(iii) Industrial Cooling - 3135 CMD
(iv) Agriculture/Gardening - 16 CMD
The applicant shall regularly submit to the Board the returns of water consumption in the prescribed
form and pay the Class as specified u nder Section 3 of the said Act.
2.3 Solid Waste Disposal
There is no substantial solid waste in the plant; the only solid waste will be dried sludge from the
effluent trea tment plant, canteen wastes, worn office equipment and tools, stationery, cleaning rags,
packing boxes, broken pallets and broken office chairs. Solid waste disposal is done by thermal
incineration or by tipping. The design of a solid waste incinerator is difficult to do due to the wide
variety of feed to be disposed. It is important to determine the burning characteristics of the solid
waste material. A major problem with the solid incinerator is fly ash control. Various methods
employed for this purpose a te two -stage combustion, filter baffle and provision of large secondary
chambers where velocities are low and settling takes place. If the fly ash problem is chronic, special
separation devices like electrostatic precipitators can be employed. The flash pr oduced can be used
as a land fill.
2.4 Noise Pollution
The major sources of noise pollution in our plant are:
Pumps
Burners
Electric motors
Valves
Steam Vents
Equipment Sound level at 3ft(dB) Possible Noise Control
measures
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Electric motors 90-110 Acoustically lined fan covers,
enclosures and motor mutes,
absorbent mounts.
Pumps
Vane(Industrial)
Vane(mobile)
Axial position
Screw type
Gear
75-82
84-92
76-85
72-78
78-88
Acoustically lined fan covers,
enclosures and motor mutes,
absorbent mutes.
Heaters and furnaces 90-110 Acoustic plenums, intake
mufflers, lined/ damped ducts
Valves 80-108 Avoid sonic velocities, limit
pressure drop and mass
flow,and replace with special
low noise valves.
Piping 90-105 Isolation and lagging, in liner
silencers, vibration isolators.
Apart from the listed noise sources, minor sources of the noise pollution may be pipes and hoses
hitting the floor, panels etc. i.e. rattling noises, which can be stabilized with adsorbent mounts. All
the bolts should be tightened to prevent vibration and clatter. Venting of process gas out the
condensers may result in serious noise pollutions. This is due to turbulent mixing of high velocity
gas with the stationary gas. Steam leaks and another common noise problem with the sound level
are reaching sometimes 100 dB at the distance of 25 feet of the leak. All steam leaks should be
timely repaired. Where noise levels cannot be reduced to acceptable levels of a person, ear
protection equipment should be used. The industry shall take adequate measures for control of
noise levels from its own sources within the premises so as to maintain ambient air quality
standard in respect of noise to less than 75 dB(A) d uring day time and 70 dB(A) during night time.
Day time is reckoned in between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m. and night time is reckoned between 10 p.m.
and 6 a.m.
Maharashtra Pollution Control Board Standards for Noise Pollution:
1) The industry should not cause any nuisance in surrounding area.
2) The industry should monitor stack emissions and ambient air quality regularly.
Conditions for D.G. Set: -
1] Noise from the D.G. Set should be controlled by providing an acoustic enclosure or by treating
the room acoustica lly.
2] Industry should provide acoustic enclosure for control of noise. The acoustic enclosure/acoustic
treatment of the room should be designed for minimum 25 dB(A) insertion loss or for meeting the
ambient noise standards, whichever is on higher side. A suitable exhaust muffler with insertion
41 | P a g e
loss of 25 dB(A) shall also be provided. The measurement of insertion loss will be done at different
points at 0.5 m from acoustic enclosure/room and then average.
3] The industry shall take adequate measures for co ntrol of noise levels from its own sources
within the premises in respect of noise to less than 55 dB(A) during day time and 45 dB(A) during
the night time. Day time is reckoned between 6 a.m. to 10 p.m and night time is reckoned between
10 p.m. to 6 a.m.
4] Industry should make efforts to bring down noise level due to DG set, outside industrial
premises, within ambient noise requirements by proper siting and control measures.
5] Installation of DG Set much be strictly in compliance with recommendations of DG Set
manufacturer.
6] A proper routine and preventive maintenance procedure for DG set should be set and followed
in consultation with the DG manufacturer which would help to prevent noise levels of DG set from
deteriorating with use.
7] D.G. Set shall be operated only in case of power failure.
8] The applicant should not cause any nuisance in the surrounding area due to operation of D.G.
Set.
2.5 Energy Conservation
Chemical plants have always been designed to operate economically due to product competition.
However before 1970, the objectives of building a low cost plant was generally considered more
important than low operating cost. This concept changed due to the oil crisis of 1973 and the
subsequent action at several environment protection ag encies in promoting the use of non -low
polluting attention has been paid to such topics such as energy conservation schemes, process
integration, heat exchanger network design, cogeneration etc. This attention is evident by the large
number of books and jo urnals published on these topics in the recent years. The design engineer
must consider appropriate energy conservation schemes that are designed to:
(i) Utilize as much of the energy available within the plant.
(ii) Minimize the energy requirements for th e plant.
The energy balances performed for the plant items provide the initial key to identify areas of high
energy availability or demand. An attempt can then be made to utilize excess energy in those areas
where energy must be provided. However, this is not always possible because:
(i) A high energy load may constitute a large volume of liquid at relatively low temperature, exchanging
this energy may require large and expensive equipment.
(ii) This energy source may be distant from the sink and piping and insulating costs may make
utilization uneconomic, sometimes a rearrangement of the plant lay out required.
(iii) The energy source may be corrosive.
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Any energy conservation scheme must also consider the costs involved in removing or transferring
the excess energy i.e. capital cost of heat exchangers, piping, valves, pumps, insulation and operating
costs of pumping and maintenance. Energy conservation is only worthwhile if the reduction in energy
costs exceed the cost of implementation. A scheme maybe devis ed for a plant and then held over until
energy prices make the proposal attractive. This type of forward planning requires that the plant
layout adopted can be easily modified. Energy conservation can be achieved at three levels:
(i) Correct plan and opera tion and maintenance
(ii) Major changes to existing plant and processes.
(iii) New plants and new processes.
The time required to implement energy conservation measures, the capital cost required, and the
potential savings, all increase from level (i) to (iii) above. The cost of downtime for level.(ii) can be
significant, and the level (iii) offers the greatest long term potential for energy conservation. This latter
objective can be achieved either by designing new, energy efficient plants for established process
routes, or adopting new and less energy - intensive process routes. The basic approach towards
conservation of energy should be taken into account:
i. Operational modification
ii. Research and development
iii. Design modification
iv. Insulation
v. Maintenance
vi. Process integration
vii. Process modification
viii. Waste utilization
In the near future all industrial operations that have reacted to the energy crisis must be organized to
institute a systematic approach towards conserving energ y in all forms through more efficient
utilization of existing processes and carefully studied reduction of losses and wastes. The following
examples illustrate some application of the basic engineering principles t the design of equipment for
improved ener gy efficiency.
(i) Plant Operation :
Energy savings can be achieved by good engineering practice and the application of established
principles. These measures may be termed as good housekeeping and include correct plant operation
and regular maintenance. The overall energy savings are usually small and may not be easy to achieve
and significant time may be required for regulate maintenance and checking. However, such
measures do help to establish commitment of a company to a policy of energy conservation.
(ii) Heat Recovery :
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Heat recovery is an important and fundamental method of energy conservation. The main limitations
of this method are:
(a) Inadequate scope for using recovered waste heat because it is too low grade for existing heat
requirements, and because the quantity of waste heat available exceeds existing requirements for
low - grade heat.
(b) Inadequate heat transfer equipment. Developments and improvements are continuing in design
and operation of different types of heat exchangers including th e use of extended heat transfer
surfaces, optimizing heat exchanger networks, heat recovery from waste fuels, heat exchanger fouling
and the use of heat pumps.
(iii) Combined Heat and Power Systems:
Significant energy conservation is achieved by well -established method of combined heat and power
generation. This is often referred to as CHP or COGEN. The heat is usually in the form of intermediate
or low pressure steam and the power as direct mechanical drives or as electricity generated with the
turbo alt ernators. The choice of system is usually between back pressure steam turbines or gas
turbines with waste heat boilers for the process streams. The amount of power generated is usually
determined by the demand of heat. It is not usually possible to balance exactly the heat and power
loads in a system .The best method of achieving this aim is to generate excess electricity for
subsequent sale, other balancing methods tend to be less efficient. Therefore it is important to
forecast the heat to power ratio acc urately at the design stage to avoid large imbalances and reduced
system efficiency.
(iv)Power recovery systems:
A power recovery turbine can recover heat from an exchanger gas and then use this heat to provide
a part of the energy required to drive the shaft of a motor driven process air compressor. Other
examples are the use of the steam turbine drive and a two stage expansion turbine with reheating
between the stages.
A hydraulic turbine can be incorporated on the same shaft as a steam turbine. This ar rangement can
be used to provide about 50% of the energy needed to recompress the spent liquor in a high
pressure absorption /low pressure stripping system. Power generation using steam or gas turbine is
now well established; however power recovery by the pressure reduction of process fluids is more
difficult and less common. In general the equipment is not considered to be particularly
reliable.Rankine cycle heat engines have been developed to use relatively low grade waste heat
sources to generate power i n the form in the form of electricity or direct drives. They tend to be
used when the heat source would otherwise be completely wasted, the low efficiencies do not
represent a significant disadvantage.
(v) Furnace efficiency
Incorporating an air heater ca n be more economic than using a hot oil system which is designed for
high level heat only.
(vi) Air cooler v/s water cooler:
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Air coolers have higher installed cost but lower operating cost water coolers.
(vii) Low pressure steam:
Energy savings can be achieved by the efficient use of low pressure steam.
(viii) Heat integration:
Energy can be saved by optimum balance of heat sources and sinks in a process plant so as to
maximize recycling of energy input .thus however has to be done carefully as it lea ds to loss of
operational independence.
(ix) Thermal insulation:
Owing to the great size of the distillation column large amount of heat is dissipated from the surface
.This necessitates thermal insulation of distillation column reboiler and other piping attached to it so
that minimum heat is dissipated.Multi -layer energy saving insulation should be used which provide
protection from fire, liquid spillage and result in energy savings. Usually, inner insulation layers are
made from alumina silica fibers to reduce the heat loss from the valves and joints to keep the system
heat constant and prevent heat loss.
Instrumentation:
Use of efficient instrumentation in the plant can result in consistent high quality of product and lesser
no. of rejections. In a pla nt design utmost care must be taken to conserve energy. The reboiler and
the heat exchanger should be set up after a long analysis
Energy conservation in the design of complete process may be achieved in four ways:
(i) Major modifications to the existing plants.
(ii) New plant using an existing process route.
(iii) New process routes and alternative raw materials.
(iv) New processes for new products that are less energy intensive.
Items (i) and (iii) represent short term and medium term energy conserv ation measures. Item (iv)
requiring the use of new products or processes is more appropriate for new technology in the
chemical industry. Although energy conservation is an obvious objective of all equipment
manufacturers and plant designers, more attentio n iis necessary in relation to education , training
and the application of new and existing technology to ensure significant medium term and long term
savings.
Energy conservation must be considered at various stages of the project, e.g. feasibility study , process
selection, plant layout, energy balances and in conjunction with the detailed equipment design. If he
energy utilization is not only an afterthought, either unnecessary or costly modifications may be
required to the design work, or the plant may not be economically feasible as it originally appeared.
ENERGY MANAGEMENT:
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The high value of energy should be acknowledged in plant operation by treating it as a product with
monetary value than can be sold or traded, just like the chemical product. This should be the basis for
operational policies concerned with the energy manag ement or energy conservation. These duties
can be incorporated by the process engineer. EAM&T is a means to efficient operation in this area,
but there must be a commitment from all operational and managerial personnel to the importance
of these tasks if t hey are to be successful. The reaction and product recovery areas have been
identified as critical units from an energy perspective. Detailed monitoring and targeting should be
established in these areas.
ALTERNATE ENERGY RESOURCES
The fuel resources of the world are fast depleting and there is an urgent need to explore the
possibility of the alternate sources of energy. Although rapid breakthrough has been achieved
in the use of nuclear energy for the distillation of the steam, which in turn is used for the
generation of electricity, it is not used widely due to the lack of the flexibility in its utilization
and because of the non -feasibility of its operation on the smaller scale. Some of the alternate
energy sources being developed nowadays have been bri efly discussed below:
Solar energy
Solar energy is the most important form of renewable energy for plant. The energy incident
on the solar panel installed in the roof and other areas of the plants are highly useful in heating
up the water and converting to steam. This is one renewable source of the energy which is
now slowly finding wide acceptance in the process industry. In the process industry it is being
used widely for heating the process water and in some cases for the production of the low
pressure steam. Energy conservation is not only concerned with the process industries but is
also concerned with other small household purposes carried out in the industrial areas. It can
also be used for the heating and providing warm water in the canteen and the other non -
product ion areas in the process plant.
Energy from biomass conversion
as well as in different chemical products. The biomass have been widely used however major
considerations include:
Which raw materials will be needed in the n ew situation?
How will biomass be processed?
How will feedstock be made available at the appropriate location?
What kind of storage facilities is needed?
How can the production of bio -based bulk chemicals be integrated?
How will products be shipped to th e (geographic) area covered by the Port?
Which are the most likely companies to produce new bio -based bulk chemicals?
Two extremes can be envisioned by which the transformation to a biomass based chemical
industry may take place:
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1. Biomass will be refi ned and cracked into the familiar platform chemicals (i.e. ethylene,
propylene, C4 -olefines and BTX) and synth esis gas (
monoxide and hydrogen gas). From these one - to six -carbon building blocks, all other
chemicals and m aterials can be produced. Provided that efficient processes will become
available by which oxygen -rich biomass of a varying composition can be transformed into
basic hydrocarbon building blocks, the big advantage is that the current petrochemicals
infrastr ucture and processes can be used. The fossil feedstock refining companies of today
may then become the biorefineries of tomorrow.
2. A wide range of bio -based building blocks, in which as much of the functionality of biomass
as possible has been retained, become the raw materials from which all other chemicals and
materials are made. Not a few refineries that produce a limited number of platform chemicals
will be present, but a large number of (smaller scale) bio -refineries that produce a whole array
of bu ilding blocks.
Between these two extremes lies a whole spectrum of non -exclusive scenarios that are
perhaps more realistic. As a less extreme example of the first scenario: ethylene, one of the
current platform chemicals, can be produced from (bio) ethano l. In fact, the Brazilian company
Braskem and US based Dow Chemical will each start commercial production of polyethylene
from bio -ethanol. Bio -ethanol is currently made from sugar or starch. In the future, it is
expected that ethanol will be made from the more ab undant lignocellulosic or woody
biomass.
The Gobar gas concept has found wide acceptance in the rural India. Although bioconversion
technology has been very successful in the waste treatment, the technology to generate
energy for the industrial us es is in early stages of the development. However, this technology
holdsgreat promise as its fundamental advantage is that apart from being a clean source of
the fuel, it i s a renewable source of energy.
Ocean thermal energy:
The Ocean energy is one of th e contributors in renewable energy. The temperature of the
water in the ocean varies drastically with the depth. The principal here is to run a heat engine
to retract heat energy from ocean by utilizing the difference in temperature of the ocean at
various depths.
This technology is in the very early stages of the development and can only be utilized if the
plant is situated close to the coastlines.
Wind energy:
The unequal heating of the earth by the sun causes winds. This effect is particularly
pronoun ced in the coastal areas with a difference between the temperature for the land and
the sea. The force of the wind is used to rotate windmills, which are rotating blades to collect
the force of the wind. This mechanical energy produced can be used directly on it can be
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converted into electrical energy. These have been used with partial success in the process
industry, mainly to pump water both process water and the water to effluent treatment plants.
3. Organizational Structure and Manpower Requirement
3.1 Organizational Principles and Basics
According to one of the prominent scholars,
(Etzioni, 1964).
Organization is a prescribed pattern of relations among the various tasks and the individuals who
perform the tasks. Organizations are characterized by explicit, common parts which require the co -
ordination of individuals and group efforts towards their at tainment. The co -ordination is achieved
by the establishment of vertical and horizontal network of relationships among various components
of the organization. The basic goals of the organization are three -folds:
1. To produce the best quality product at t he lowest cost
2. To sell the product to the consumer in a manner that maximizes profit, both in the short as well
as long term.
3. To do these in a manner that is sustainable and is in the interest of the society.
In order to achieve these goals, an ef fective organizational structure is required both at the
management and operational levels. There are various steps involved in specifying the kind of
organization and the total labour requirement of the plant complex, before beginning the
construction and commissioning of the plant. We briefly take some of the important points.
Consideration of objectives: One should be very clear as to what are the objectives of the
enterprise. Objectives determine the various activities, which need to be performed and t he type of
organization, which needs to be built for the purpose.
Grouping of activities into departments: Identify the activities necessary to achieve the objectives
and group the similar or related activities into well -defined groups or departments.
Deciding key departments: Key departments are those which render activities that are essential
for the achievement of goals. These are primary departments; the others exist merely to serve
these.
Determine decision levels: The levels at which all the major a nd minor decisions in each
department are to be made must be determined. The amount of decentralization and spread of
authority are at the discretion of each firm.
Span of Management: The next step to be taken in designing a structure is the number of sub -
ordinates who will report to each executive.
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Coordination mechanism: The whole structure should be like a well -oiled machine, with cohesion
and co-ordination at all levels.
Duties of organization and administration:
Principles of work administration a nd control, labour organization and control, raw material
and their storage
Selection of site, layout of works, building and plants
Problem of internal transport and material handling
Construction work
Proper equipment selection
Minimization of labour
Office administration and finance
Marketing and distribution of products.
There are sixteen principles of organization:
1. Unity of objectives
2. Specialization
3. Coordination
4. Chain of command
5. Authority responsibility
6. Delegation
7. Unity of command
8. Span of Control
9. Balance
10. Communication
11. Efficiency
12. Personal ability
13. Decision making and control by exception
14. Flexibility
15. Departmentalization
16. Goal centered and purposeful activities
But an organization that works well in one type of environment (envir onment being defined as
combination of markets, customers, producers and technology) may fail in another. The failure may
arise due to contingency factors such as:
1. Task uncertainty, technology and environment
2. Power and conflict
3. Growth and size
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Here tas k uncertainty is the degree to which the task necessary for the performance is unpredictable.
Technology and environment are the sources of unpredictability.
Organizational structure should manage conflict so that it helps the company. It is helpful to
understand the basic determinants of power in an organization and how conflicts are related
Organization effectiveness includes the following criteria
1. Organizational efficiencies
2. Adaptability to external changes
3. Satisfaction of individual needs
3.2 Hierarchy
I. Board of Directors
i. Establishes objectives
ii. Overall accountability to stock holders
II. Chief Executive Officer
i. Operates business to accomplish objectives
ii. Accountable to board of directors.
III. Operating management
i. Overall coordination and activities necessary to accomplish objectives
ii. Accountable to CEO
IV. Operating supervision
i. Supervision of non -supervisory employs
ii. Accountable to operating Management
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ORGANIZATION HIERARCHY CHART
Keeping the above factors in mind, we have divided the organization of our plant into the following
categories
General administration
Production division
Maintenance division
Commercial and inventory division
Human recourses division
Marketing divisi on
Research and development division
A. Finance Sector
When it comes to the overall scope and duties of a finance department, there are many functions to
be fulfilled. For the most part, the duties include all things related to budgeting.
From appropriat ions to control of expenditure and auditing duties, the finance department of any
given company has an array of duties.
A finance department basically has three main functions:
To provide strategic financial support regarding operational and general business planning
To provide daily financial services functions
To meet and surpass the internal and external needs and financial reporting requirements of
the company at large
The finance department generally focuses on providing relevant information necessary for upper level
management. Such information is crucial in determining how a company can make better financial
decisions.
Services and Duties of a Finance Department
In ord er to implement these functions, there are a number of services that need to be performed.
For example, the proper preparations of the annual budget as well as compliance of regulatory codes
are both important services of a finance department.
Key Positi ons in a Finance Department
A finance department is comprised of several key positions that bear the burden of responsibility
when it comes to maintaining the cohesiveness and overall productivity of the department as a unit
of the company.
When you thin k about the overall structure of the finance department, there are four key point people
that may come to mind:
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The finance director
Deputy finance director
Accountant
Finance specialist
Finance Director
The finance director is the head of the financ e department. This individual will have the supreme
responsibility to ensure that all financial reports are accurate and up to date. The finance director is
tasked with giving a financial forecast for the company and disclosing certain financial informatio n
about the company to the shareholders.
Deputy Finance Director
In this position, the deputy finance director will be responsible for developing an over all financial
strategy. Sometimes referred to as the finance manager, the deputy finance director is also
Accountant
The next position of importance in the department of finance is the accountant. The accountant is
responsible for handling the accounts payable and accounts receivable.
Accountants also process payroll. Other duties include putting together financial -related documents
such as reports, auditing, and closing out accounting books.
Finance Specialist
The finance specialist basically handles capital investments. This position may also require a bit of
analytical work such as reconciliations, maintaining the general ledger and keeping a close eye on the
funds of the company.
Evolution of the Finance Department
With each passing year the company evolves into an entity that is responsible for increasing the
department according to requirement and including other employees like clerical staff and inter -
section commuters.
B. Personnel & Administration department
Human resources is the business administration function responsible for finding, hiring, managing
and retaining employees, and for ensuring that the right employees, in the right numbers, are
deployed throughout the organization to achieve its goals. Hum an resources are a function that exists
in every business regardless of size, industry or geographic location. In fact, even though small
businesses may not have a formal human resource department or an employee with a title that
includes "human resources, " the function is performed when employees are hired, training,
supervised and, hopefully, retained.
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goals. These "functions" of the administrator were descri
administration" (in italic below).
Planning - is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who should do it. It maps
the path from where the organization is to where it wants to be. The plann ing function involves
establishing goals and arranging them in a logical order. Administrators engage in both short -range
and long -range planning.
Organizing - involves identifying responsibilities to be performed, grouping responsibilities into
departmen ts or divisions, and specifying organizational relationships. The purpose is to achieve
coordinated effort among all the elements in the organization (Coordinating).
Organizing must take into account delegation of authority and responsibility and span of control
within supervisory units.
Staffing - means filling job positions with the right people at the right time. It involves determining
staffing needs, writing job descriptions, recruiting and screening people to fill the positions.
Directing (Commandi ng) - is leading people in a manner that achieves the goals of the organization.
This involves proper allocation of resources and providing an effective support system. Directing
requires exceptional interpersonal skills and the ability to motivate people.
One of the crucial issues in directing is to find the correct balance between emphasis on staff needs
and emphasis on economic production.
Controlling - is a function that evaluates quality in all areas and detects potential or actual deviations
from the organization's plan. This ensures high -quality performance and satisfactory results while
maintaining an orderly and problem -free environment. Controlling includes information
management, measurement of performance, and institution of corrective actions.
Budgeting - exempted from the list above, incorporates most of the administrative functions,
beginning with the implementation of a budget plan through the application of budget controls.
C. Research and development
A research and development department is responsible for innovations in design, products, and style.
This department will be responsible for creating innovative new products to keep the company a step
ahead of the competition. R&D Department will work on improving existing consumer products, and
to explore new ways of producing them.
Often, a Research and Development Department works closely with the Marketing Department. The
Marketing Department studies consumer trends by surveying and researching consumer demands,
purchasing methods, product s ales, and the existence and development of technology across the
relevant market. The marketing department gathers all the data, and makes this information available
to the R&D department, which will take action in response to the findings and proceed to k eep the
company on top of current market needs.
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D. Operations
Operations management is an area of management concerned with overseeing, designing, and
redesigning business operations in the production of goods and/or services. It involves the
responsibility o f ensuring that business operations are efficient in terms of using as few resources as
needed, and effective in terms of meeting customer requirements. It is concerned with managing the
process that converts inputs (in the forms of materials, labour, and energy) into outputs (in the form
of goods and/or services). The relationship of operations management to senior management in
commercial contexts can be compared to the relationship of line officers the highest -level senior
officers in military science. T he highest level officer shapes the strategy and designs it over time, while
the line officer makes tactical decisions in support of carrying out the strategy.
According to the U.S. Department of Education, operations management is the field concerned with
managing and directing the physical and/or technical functions of a firm or organization, particularly
those relating to development, production, and manufacturing.
Operations management programs typically include instruction in principles of general mana gement,
manufacturing and production systems, plant management, equipment maintenance management,
production control, industrial labour relations and skilled trades supervision, strategic manufacturing
policy, systems analysis, productivity analysis and co st control, and materials planning. Management,
including operations management, is like engineering in that it blends art with applied science. People
skills, creativity, rational analysis, and knowledge of technology are all required for success.
E. Produc t Marketing & Sales
In a manufacturing company the production function may be split into four sub -functions:
Production and planning department
The production and planning department will set standards and targets for each section of the
production proc ess. The quantity and quality of products coming off a production line will be closely
monitored. In businesses focusing on lean production, quality will be monitored by all employees at
every stage of production, rather than at the end as is the case for businesses using a quality control
approach.
Purchasing department
The purchasing department will be responsible for providing the materials, components and
equipment required to keep the production process running smoothly. A vital aspect of this role is
ensuring stocks arrive on time and to the right quality.
Stores department
The stores department will be responsible for stocking all the necessary tools, spares, raw materials
and equipment required to service the manufacturing process. Where sourcing is unreliable, buffer
stocks will need to be kept and the use of com puterized stock control systems helps keep stocks at a
minimal but necessary level for production to continue unhindered.
Works Department
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The works department will be concerned with the manufacture of products. This will include the
maintenance of the p roduction line and other necessary repairs. The works department may also
have responsibility for quality control and inspection.
3.3 Manpower Requirement
Designation Number Required Annual Salary
i
n Qualification
rupees
Lacs/annum
MD/Chairperson 1 40 Engineer cum MBA
with 15 years
experience.
Board Of Directors
Designation Number Required Annual Salary
i
n Qualification
rupees
Lacs/annum
CEO 1 30 Engineer cum MBA
with 10 years
Experience
COO 1 30 Engineer cum MBA
with 10 years
Experience
CFO 1 30 Engineer cum MBA
with 10 years
Experience