CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON THE ORAL COMMUNICATION …

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON THE ORAL COMMUNICATION

STRATEGIES USED BY PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS AND

TEACHER EDUCATORS: AN INVESTIGATION OF ENGLISH

MEDIUM CLASSROOMS IN CENTRAL MINDANAO,

THE PHILIPPINES

BY

DELMA AUSAN YUARATA BEEd, MAEd (Notre Dame University, Cotabato City, Philippines)

MEdStuds (The University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia)

This thesis is submitted

in total fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Faculty of Education and Arts

The University of Newcastle

NSW, Australia

August 2015

Statement of Originality

ii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby declare that this thesis submitted for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in

Education at the University of Newcastle is the product of my personal research and

investigation. It has not been presented as a requirement for an award of any other

degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. Due acknowledgement

has been made on all the references used in this work. I give consent to the final version

of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital

Repository subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968.

Name: Delma Ausan Yuarata

Signed by:

Date: August 2015

Acknowledgement

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank everyone who shared resources, time, advice, guidance,

support and company during my research candidature. I would like to express my personal

gratitude and appreciation to the following organizations and individuals:

To Notre Dame University, Cotabato City; Philippines Australia Human Resource

and Organizational Development Facility; and Australia Awards Philippines; thank you for

the educational resources and opportunity you have provided.

To my supervisors, Associate Professor Shen Chen and Dr Jennifer Archer, thank

you for accepting me to be one of your supervisees and for your guidance, encouragement,

support and patience throughout the course of my study.

To the teacher education institution administrators who granted approval for their

schools to be the data collection sites for my study, along with all the teacher educators and

pre-service teachers who gave their consent, shared their time and participated in the

surveys, interviews and classroom observations, my sincerest appreciation.

To the friends I have made during the course of my study: my housemates,

officemates and organization mates, thank you for your presence, company and stories.

To my family, my brothers John and Ramir; my sisters Yolly and Rosemarie; my

nephews and nieces, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, cousins, relatives and friends; thank you

for the moral and emotional support.

To Kot, Kay and Bambie, to whom I can talk my heart out, thank you for the joy

you bring. To my brother Marcelo, and my sister Emma, thank you for your selflessness

and patience in taking care of Nanay in my days of wanderings. To my Nanay who keeps

herself strong and healthy and whom I know never ceases to pray for my good health and

safety, you are my inspiration.

To my source, the universal power, my constant veneration and gratitude.

Table of Contents

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Title Page i

Statement of Originality ii

Acknowledgement iii

Table of Contents iv

List of Tables vii

List of Figures ix

Abstract x

Chapter One: Introduction to the Study 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Background to the Study 2

1.3 Research Questions 14

1.4 Research Significance 17

1.5 Organization of the Thesis 18

Chapter Two: Literature Review 20

2.1 Introduction 20

2.2 Defining Culture 20

2.3 Communication in High-Context Cultures 21

2.4 Filipino Communication Style 32

2.5 Context in Language Education 41

2.6 Oral Communication Strategies 42

2.7 Instructional Communication Strategies 46

2.8 Summary 48

Chapter Three: Research Design and Methodology 50

3.1 Introduction 50

3.2 Research Locale 50

3.3 Use of the Mixed Method Approach 52

3.4 Qualitative Method 53

3.5 Quantitative Method 56

3.6 Ethics Clearance 61

Table of Contents

v

3.7 Data Gathering Procedures 62

3.8 Analyses of Data 63

3.9 Summary 66

Chapter Four: Analyses of Survey Data 68

4.1 Introduction 68

4.2 The Participants 69

4.3 Development of Scales 73

4.4 Pre-service Teachers’ Oral Communication Strategies Survey: Results 79

4.5 Teacher Educators’ Instructional Communication Strategies Survey:

Results

87

4.6 High-Context Culture Communication and High Power Distance Culture

Indicators and Use of Communication Strategies

92

4.7 Discussion of Quantitative Data 99

4.8 Summary and Conclusions 102

Chapter Five: Focus Group Interview Data Analyses 104

5.1 Introduction 104

5.2 Participants 105

5.3 Interview Questions 105

5.4 Description of the Information Analysed 106

5.5 Focus Group Interview Analyses 107

5.6 Focus Group Interviews: Discussion 139

5.7 Summary and Conclusions 141

Chapter Six: Classroom Observation Findings and Discussion 143


6.2 Profile of Observed Classes 143

6.3 Distinctive Class Features 146

6.4 Classroom Communication Strategies 149

6.5 Indicators of High-Context and High Power Distance Culture in Classroom

Communication

161

6.6 Discussion of Findings from Classroom Observations 170

6.7 Summary and Conclusion 172

Table of Contents

vi

Chapter Seven: Findings, Recommendations, and Conclusion 174


7.2 Major Findings 174

7.3 Recommendations 178

7.4 Implications of the Study for Teacher Education in Mindanao,

Philippines

186

7.5 Limitations of the Study 187

7.6 Conclusion 188

References 191

Appendices 221

Appendix 1: Classroom Observation Protocol 221

Appendix 2: Interview Protocol for Pre-Service Teachers 225

Appendix 3: Interview Protocol for Teacher Educators 228

Appendix 4: Survey Questionnaire for Pre-Service Teachers 231

Appendix 5: Survey Questionnaire for Teacher Educators 237

Appendix 6: Ethics Committee Notification of Expedited Approval 244

Appendix 7: Letter of Request and Research Information Statement to Vice President for Academic Affairs

247

Appendix 8: Letter of Information to Deans of Colleges of Education 251

Appendix 9: Letter of Invitation for Teacher Educators 256

Appendix 10: Invitation Letter to Pre-Service Teachers 261

Appendix 11: Item Means and Standard Deviations of Pre-service

Teachers’ Survey Responses

266

Appendix: 12 Item Means and Standard Deviations of Teacher

Educators’ Survey Responses

269

List of Tables and Figures

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Title Page

Table 4.1: Pre-service Teachers by Institution, Program of Study, Gender,

and Year Level

70

Table 4.2: Frequency Distribution of Pre- service Teachers’ Perception of

Spoken English language

71

Table 4.3: Frequency of the Number of Languages Spoken at Home by Pre-

service Teachers

71

Table 4.4: Distribution of Teacher Educators by Institution, Gender and

Educational Qualifications

72

Table 4.5: Distribution of Teacher Educators by Institution and Years of

Teaching Experience

73

Table 4.6: Factor Loadings of Pre-service Teachers’ Oral Communication

Strategies Scales

74

Table 4.7: Factor Loadings for Teacher Educators’ Instructional

Communication Strategies Scales

77

Table 4.8: Factor Loadings on High-Context Culture Scale 78

Table 4.9: Factor Loadings of High Power Distance Scale 79

Table 4.10:

Use of Oral Communication Strategies by Pre-service Teachers

and Teacher Educators and Teacher Educators’ Reports on the

Helpfulness of these Strategies

80

Table 4.11:

Means, Standard Deviation and t-tests of Reports of Use of

Instructional Communication Strategies Reported by Teacher

Educators and Pre-service Teachers, and their Helpfulness as

Reported by Pre-service Teachers

88

Table 4.12: Means, Standard Deviations and t-tests of Pre-service Teachers’

and Teacher Educators’ Perceptions of High-Context Culture and

High Power Distance

93

Table 4.13: Correlations Between Pre-service Teachers’ Ratings of High-

context Culture, High Power Distance, their Oral Communication

94


viii

Strategies and their Teachers’ Communication Strategies

Table 4.14: Correlations among Teacher Educators’ Ratings of High-Context

Culture, High Power Distance, Instructional Communication

Strategies and Pre-service Teachers’ Oral Communication

Strategies

97

Table 4.15: Correlations between High-Context Culture, High Power Distance

and Perceived Helpfulness of Oral Communication Strategies and

Instructional Communication Strategies

98

Table 5.1: Distribution of Pre-service Teachers by Institution, Gender and

Year Level

104

Table 5.2: Distribution of Teacher Educators by Gender and Years of

Teaching Experience

105

Table 5.3: Distribution of Teacher Educators by Institution and Educational

Qualifications

105

Table 6.1: Class Profiles by Institution, Gender, Year Level and Class Size 144

Table 6.2: Teacher Educators’ Years of Teaching Experience and

Educational Qualifications

145

Table 6.3: Classes Observed by Year Level, Number of Times Observed,

Course and Number of Minutes of Observation Time

146

Table 6.4: Classroom Seating Arrangement of Observed Classes 148

Table 6.5: Number of Students Who Spoke to the Whole Class and Group

Works

151

Table 6.6: Frequency and Percentage (of the total number of oral

communication strategies observed) of Pre-service Teachers’ Oral

Communication Strategies

156

Table 6.7: Frequency of Observed Teacher Educators’ Strategies and

Percentage of Total Number of Strategies

160

Table 6.8: Frequency of Observed High-context Communication Indicators 162

Table 6.9: Frequency of Observed Communications Indicative of High

Power Distance Relationship in the Classroom

166

Table 7.1: Comparison of Current Effects of High-context and High Power

Distance Cultural Variables and More Constructive Effects

177


ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Title Page

Figure 1.1: The thesis structure 19

Figure 3.1: Population, sample and distribution of research respondents 58

Figure 6.1: Classroom seating arrangements 147

Figure 6.2: Riser in front of the classroom 149

Figure 7.1: Recommendations to improve pre-service teachers’ oral

proficiency in English medium classrooms

186

Abstract

x

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the oral communication strategies used by pre-service

teachers and the oral instructional strategies used by teacher educators in English

medium classrooms within the Philippines, a country characterised by a high-context

and high power distance socio-cultural milieu. The government of the Philippines wants

its citizens to develop communicative competence in English, considered essential in an

era of Asian globalisation and modernisation. There have been few studies that have

examined the way in which a high-context/high power distance culture affects the

development of students’ oral communication in English. As such, this study is an

innovative exploration of the communicative interactions between pre-service teachers

and teacher educators in the Philippines.

Data were gathered from pre-service teachers and teacher educators in three

teacher education institutions located in Central Mindanao. The investigation used a

mixed method approach that included surveys, focus group interviews, and classroom

observations.

The study investigated the following areas in particular: the oral communication

strategies used by pre-service teachers; the oral instructional strategies used by teacher

educators; the strategies considered helpful by pre-service teachers and teacher

educators; the level of agreement between pre-service teachers and teacher educators on

helpfulness of strategies; and links between communication strategies and the high-

context/high power distance culture that characterizes the Philippines.

Findings from the three sources of data show general agreement between pre-

service teachers and teacher educators in terms of the types of communication strategies

each use and in terms of the strategies they find useful. These strategies can be located

Abstract

xi

within the framework of a high-context/high power distance culture. It is argued that

many of these strategies do not facilitate oral communication, and that current

approaches to classroom communication could be improved by adjusting the strategies

used by both pre-service teachers and teacher educators. Consequently, a set of

recommendations to enhance oral communication in English medium classes in teacher

education institutions is put forward.

Chapter One: Introduction to the Study

1

Chapter One

Introduction to the Study

1.1 Introduction

Classroom communication in teacher education is a vital issue that educational

research continues to examine worldwide, specifically in countries where English is not

the native language but is used as the medium of communication (e.g. Onsman, 2012;

Othman & Saat, 2009). Communication becomes even more a salient area of study in a

milieu of extensive language and cultural diversity where complex contexts, particularly

high-context culture and high power distance, may impact communication style. Such is

the case of the Philippines. This study examines the oral classroom communication

strategies of pre-service teachers and teacher educators in English medium courses in

teacher education institutions in Central Mindanao, the Philippines, and the influence of

high-context and high power distance cultural orientations in the communication

dynamics.

Chapter One is organized into five parts. It begins with a short introduction to

the study and presentation of the different sections. A description of the study locale in

the Philippines in terms of language diversity, local communication style and language

policies are presented in the second part, establishing the rationale for carrying out the

investigation. The research questions are detailed in the third section. The discussion of

the significance of the study in the field of teacher education, both in-service and pre-

service, as well as in educational research follows. Finally, the organization of the thesis

is illustrated via a diagram.


2

1.2 Background to the Study

Language diversity in the Philippines.

The Philippines is an archipelago of 7,107 islands with a total land area of 343,

448.32 square kilometres. It is grouped into three main lands that are clustered into 17

regions. Each region is made up of provinces, cities, municipalities, and barangays.

There are a total of 81 provinces, 140 cities, 1,494 municipalities, and 42,026 barangays

(Philippine Statistics Authority [PSA], 2014). The total population is 92 million, based

on the 2010 Census on Population and Housing (PSA, 2014) ranking 13th most

populated country worldwide (Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2014).There are

approximately 80 major local languages and 500 dialects spoken in the country

(National Commission on Culture and the Arts [NCCA], 2011). The Philippines is the

25th most linguistically diverse nation in the world (Lewis, Simons, & Fennig, 2014).

Filipino is the national language, and Filipino and English are the official

languages (The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines). Filipino language

is actually Tagalog, one of the local languages in Manila, the capital city, and

neighbouring provinces. Tagalog as a national language was renamed Pilipino and later

Filipino (Gonzalez, 1998), “to promote a national language as one that is not biased

toward Tagalog, but instead, reflective of the multicultural and multilingual context of

the Philippines” (Martin, 2012 p. 191). Tagalog has approximately 28 million native

speakers (Manipon, 2013).

Speakers of different ethno-linguistic groups learn Filipino from school as a

second language and use it as the national lingua franca. It is estimated that 96% of the

population can speak and understand Filipino (National Statistics Office [NSO], 2005).

Historical accounts show how colonizers systematically promoted their own languages


3

(Spanish, Japanese, and English) by using them as the medium of instruction in schools

since the 15th century. Among these languages, English is the most important.

Generally, Filipinos who are non-native speakers of Tagalog, mostly those who

come from non-Tagalog speaking regions, can speak the language of their ethnic group

as well as the regional lingua franca. In addition, they can speak and understand the

national lingua franca and English as a result of formal schooling and access to popular

mass media such as television, newspaper and the Internet (National Commission on

Culture and the Arts [NCCA], 2013). For example, an Ilongo (one ethnic group) in the

Cotabato province of Region XII can speak the Ilongo language. He may be able to

speak Cebuano or Filipino, the regional linguae francae, and speak English (Jubilado,

2004; National Commission on Culture and the Arts [NCCA], 2013).

The linguistic scene in Mindanao, the study locale, is similar to the national

picture. Mindanao is the second largest island of the Philippine archipelago having 39%

of the total land area of the country with a population of 22 million (PSA, 2014).

Mindanao is a melting pot of people, languages, and cultures. Almost all major

languages in the country have native speakers in Mindanao as a result of migration and

government resettlement programs since the early years of the 19th century (Jubilado,

2004).

Before the arrival of the Christian Filipino settlers in Mindanao, the island was

home to 30 different ethnic groups of Bangsamoro (Muslim) people (Jubilado, 2004).

Sharing the island with them were 18 groups of Lumads, which literally means natives,

(Ulindang, 2011) who are neither Muslim nor Christians. However, as a result of

migration from Luzon and Visayas, the other two major islands in the country, the

Bangsamoro and the Lumads have become the minority in Mindanao comprising only


4

25% of the population. Christian settlers coming from different ethno-linguistic groups

and their descendants make up the other 75% of Mindanao inhabitants.

English language in Philippine education.

Extensive language diversity was one of the major arguments cited for the

exclusive use of English as the language of education and as the official language of the

Philippines at the onset of American colonization in the late 1800s. Besides, American

teachers did not speak the local languages and instructional materials they brought with

them were all in English. English was supposed to unify “all the existing regional

languages and dialects” (Vizconde, 2006b p.263) and “‘civilize’ the Filipinos” (Martin,

2012 p. 190). In the process, promotion of existing local literature declined, as did

correspondingly, the status of local languages. English was regarded as the language of

the elite, the educated, and the powerful. The English only policy confined the use of

local languages outside of the school where Filipinos continued to use local languages

in their interaction. For instance, they communicate using their own language in daily

social activities at home and the immediate community.

Although English is an official language in the Philippines, generally its use is

confined to formal settings or occasions. For instance, in the classroom, English is used

in answering teachers’ questions. English is also the language used in presentations in

English medium classes. However, it is not the preferred language for informal

classroom conversations such as asking a classmate a question, group discussions,

giving cues for whatever purpose, unless teachers require its use. Most Filipinos do not

talk to each other in English except for special purposes. However, the use of Taglish, a

combination of Tagalog and English words, (Cruz, 2011) is common especially in urban

areas. A century of English history in the Philippines, the influence of mass and social


5

media as well as English words that have no direct or have unpopular Filipino

equivalent are reasons for the Taglish phenomenon.

As early as 1904, research revealed that educating Filipinos in a foreign

language was problematic and that Filipinos wanted a local language as the medium of

instruction in schools (Bernardo, 2004). However, despite the “foreign language

handicap”, the political and social agenda of the colonizers were viewed as more

important than pedagogical considerations (Bernardo, 2004, p. 18). The use of English

in education continued.

Tagalog as national language.

In the 1930s, Tagalog, the local language of the politically dominant group,

became a popular medium of communication. The National Language Institute was

created in 1936 and Tagalog was declared the national language in 1937, but English

remained as the official language alongside Spanish, the language of the previous

colonizers (Kaplan & Baldauf, 2003). The acceptance of a local language inspired

initiatives for the use of languages other than Tagalog (Bernardo, 2004). There was very

limited use of local languages as medium of instruction in schools (Bernardo, 2004;

Kaplan & Baldauf, 2003).

In 1941, the Japanese took over administration of the country and introduced

Japanese as the language of instruction in schools. Although the Japanese promoted the

use of Tagalog, English remained an official language. When democracy was restored

and the Philippine republic was created in the late 1940s, the use of English in

Philippine schools resumed (Vizconde, 2006b).

In 1973, Tagalog, renamed Pilipino and later changed to Filipino in 1987, and

English were declared official languages. It marked the formal beginning of the


6

Bilingual Education Policy (henceforth BEP) in the Philippines. Filipino and English

languages became official subjects taught in schools. The 1987 Philippine Constitution

explicitly instructs the implementation of BEP in all areas of government and education.

Although the intention of the BEP is to develop citizens who are competent in Filipino

and English, its formulation and implementation is often criticised as one of the major

causes of bilingual incompetence in the Philippines and the apparent decline of English

proficiency among Filipinos (Bautista, Bernardo & Ocampo, 2008). The decline of

English proficiency among Filipinos has resulted in the formulation of educational

policies geared at strengthening English as the medium of instruction in schools.

Policies strengthening the use of English.

In 1996, the Philippine Commission on Higher Education (CHED), the

regulating body of higher education, issued memorandum 59 entitled New General

Education Curriculum. It is stated that “All Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) must

require a placement examination in the English language for all incoming first year

college students. Students who fail must take and pass a non-credit course entitled

“English Plus”, which will cover English grammar, before they can be allowed to take

English 1”, the first English subject a college student must take (CHED,1996, p.2).

In the same document, there is a provision that states: “At the discretion of the

HEI, literature subjects may be taught in Filipino, English or any other languages as

long as there are enough instructional materials where both students and instructors or

professors are competent in the language.” The word “discretion” opens the option

favouring the use of English because of its prestige and economic value. In fact, despite

another provision stating that “Courses in the Humanities and Social Sciences should

preferably be taught in Filipino” (CHED,1996, p.4), HEIs require English as the


7

medium of instruction in these courses. Besides, the clause “as long as there are enough

instructional materials for the same” leaves little option for the use of other languages

because the majority of instructional materials are in English.

In 1998, the education secretary ordered a limit to the use of Filipino as the

language of instruction in schools specifically in the higher levels. In 2003, an executive

order was issued for strengthening the use of English as medium of instruction so

students emerge ready to engage in the world outside the Philippines.

Mother tongue-based multilingual education.

After almost a century of recommendations on the use of native languages or the

mother tongue in the early years of schooling, mother tongue-based multilingual

education (MTB-MLE) started to be implemented as a key feature of the adoption of the

K to 12 educational system in 2012-2013. The mother tongue-based multilingual

education of the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 mandates that the language of

the learners be used in instruction, teaching materials, and assessment from kindergarten

to year three, except in the Filipino and English subjects.

Nineteen major languages were identified and used as official auxiliary

languages (Albert, 2013). In highly multicultural areas, the directive is that the regional

or national lingua franca will be used, whichever the majority of the learners

understand (Department of Education [DepEd], 2012). This development may appear to

revitalize language diversity and pride in the use of local languages in the country.

However, the major purpose of using the mother tongue in the first three years of

education is to “give students a head start in developing higher-order thinking skills”

(Martin, Cena & Nolasco, 2014, p. 1) in the early years of schooling. In fact a recent

study, “Understanding Best Practices in Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education


8

in (MTB-MLE) in the Philippines”, reports limited use of the mother tongue as well as

lower value associated with it. As expected, “English remains more highly regarded and

valued by the community” (Martin, Cena & Nolasco, 2014).

The implementation of the MTB-MLE has not affected the high regard for

English and its use in higher education. In fact, in 2013, “An act to strengthen and

enhance the use of English as the medium of instruction in Philippine schools” (Arroyo,

& Arroyo, 2013) was passed in Congress.

Use of English remains.

Global imperatives as well as the local “political, social and economic climate”

(Vizconde, 2006b p.271) have given English a firm foothold. English is the language of

government and international diplomacy. Socially, it is highly regarded and is equated

with intelligence and dubbed as the language of the educated. Economically, high levels

of proficiency in English open the door to better work opportunities in both local and

global markets. The success of English as a universal lingua franca may be linked with

political agendas (Rodrigues, 2009) but its influence as the language of science,

technology, and commerce is an undeniable reality.

The motivation for speaking English including career advantage and greater

economic prospects makes the language even more appealing among Filipinos. In fact,

the Philippines ranks third among the countries in the world with the highest English

speaking population (“Maps of World”, n.d.). With neighbouring Asian countries actively

integrating English in their curriculum, the challenge for the Philippines to strengthen its

English speaking advantage in the Asia Pacific is growing. There are numerous reports on the


9

decline of English language proficiency among Filipino graduates (e.g. Marcelo, 2010; Wilson,

2009).

In higher education, English is the required medium of instruction in

approximately 96% of subject areas. The same is true for teacher education. For

example, in one university, a student needs to pass 76 courses to earn a bachelor’s

degree in secondary education with a major in biological science. Of these 76 courses,

73 use English as medium of instruction (Notre Dame University, 2013). The

distribution of courses for other majors would almost be the same. Pre-service teachers

are expected to be fluent in English because they will be using English when they

become professional teachers. However, English indicators reveal problems with

proficiency.

The decline in English proficiency has been considered part of a more general

deterioration of education often attributed to the perennial problems of limited

government budget allocation resulting to lack of resources (classrooms, instructional

materials) and a high student-teacher ratio. However, one factor contributing to the

decline in education is the poor quality and training of schoolteachers, including a lack

of English language proficiency (Marcelo, 2010; Wilson, 2009).

Teacher Education Curriculum.

The teacher education curriculum in the Philippines is a four-year degree course.

The academic year is made up of two semesters and a summer class. After pre-service

teachers finish the course, they have to pass the Licensure Examination for Teachers

(LET) to be qualified as professional teachers. A review of problems in teacher

education in the Philippines can explain the apparent decline in English proficiency


10

among teacher education graduates. The teacher education curriculum is 50% general

education, to compensate for the basic education level that was available before the K to

12 system was adopted in 2013. Also, not all Teacher Education Institutions (TEIs)

have laboratory schools for pre-service teachers’ practicum. Reform of teacher

education policies was promulgated in 2004 for improved teacher education

competency. However, the effects of the reforms are yet to be realized because the

average national passing rate in the LET (prepared in English except for the Filipino

test) from 2000 to 2010 shows a downward trend from 35.70% to 22.3% (Albert, 2013).

Factors influencing low quality of teacher education graduates.

Factors affecting quality of teacher education graduates in the Philippines can be

gleaned from an analysis made on teacher education by Fernandez and de Guzman

(2005). They examined the teaching environment, the quality of student teachers, the

curriculum, practicum opportunities, and LET performance. They described how

meagre teachers’ salaries, unconducive working conditions, and insufficient national

budget allocation meant low prestige for the profession, making it unappealing among

the brightest high school graduates. Their analyses were based on studies that examined

pre-service teachers’ profile. Those who take the course belong to the lower 50% of the

high school graduates in terms of cognitive ability, creating the impression that those

who do not qualify for courses leading to “more sophisticated professions” end up in

teaching.

A test of English proficiency was administered to public high school teachers in

2004. The poor results were not surprising. Only 19% of the 53, 000 teachers scored at

least 75% (Gilbas, Detera, Deri, Remolacio, & Manga, 2012). Lack of English language

proficiency among teachers is reflected in the performance of students in English in the


11

National Achievement Test (NAT) as well as in mathematics and science that are also

taught and tested using English. Mean average scores in these areas from 2007-2012

have been below 75%, the standard criterion set by the Department of Education

(DepEd) as the national target in terms of achievement level (Benito, 2013).

The teacher education curriculum provides opportunities for teacher educators

and pre-service teachers to improve English language proficiency. Founded on the

principle that the quality of education students receive largely depends upon the skills

and competence of the teachers, efforts to address the English proficiency crisis should

start with teacher education. Investigating communication that transpires in English

medium teacher education classrooms is a step towards improved English language

competence in the country.

One area that is understudied is the impact of local culture on the dynamics of

interaction in English medium classes. Numerous studies investigating culture and

communication in the Philippines are within the fields of second language acquisition

(e.g. Magno, Filho & Lajom, 2011); anthropology (e.g. Maggay, 2002), and industry

(Lockwood, 2012; Friginal, 2007). To date, little is known about how indigenous

Filipino communication style impacts in classrooms using the English language.

The Philippines’ high-context culture.

The Philippines is identified as having a high-context culture (Wimsatt &

Gassenheimer, 2000). So too are China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Indonesia,

Greece, and Spain (Andersen, Hecht, Hoobler & Smallwood, 2003; Gudykunst, Ting-

Toomey & Chua, 1988). Hall (1981) proposed that a culture could be defined as high-

context or low context based on members’ communication style. Cultures might not be

labelled exclusively as low/high-context because both communication styles may be


12

present. However, cultures tend to be at the higher or lower end of the continuum. One

characteristic of high-context culture communication is personal relationships, that is, it

is highly influenced by emotions and close relationships. Second, it is indirect and

dependent on verbal and non-verbal cues. Members of a high-context culture are

expected to understand what troubles another without the provision of much detail.

Understanding and responding to the speaker is the responsibility of the receiver. Third,

it is dependent on subtleties that are implied in non-verbal communication to

compensate with the relatively low verbal content of the language. Finally, language in

a high-context culture is analogous. For example, in most high-context cultures, there is

only one word for “happy.” The intensity of happiness is implied through the

surrounding context (Hall, 1981; Salleh, 2005).

In contrast, a low-context communication style is less personal, more assertive

and direct. Information is dependent on verbal codes, uses digital language, and is more

confrontational (Richardson & Smith, 2007; Salleh, 2005). The communication style in

Canada, Germany, and the United States is generally identified as low-context

(Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey & Chua, 1988). A more detailed discussion of high-context

culture is presented in the next chapter.

The Philippines’ high power distance culture.

High-context cultures also tend to exhibit high power distance. The Philippines

is at one extreme in the Power-Distance Index (PDI), ranking number four in the world

(Hofstede, 2001). In high power distance societies, the degree of inequality between the

powerful and the less powerful is high, and the less powerful members accept this

inequality. Usually, high-context societies have higher power distance and low context

societies have lower power distance (Hofstede, 2001). High power distance in the


13

classroom is demonstrated in deep respect for teachers especially for older teachers.

Learning is teacher-centred. Teachers initiate all communication and student initiated

communication is perceived as disrespectful. It is inappropriate to question what a

teacher has said or to contradict or criticise (Hofstede, 2001).

Philippine cultural values such as submissiveness, modesty, getting along with

others, humility, and passivity promote the preservation of high power distance. This is

reinforced in the family, the school, religion, and society as a whole. This is reflected in

Filipino child rearing practices where obedience rather than self-reliance is emphasised.

Smooth interpersonal relationships, social acceptance, group belonging, nurturing, and

awareness of others’ sensitivity to criticism are regarded as more important than

productivity and time efficiency (Esteban, 2006; Watkins & Gerong, 1997). These

attitudes and values have been linked with the experience of centuries of colonization

(Hanrath, 1988; Mendoza, 2011). Long periods of foreign rule, where Filipinos were

subjected to subjugation, has resulted in passivity, the need for an authority figure for a

sense of security, complacency with what is given, high tolerance of inefficiency and

poor service, and even acceptance of the violation of human rights (Esteban, 2006;

Henderson, 1999). A more detailed discussion of high power distance culture is

presented in the next chapter.

Geographical context of the study.

Mindanao, one of the major islands of the Philippines, forms the context of the

current study. This region has a complex history made up of land and family disputes

(Kamlian, 2007), territorial claims, displacement of original inhabitants, resentment of

natives over the Christian settlers, religious differences, disputes over natural resources,

identity issues, clan conflicts, nationalist-religious rebellion and banditry (Campo &


14

Judd, 2005; MacDonald & Viñals, 2012). Mindanao has the lowest literacy rate in the

country (Tan, 1994; Philippine Statistics Authority, 2005) and the lowest educational

results (Buendia et al., 2011). Peace initiatives, interventions, and dialogues have been

initiated since the 1960s by the Philippine government, international organizations,

local non-government organizations, and people’s organizations. However, Mindanao

remains a war-torn area of the Philippines.

Indirect communication style, high power distance, bilingual education,

linguistic and cultural diversity, and violence in Mindanao create a complex web for

oral communication in schools where English is seen as the language of opportunity.

Teachers need strategies to improve oral communication in English.

This study investigated pre-service teachers’ oral communication strategies and

teacher educators’ instructional communication strategies in English medium classes

bearing in mind the cultural context that informs the dynamics of local communication.

Pre-service teachers and teacher educators are the focus of this study because of their

critical roles in education and the importance of oral communication in English.

1.3 Research Questions

This research study explored the following question: How can the understanding

of Filipino pre-service teachers' and teacher educators' use of oral communication

strategies in English medium classes promote greater oral communication in teacher

education, taking into account the high-context culture and high power distance culture

of the Philippines?

Answers to the following sub-questions should provide insights into answering

the main question:


15

1. What are the communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and

teacher educators in English medium classrooms?

2. How helpful are the communication strategies used by pre-service teachers

and teacher educators in developing pre-service teachers’ English oral communication

skills?

3. Are there significant differences between pre-service teachers’ and teacher

educators’ observations of the communication strategies used by each other and the

helpfulness of these strategies?

4. How does high-context culture and high power distance culture affect pre-

service teachers and teacher educators’ use of oral communication strategies?

5. How can pre-service teachers and teacher-educators work together to create

more open and productive communication dynamics in the classroom?

To answer the research questions, a mixed method design was used. Qualitative

and quantitative data were collected (Creswell, 2012).

Participants for this study were pre-service teachers and teacher educators from

three Teacher Education Institutions (TEIs) in Central Mindanao, Philippines, for the

academic year 2013-2014. In the classroom observation phase, 12 classes were

observed, four from each TEI comprising 417 pre-service teachers and 12 teacher

educators. In the focus group interviews, 16 teacher educators and 37 pre-service

teachers participated. There were 429 pre-service teachers who returned the survey. One

survey was only partly answered and was not included, leaving a total of 428 surveys.

There were 59 teacher educators who completed the surveys.

Research Question 1


16

The first research question examines the communication strategies used by pre-

service teachers and teacher educators in English medium classes. It investigates pre-

service teachers’ reports on the frequency of their use of silent, informal, formal, polite,

and assertive communication strategies and how often teacher educators report they

observe pre-service teachers use those strategies. The survey also examines teacher

educators’ reports on the frequency of their use of questioning, non-verbal immediacy,

verbal immediacy, and authoritarian strategies and how often pre-service teachers report

they observe teacher educators use these strategies.

Research Question 2

The second research question investigates the helpfulness of communication

strategies of pre-service teachers and teacher educators in developing pre-service

teachers’ English oral communication skills. It explores how helpful pre-service

teachers find teacher educators' questioning, non-verbal immediacy, verbal immediacy,

and authoritarian instructional strategies in developing their English oral

communication skills. Also, it examines how helpful teacher educators find the silent,

informal, formal, polite, and assertive communication strategies of pre-service teachers

in developing their English oral communication skills.

Research Question 3

The third question examines the communication strategies reports of both pre-

service teachers and teacher educators. It compares the reports of pre-service teachers

and teacher educators of their perceptions on the frequency of use of communication

strategies and how helpful they are for pre-service teachers.

Research Question 4


17

The fourth question investigates how the local culture that is characterised by a

high-context communication style and a high power distance influences oral

communication in English medium classes. Answers for the fourth question were

sought mainly from classroom observation and focused group interviews. Focus group

participants were asked how the aspects of high-context and high power distance culture

affect the way they communicate in the classroom.

Research Question 5

Findings from questions one to four informed the response to the major question

– how to enhance communication in English medium classes within a high-context and

high power distance local culture.

1.4 Research Significance

Understanding current behaviour provides a baseline before taking steps to

change behaviours (Waldherr & Muck, 2011). The findings of this research will provide

an understanding of communication in the high-context and high power distance culture

in Mindanao, Philippines. The contextualized understanding of students’ and teachers’

communication strategies can provide guidelines for the development of culturally

appropriate communication techniques in English medium classrooms.

The study is relevant to English medium classes in the Philippine context, in

recommending teachers’ instructional communication strategies that act in concert with

students’ oral communication strategies. These strategies may be useful in the design of

local in-service and pre-service teacher professional development. These strategies will

be useful in developing pedagogical approaches for English medium classrooms. The

study may also provide input into language curriculum review and curriculum


18

improvement across a range of disciplines. It can contribute to a database of strategies

that may support learners developing oral communication in English.

Finally, the study should provide useful data for other Southeast Asian countries

with non-native English speakers who share a similar high-context and high power

distance culture with the Philippines.

1.5 Organization of the Thesis

The thesis is made up of seven chapters.

• Chapter One presents the research background, defines the research questions,

discusses the significance of the study, and introduces the outline of the thesis.

• Chapter Two provides a review of literature on students’ classroom oral

communication strategies and teacher-educators’ instructional communication

strategies in high-context and high power distance cultures.

• Chapter Three provides a rationale for the methodology of the study, including

surveys, classroom observations, and focus group interviews.

• Chapter Four presents the analyses and findings of survey reports from pre-service

teachers and teacher educators on the communication strategies they use to interact

in English medium classes, the helpfulness of these strategies, and the relationship of

high-context culture communication and high power distance on the use of strategies.

• Chapter Five reports the analyses and discussion of the focus group interviews of

pre-service teachers and teacher educators.

• Chapter Six reports the analyses and discussion of the classroom observations.

• Chapter Seven provides a discussion of the major findings, a set of recommendations

for changes to classroom practice, and limitations of the study.


19

Figure 1.1 provides a diagram summarizing the thesis structure.

Figure 1.1 The thesis structure.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

20

Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, studies substantiating the concepts discussed in Chapter One are

reviewed. This literature review considers research on classroom communication

strategies in the English as a medium of instruction setting significant to the Philippine

context. The cultural variabilities examined include high-context culture communication

style and high power distance and how they influence use of English. This chapter

considers classroom communication strategies in teacher education in high-context and

high power distance cultures. First culture and communication and related concepts are

discussed. Then, investigations of the Filipino communication style are explored

relative to the high-context and high power distance aspects of culture and how they

impact on classroom communication. Next, studies examining communication

strategies used in English medium classes contexts are examined. What is the impact of

culture on students’ use of English in classrooms?

2.2 Defining Culture

Culture is a complex phenomenon. In this study, culture is construed according

to Hall's (1959) perspective, as a lens through which people see things. In this view,

culture is understood as an “unconscious framework of shared meaning” (Shaules,

2007, p.27). This refers to behaviours, attitudes, and values shared by a group of people.

Culture is manifested in communication. People are generally unaware of their cultural

background.


21

Hall’s view of culture focuses in particular on “finding ways to describe

objectively these hidden” cultural dimensions (Shaules, 2007, p. 28). This view can be

useful in bringing to light one’s own hidden cultural orientation. The intention of the

current study is to bring to light the hidden communication culture that operates in

teacher education classes. How can we make sense of the communication strategies that

are used in English medium classes in the Philippines?

2.3 Communication in High-Context Cultures

Hall (1976) categorized culture based on people’s communicative behaviour.

The result was the development of the concepts of low/high-context cultures. On one

end of the continuum is high-context communication that uses indirect communication

styles. At the other end are low context cultures that use direct communication.

Context refers to the environment that surrounds and influences communication

(Hall, 1976). Communicators in high-context cultures focus attention on information

embodied within “the physical context (i.e. occasion and setting) or internalized in the

person” (i.e. personal background information such as age, sex, ethnic group, religion,

educational, economic and social status, family) compared to the attention they give to

the “explicit code’’ (Hall, 1976 p. 91). Shared contextual information is expected to be

understood (Thomas, 1998) by its members. There are “implicit communication codes,

intuitive-affective rhetoric, and ambiguous, indirect strategies’’ (Ting-Toomey, 1985

p.82; Panggabeana, Murniatia, & Tjitrab 2013) as well as less confrontational

communication styles. Low-context cultures, on the other hand, rely more on the

message ‘‘vested in the explicit code’’ (Hall, 1976 p. 79) or the information carried by

the words and symbols used.


22

In school settings, the dynamics of high-context communication style may be

discerned in various circumstances. For example, Skinner and Abbott (2013) examined

the experiences of Chinese students enrolled in a teaching English diploma course in

China. They were required to do their teaching practice in Hungary. They were

accompanied by a Chinese supervisor and had to work with a Hungarian host teacher.

One participant described how she felt during the teaching practice review session, a

meeting where the supervisor gives feedback about the teacher trainee’s teaching. The

Chinese student said that she could not talk freely with her supervisor. She wanted to

tell her supervisor how she tried to improve her teaching. Her supervisor encouraged her

to speak up but she felt too constrained to do so. Despite the supervisor’s

encouragement, the student’s feeling of restraint was too strong. The resolve of the

student not to speak is connected to the values in the Chinese context where students are

not expected to argue with teachers because answering back is construed as questioning

or arguing with the teacher. Such behaviour is deemed inappropriate in China.

In the United Kingdom, Hramiak (2014) explored cultural differences faced by

teachers in their first year of teaching in a culturally diverse school. In a class that was

predominantly made up of Asian pupils, a Western teacher was struggling to establish

good rapport with students. He noticed that children used handshakes as a form of

greeting each other. The teacher followed the hand shaking behaviour and found that it

improved his relations with the students, especially with the male students (Hramiak,

2014). The use of handshakes among students holds contextual meanings more

profound than the mere visible touching of hands. More than a form of greeting, it may

also carry meanings symbolising friendship, brotherhood, and sense of belonging that is

internally understood within the context of the students. When the teacher was able to


23

read the cues and attempt to become one of them by joining the ritual of comradeship,

an implicit communication line was opened.

Richardson and Smith (2007) compared university students’ preferred

communication medium with those of their professors. Face-to-face communication

was the choice of Japanese students especially for positive and non-threatening issues.

Face to face communication makes available access to non-verbal cues that are deemed

important in high-context cultures. American students, identified as belonging to low

context culture, tended to prefer e-mail communication. The authors argued that the

Japanese students wanted to use non-verbal physical cues in addition to the verbal

message

Research from the business world has examined problems that occur when

people from high-context cultures interact with people from low-context cultures. For

example, Croucher et al. (2012) looked at ways in which citizens of India and Thailand,

characterised as high-context cultures, resolve conflict. People in these nations

expressed a preference for indirect and non-confrontational conflict strategies such as

avoidance of confronting differences and hoping that the problem will be settled in its

own time. The lack of awareness and understanding of these ways of resolving conflict

can confuse the uninitiated.

Usunier & Roulin (2010) investigated the accessibility and availability of

website information in high and low-context countries. They assessed the website

designs of 597 business sites in 57 countries in terms of design, content, and language.

They demonstrated that websites from high-context cultures have less accessibility, are

harder to read, and do not disclose sufficient information about their products, prices,

and financial status. Also, the sites are less interactive. Their description indicates the


24

difficulty in understanding high-context website information because of its seeming

reluctance to reveal information particularly to website users who may be less familiar

or lacking immersion to the specific context shared among high-context culture

communities. Likewise, Yeste (2013) examined 100 print advertisements in Spain, a

country designated as a high-context. In the advertisements the visual elements were

more highlighted than the words. The main information was conveyed through

context.

Hall’s concept of low-context and high-context cultures has been subject to

criticism. In a meta-analysis of studies using Hall’s framework in the field of

intercultural business and technical communication, Cardon (2008) acknowledges the

extensive use of the framework but questions the rigour of empirical studies conducted

to support the framework. Shaules (2007) also acknowledges the significant influence

of these ideas. However, he observes that the quest to untangle the hidden elements of

culture, as Hall envisioned, is yet to be realized.

It should be noted that the limitations of the low-high-context model occur in the

field comparing intercultural systems (Cardon, 2008). The observed characteristics

associated with high-context cultures though, have been widely validated and generally

accepted. It is these high-context cultural features that are significant in the present

study. Its focus is the examination of English communication strategies used in teacher

education in the Philippines using the high-context cultural lens. Its focus is not a

comparison of intercultural practices.


25

High-context culture described.

In a review of cross-cultural research, Nam, Cho and Lee (2013) identified high-

context culture as one of the cultural dimensions of far Eastern or Asian countries. The

Philippines is one of those countries.

High-context countries have entrenched values and practices that sensitise

members to implied messages and meanings that operate beyond speech. Contexting is

often linked with Hofstede’s (2001) cultural dimensions including

individualism/collectivism, high/low power distance, uncertainty/certainty avoidance,

femininity/masculinity and short/long term orientation because of the strong contextual

influences of the constructs. High-power distance alongside collectivism is an Asian

cultural orientation considered deeply influencing high-context communication styles.

Studies have established strong association between high-context culture, high-power

distance (Hairon & Dimmock, 2012; Ghosh, 2011) and collectivism (Du-Babcock,

2013; Kaynak & Kara, 2013, p.7).

Collectivism.

Filipinos, like most of their Asian neighbours, have a sense of collective identity

(Narag & Maxwell, 2014). Collective societies prioritise group harmony over personal

needs (Panggabeana, Murniatia, & Tjitrab, 2013). Personal identity in collectivist

culture tends to be based on close affiliations with the family, relatives, friends, and

schoolmates. Cooperation within these affiliations is valued highly. Concern for the

feelings of others and face (Goffman, 1955, cited in Lin, 2014) permeates the culture.

Causing someone to lose face is socially unacceptable (Yeste, 2013; Omidvar, Chan,

Yap & Bolong, 2012).


26

In the close-knit relationships among members of a collective society, care is

given in the sharing of information especially to those who are not members of the

group because the reputation of one is shared by all (Narag & Maxwell, 2014). This

impetus to protect each other from outsiders strengthens the use of covert

communication styles.

Hofstede’s (2001) description of the teaching and learning landscape in a

collectivist culture is supported by research. A collective approach to education is

rooted in tradition where adults are expected to nurture the young who should learn

under the guidance of adults. Students answer only when the teacher says so. Usually

students prefer to talk in small groups. Teacher-centred classes reflect this tradition (e.g.

Hassan, 2014; Shaila Banu, 2014, Zheng & Borg, 2014). Students from similar ethnic

backgrounds have a tendency to cluster together (e.g. Lehto, Cai, Fu, & Chen, 2014).

Passing examinations is the primary purpose of gaining skills (e.g. Kleinsasser & Liu,

2013; Shaila Banu, 2014; Wang & Liao, 2015) and educational qualification (such as

certificates and diplomas) are equated with higher social status (Omidvar, Chan, Yap &

Bolong, 2012). Teachers give special favours to students coming from a similar

background (Thams, Liu, & Glinow, 2013).

Magno (2010) investigated how 362 Filipino pre-service teachers value

education based on their epistemological beliefs about learning. His findings identified

Filipino values that influence the high premium placed on education. These values

revolved around family socialisation and expectations, emotional restraint or self-

discipline to maintain harmonious relationships. For example, parents choose the

school for their children and the children obey. In school, students keep quiet when


27

confronted by authority figures, show restrained behaviour even when criticised, and

observe courtesy when talking to teachers.

Chinese secondary school teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning fit with

a high-context culture. Zhang and Liu (2014) examined teachers’ beliefs as a prelude to

curriculum reform. They report that the majority of their participants did not support the

idea of learner autonomy. They believed that without teachers’ instruction students

would not be able to study English effectively. Teachers know best. Discipline must be

imposed so that students obey. The ability to manage a class was perceived as

fundamental to good teaching. Zheng and Borg (2014) who examined Chinese teachers’

beliefs and practices in language teaching reported similar findings.

The strength of cultural traits varies among collectivist countries. In a study

comparing the learning culture of Iranians and Chinese-Malaysians (Omidvar, Chan,

Yap & Bolong, 2012), Iranian learners were found to be more concerned about their

marks and passing examinations than Chinese Malaysians while Chinese Malaysians

were more concerned with building skills. Variations in cultural traits have also been

found in the Indonesian context among Indonesians, Chinese Indonesians, and

Singaporean Indonesians regarding their perceptions of leadership, work,

communication, competition, and harmony (Panggabeana, Murniatia, & Tjitrab 2013).

High-power distance.

Social hierarchy is embedded in collectivist societies. The relationship of the

communicators in terms of who is more and less powerful or who has the authority and

who is the subordinate affects communication behaviours (Rubdy, Tupas, Villareal,

David, & Dumanig, 2012). The characteristic of culture that “defines the extent to

which the less powerful persons in a society accept inequality in power and consider it


28

as normal” is called power distance (Hofstede, 1986, p. 307). Hofstede (1980, p.136)

argues that “although all societies are unequal, some are more unequal than others.”

Hofstede (2001) has classified the Philippines as a high-power distance country where

unequal distribution of power is accepted. Centuries of colonization significantly

impacted the Filipinos’ views of social relationships between the powerful and the

powerless (Narag & Maxwell, 2014). In the educational setting, high power distance

results in more teacher-centred teaching approaches.

Hofstede’s (1986) description of a high power distance learning environment,

generally viewed as “traditional,” fits with investigations into high-context cultures.

There is respect and authority bestowed on teachers (Trent, 2011; Magno, 2010). It is

unacceptable to challenge or criticise teachers in public. Older teachers are perceived as

more credible than younger teachers (Lee, Huang, Law & Mu-Wang, 2013). Teachers

initiate communication and students speak only when a teacher wants them to speak (Li

& Walsh, 2011). Teachers are seen as the authority and the source of knowledge and

wisdom (Arnon & Reichel, 2007; Carillo, 2007). Teaching is teacher-centred to

maintain order. If students are successful, they tend to attribute their success to good

teaching (Carillo, 2007).

An investigation of Filipino pre-service education students’ conceptions of the

teacher’s role revealed that most respondents perceived teachers as the source of

knowledge and power in the classroom (De Guzman, De Castro, Mapa II, Peries &

Jung, 2009; Carillo, 2007). This view is typical of the strong hierarchical social system

in the Philippines where elders are perceived as authority figures. The perceptions of

pre-service teachers of teachers’ roles are based on personal experience of previous

teachers. It is interesting to note that even though many aspects of teacher education in


29

the Philippines have been imported from the West, the perception of the teacher as the

major authority figure remains.

The teacher as an authority figure occurs in many Asian countries (Cox,

McIntosh, Terenzini, Reason, & Lutovsky Quaye, 2010). The Western view of teachers

as “facilitators of learning” and the shift to student-centred education (Bosch et al.,

2008) has been influential in Western countries. However, the perception of teachers as

experts (Carillo, 2007; Zhu, Valcke & Schellens, 2010) still applies in most countries in

Asia.

In China, Lu (1997) interviewed 30 graduate students, a mixture of teachers and

non-teaching students, who had just finished their studies. She investigated why the

respondents think Chinese teachers use certain strategies to manage the classroom.

Responses reveal that the legacy of Confucianism is still strong – that teachers should

hold authority, be moral leaders, and model appropriate behaviour. The teacher-student

relationship remains a superior-inferior hierarchy. Teachers are generally assigned high

status and viewed as authority figures in other high power distance countries like

Indonesia (Maulana, Opdenakker, Brok & Bosker, 2011) and Thailand (Laopongharn &

Sercombe, 2009). Students hesitate to express opinions and ask questions to avoid

challenging the teachers’ position of authority. A public challenge would display a lack

of etiquette and show disrespect.

In high power distance cultures, teachers’ power comes from their position as

teachers. It has been argued that students’ perception of teachers as authority figures

perpetuates a sense of dependency, making students passive and uncomfortable with

more active learning activities (Singh & Richards, 2006). For example, Poliden (2012)

investigated students’ preferred teacher correction method. Most students wanted


30

teachers to correct errors immediately. Other identified strategies include “explaining

why the utterance is incorrect, pointing out the error and providing the correct form” (p.

203). Although the study did not look at the effect of culture on preferred strategies,

high regard for teachers’ expertise and authority can be inferred from the findings.

Behaviours that would be characteristics of high-context culture communication include

the following: “…teachers to delay correction until after class, to give a hint to enable

students to notice the error and self-correct, and to present the correct form when

repeating all parts of the students’ utterance” (p. 203). Poliden indicated that teachers’

eliciting of responses from students was the dominant practice because most students

are passive and “do not generally have the courage to ask questions even when they did

not understand the lesson” (p. 201).

Problems in communication in high-context and high power distance cultures

are likely to occur when maintaining face and politeness are important (Laopongharn &

Sercombe, 2009). In a survey by Del Villar (2010), 167 Filipino students were asked

why speaking in English made them nervous. They indicated a fear of rejection,

previous unpleasant experiences with teachers and classmates, and the prospect of

failure, being compared to others, having a critical audience, lack of training and

exposure, high status of listeners, poor self-esteem, and lack of proficiency to verbalise

thoughts in English. Some students were concerned about “the image they projected to

others when they spoke…. because their ability to express their thoughts reflected on

their person…English proficiency especially pronunciation is important because it is

reflective of their education and intelligence” (p. 163). Students are afraid of rejection

and disapproval by committing mistakes in front of others. Having high status listeners

is intimidating.


31

Tiu (2011) interviewed Filipino students as part of her research into classroom

opportunities that foster willingness to communicate. Students were asked why they do

not speak in English. Responses included the following: the language is hard; it takes

time to formulate thoughts in English; not used to speaking in English; and dislike of

being insulted and laughed at by peers who tell them to speak in Tagalog when they

show difficulty or mispronounce words. The study shows peer pressure as a hindering

factor in speaking in English. Strong peer pressure is a dominant characteristic of

collective societies (Hofstede, 2001).

Richmond, McCroskey, McCroskey, and Fayer (2008) reported the

communication traits of second language learners of English in Puerto Rico. They

showed that second language speakers have high communication apprehension and

shyness and low assertiveness, low responsiveness, self-reported communication

incompetence, and little willingness to communicate. Although the study did not look at

cultural impacts on Puerto Rican communication traits, it should be noted that Puerto

Rican culture is described as collective, high-context, and high-power distance (Serpa,

2005).

With the power inherent in teachers in high-context and high power distance

cultures, Hofstede (1986) suggests that it would be more workable if teachers

understand and adjust their behaviour according to strategies that help students

communicate better rather than students adjusting to suit teachers because the teachers

possess the authority to control the learning situation. This suggestion may be relevant

to teacher educators because they serve as models of classroom communication to pre-

service teachers who will become professional teachers.


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For teacher educators, understanding how pre-service teachers communicate in

English medium classrooms and what instructional communications help them

communicate in English, should help them structure their teaching. For pre-service

teachers, it could help them understand themselves better in terms of their use of

communication strategies. Increased awareness of the cultural impacts of their use and

perception of helpful communication strategies may foster greater sensitivity and

consciousness in their use of communication strategies. Also, when pre-service teachers

experience context-appropriate strategies from teacher educators, they may incorporate

the same strategies into their own teaching.

2.4 Filipino Communication Style

Qualities described in high-context cultures, particularly collectivism and high-

power distance, are apparent in Filipino conversations. Maggay (2002) conducted a

longitudinal qualitative study on Filipino communication style using an ethno-linguistic

investigation and anthropological method of participant observation. She analysed

Tagalog songs, rhetoric, stories, arts, novels, movies, and other mass media that reflect

communication styles. She gathered data at social gatherings including religious feasts,

weddings, and wakes.

Maggay analysed indigenous concepts built in the local language,

communication styles (including speech patterns), and non-verbal expressions. She

demonstrated that Filipino communication style operates on hints, cues, inferences,

signals, implied meanings, and indirect discourse. She argued that this represented

high-context communication. Indirect communication patterns abound in Filipino


33

expressions. They are a means of responding to everyday interaction and the Filipino

people are sensitised to these patterns.

For example, on the front cover of Maggay’s book is a cartoon illustrating how

Filipinos communicate. A woman invites friends and colleagues to her house. It is not

mentioned what the occasion is, but by the way the invitation is extended, it is implied

that there is a party or some kind of get-together, a birthday, housewarming, or

Christening. The responses of women invited were: “I will try my best.”; “Maybe”; “I

will see if I can”; “Such a short notice! But I will think about it”; “Whatever will be”; “I

will try hard, I have another appointment though”; “I will see, I might arrive at around

night fall.”

The same indirectness is demonstrated in a famous story about a Filipino

exchange student in America (Mendoza, 2011). He arrived at his homestay’s house after

the regular time for dinner. The host family asked the student if he wanted a meal.

Cultural conditioning and timidity made the student refuse the meal offered. The host

took his word and did not offer again. In the Philippines, Filipino hosts would not take

no for an answer when they invite someone for a meal, especially when they have

prepared food. Offering of food is an expression of hospitality and hosts would insist

that guests eat even just a small amount or at least pretend to eat. Not doing so is

considered offensive (Elias, 2014). The student, unaware of cultural differences,

expected the same treatment from an American and was confused when a more

persistent invitation to have dinner did not come.

A rather indirect communication style operates in the Philippine society

(Maggay, 2002). This is illustrated in a story of an American director who invited his

staff, mostly Filipinos, to an office party (Mendoza, 2011). Each was given an invitation


34

card. The director was puzzled why only a few members of staff came to the party. He

did not realize that the Filipinos were expecting him to make an informal follow-

through on the formal invitation by mentioning the invitation, for example, whenever

they met in the canteen or the lobby. The gesture of reiterating invitations informally

was expected and understood as indication of making the invitees feel the value of their

presence at the event. Because the director did not do this, the invitation was taken as

insincere and was ignored. In high-context cultures, the sincerity or superficiality of an

invitation is judged by how the invitation is conveyed in behavioural ways beyond the

giving of a written invitation.

The use of formal written invitations is a western idea. Although it is widely

adopted in the Philippines for weddings and other formal gatherings, it appears that for

most people the formal written invitation is considered superficial. Filipinos give

greater attention to the warmth of a personal invitation, especially among the less

powerful. They feel a sense of significance when hosts emphasise how important their

presence would be. A formal invitation should be accompanied by a personal invitation

to be considered sincere.

The use of a high-context or indirect communication style is often linked with

the Philippines’ long history of subjugation by powerful foreign colonisers. Covert

communication style has been used by less powerful Filipinos to survive or to retaliate

in secret (Maggay, 2002). A similar system has been adopted in most Filipino

traditional families where children’s freedom of expression is suppressed. To contradict

the norms of the family is regarded as disobedience.


35

Filipino cultural values.

The high level of shared meaning in the Philippines has been shaped by its long

colonial history and is linked to its high-context communication system (Macdonald,

2013; Narag & Maxwell, 2014). The complexity of this implicit style of communication

is more observable among the less educated people (Bersales, Jesus, Barra, Mercado,

Gobencion & Lucagbo, 2013).

Closely knit families.

The close-knit family structures characteristic of the Philippines have been

linked to the geography (the many islands comprising the country) and its agricultural

base. There is a strong sense of kinship (Roces, 2001) and family solidarity, the result of

marriages and child rearing practices.

A study by Morillo, Capuno and Mendoza (2013) provides evidence that most

Filipino families still desire to maintain close family ties. The study used two sets of

data from the World Values Survey conducted in 1996 and 2001. Although differences

were observed in the two sets of data because of different methods of data collection,

the findings generally reveal a preference for the traditional family organisation:

children reared by both parents, the importance given to women being married and

raising children: love and respect for parents regardless of their qualities; and parents

devoting their time to providing for their children; giving up personal satisfaction.

The strong bond among family members can create an efficient communication

context that requires little explicit communication. Movement, gestures, incoherent

sounds, or silence of a family member based on family tradition or personality becomes

familiar to each member and needs no further explanation. People, living collectively


36

for a long time, tend to develop specialized communication styles that work for them,

but may appear strange or invisible to outsiders (Maggay, 2002).

Pakikisama (solidarity).

“Pakikisama” means sharing in a collective activity as an expression of oneness

with the group. It is a behaviour promoting friendship, cooperation, and harmonious

relationships (Macdonald, 2013). “Pakikisama” is making others feel a sense of

belongingness and acceptance in a group. It is making others feel welcome, safe, and

nurtured (Villero, Macaerag, & Burke, 2014), regardless of social and economic status.

Narag (Narag and Maxwell, 2014), for example, demonstrated “pakikisama”

during his data gathering in a slum area in the Philippines by dressing casually in the

way people dress in the community and joining the men in their afternoon drinking

sessions. By so doing, he was able to gather authentic information rather than filtered

data that only show part of the story. Prior to his conscious effort to establish equal

status with people in the community, he was getting inadequate information. People

were showing him what the community leaders were expecting people to show him, that

is, the strengths, only the good aspects and not the realities of life in the community.

People were keeping information from him because he was an outsider.

A Filipino who is good in the conduct of “pakikisama” becomes an insider in the

group. Then people express their honest views. Maggay (2002) shows that a high

level of ease and comfort among communicators is necessary for an open sharing of

ideas and feelings.


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Hiya (sense of propriety).

“Hiya” is conventionally translated as shame or embarrassment. However,

according to the Filipino psychologist Virgilio G. Enriquez, the deeper meaning of

“hiya” is “sense of propriety” (Pe-Pua, & Protacio-Marcelino, 2000, p. 55). “Hiya” is

related to face-saving or maintaining face, concepts often associated with Chinese and

Japanese cultures. It is the observance of civility, appropriateness, and politeness in

one’s interaction with others to maintain harmonious relations (Moore, 2010).

This sense of appropriateness makes people conscious of their demeanour,

especially in public. They do not want to act in a way that may put them or others in an

embarrassing or awkward situation. Because “hiya” is deeply connected to a person’s

sense of self and others’ view of the person, losing face can tarnish relationships or

result to serious conflict.

In classroom communication the concept of “hiya” is manifested in students’

apprehension about communicating, especially using English. Del Villar (2010) asked

167 Filipino student respondents why speaking in English made them nervous. Some

students were concerned about “the image they projected to others when they spoke….

because their ability to express their thoughts reflected on their person” (p. 163).

Another observation demonstrates how early a sense of “hiya” develops. In a

study observing how Filipino children solve addition and subtraction English word

problems, children were struggling understanding the problems written in English.

Probing questions showed that they did not understand most of the words, if not the

entire problem. Yet when interviewed as to whether or not they understood the text,

they said they did. They also hid their fingers under the table while counting and erased


38

tally marks on the paper so as not to be labelled as using an “inappropriate” non-

standard strategy (Verzosa, & Mulligan, 2013).

Colonial mentality.

Centuries of colonial rule have entrenched in Filipinos the social dynamics

between the powerful and the powerless (that is, teacher-student, parent-children,

educated-uneducated, well-to-do-poor, modern-traditional, politician-voter) (Narag &

Maxwell, 2014). This has produced a colonial mentality: the belief that the culture of

the coloniser (the powerful) is the standard as opposed to the substandard local culture.

Communication manifests this mentality in the way people deal with each other. Those

who perceive themselves as powerless or less powerful may exhibit gestures of shame

or lack of self-confidence such as lowering the tone of voice, a bending posture, bowing

the head, lowering the gaze, or avoiding direct eye-to eye contact (Maggay, 2002; Pe

Pua & Protacio-Marcelino, 2000).

Saying no in an indirect manner, so as not to be offensive, to an invitation or

request for help may be done through physical gestures, ambiguous responses

(Basthomi, 2014), and avoidance of communication. Facial expressions may include

pursed lips or raised or meeting brows, wrinkling the nose, a sad look, or avoiding the

gaze. Indefinite answers are common: “may be”; “I will see what I can do”; “I will try

my best”; “We will see”; I will call you”, or saying yes when wanting to say no.

Indebtedness.

Indebtedness (utang na loob) is another cultural value observed among Filipinos.

Viewed positively, Macdonald (2013) described this value as the spirit of sharing where

the possibility of threat of subjugation is absent. It expresses gratitude to someone who


39

has extended help in a time of need. Unfortunately, the so called benefactors

(colonisers, the powerful) abused this value to manipulate or compel the one indebted,

to an eternal bondage of indebtedness. For example Macdonald (2013) writes that

indebtedness is often observable between a tenant and a landlord where the former owes

and the latter is the one granting favours, binding the tenant in gratitude to his landlord.

Macdonald writes:

Can one imagine a better ideological ploy to insure a constant and permanent subservience on the part of the colonized mass of peasantry bound in “endless gratitude” to those who exploit and oppress them? “Utang na loob” reflects the keen sense of moral obligation on the part of the obliged party to be sure, but its sociological use in cementing an unequal relationship of exploitation is a sad and ironic turn of the historical screw. It greatly served the colonizers and their allies in putting a benevolent paternalistic face on their profiteering scheme. (p.427)

The distorted practice of “utang na loob” perpetuates high-power distance in

social relationships. In the context where “utang na loob” plays a role, there is a

communication behaviour that people unconsciously observe. The benefactor becomes

the superior and the recipient becomes the subordinate.

Implications for communication.

An informal communication style is generally embedded in Filipino values and

traditions (Maggay, 2002). It fits a high-context communication pattern. Disregard for

communication preferences has created a mismatch between the rather informal Filipino

communication style and the more formal communication style used in institutions like

schools, government offices, and universities. It is notable that these institutions were

originally established by outsiders such as colonial masters like Spain and the United

States or international aid organisations. These outsiders set up institutions using non-


40

Filipino attitudes and procedures. Filipino people deal with these organisations by

“going with the flow,” as it were, but not identifying closely with the organisation.

The use of formal communication patterns in a society where less formal

communication is the norm has created a sense of disconnection between institutions

and the people. The government appears to be a “show” disconnected from the daily

existence of the people (Maggay, 2002). People have little interest in policies and

practices devised by the government. This incongruity, along with other complex

factors, could explain why attempts at reforms do not usually succeed.

In Filipino schools, communication problems between teachers and students

may spring from previously identified problems such as the use of the English language

together with its imported content and western approaches to teaching and learning

(Bautista, Bernardo & Ocampo, 2009). One example of the Filipino’s preference for

the informal is the emergence of code-switching as a communication strategy.

However, schools generally discourage code-switching (Vizconde 2011) and the “speak

English only” policy remains the standard. But code-switching is used both in face to

face communication and virtual communication such as television, mobile phones, and

the internet. Another aspect of school life affected by communication problems is

obtaining feedback from students, particularly feedback that questions a teacher’s

knowledge. Students often agree with everything the teacher says because they feel

they must obey teachers. They must be polite to teachers. They fear the teacher may

react negatively if they disagree.


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2.5 Context in Language Education

Studies have recommended the need of contextualization in language learning

(Bax, 2003; Maggay, 2002), particularly when teachers use foreign theories and

approaches. Many studies, however, assume universality in communication theories

(Ha, 2013).

What works in one context may not be applicable in another. For example, a

study conducted in the Middle East recommended culturally sensitive language teaching

materials (Ahmed & Narcy-Combes, 2012). In another study, it was observed that

Chinese participants did not want to discuss politics but were comfortable in engaging

in a discussion in English about other matters. Care must be taken in politically oriented

conversations because explicitly criticising the government may compromise one’s

security. Lack of knowledge of this aspect of local culture may limit oral production in

English (Ngwainmbi, 2004).

According to Maggay (2002), awareness of the Filipino context is critical

because it explains how Filipino people think and behave. The government is keen to

develop the economic viability of the country (Tullao, 2009). An effective system of

education should help to improve economic viability. It is important to understand how

Filipino students think about their education and how they behave in educational

institutions (Bax, 2003). An investigation of classroom interaction may provide

indicators of teachers’ and students’ beliefs and values that are affecting their

communication behaviours (Miller & Pearson, 2013).


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2.6 Oral Communication Strategies

Communication strategies include problem-solving activities or negotiation

behaviours or devices second language speakers use to manage communication in the

target language (Dornyei and Scott, 1997). It includes techniques used in actual

interaction (King, 2010; Nakatani, 2010) to clarify intended meaning (Tarone, 1981).

Canale (1983) extended the scope of communication strategies to all communication

aspects that enhance the effectiveness of communication among interlocutors. These

include coping strategies (Savignon, as cited in Dornyei & Scott, 1997), pauses and

fillers (Dornyei, 1995), immediacy (Baringer & McCroskey, 2000), affinity-seeking

(Bell & Dally, 1984; Richmond, 1990), and pro-social behaviours (Sidelinger, Bolen,

Frisby & McMullen, 2012). The term oral communication strategy (OCS) was coined

by Nakatani (2010) to avoid confusion with other communication strategies. He defined

oral communication strategies as “strategic behaviours the learners use when facing

communication problems during interactional tasks” (Nakatani, 2006, p. 152).

Researchers have developed different categories of oral communication

strategies. Bialystok (1990) described early typologies of communication strategies

developed by Varadi (1980), Tarone (1977), Bialystok & Frolich (1980), Faerch &

Kasper (1984), and Paribakth (1985) influenced Tarone’s more comprehensive

taxonomy of communication strategies.

Tarone (1977, 1981) is recognized as a pioneer in this field for her work

developing the taxonomy of communication strategies. The taxonomy has five

categories: avoidance, paraphrasing, borrowing, asking for help, and the use of mime.

Avoidance involves avoiding a topic and abandoning a message. Paraphrasing involves

approximation, word coinage, and circumlocution. Borrowing includes verbatim


43

translation and code-switching. Communication strategies are strategies used by

speakers and involve the speakers’ native language and the target language. They are

used when speakers talk to speakers of the target language.

Other typologies have close similarities or are sub-categories of earlier versions

For example, message adjustment (Varadi, 1980) and paraphrasing (Tarone, 1980) can

mean almost the same thing as transliteration (Bialystok, 1983), literal translation

(Tarone, 1980), code-switching (Tarone, 1980), and foreignising (Bialystok, 1983).

Another approach is Oxford’s (1996) widely used Strategy Inventory for

Language Learning (SILL), with categories of memorization, cognition, compensatory,

metacognition, affect, and social. This instrument has been used to evaluate effective

strategies used by language learners.

More recent work includes that of Nakatani (2006) who developed an oral

communication strategy inventory based on an EFL context in Japan. He categorized

the inventory into eight speaking strategies. These categories are social affective,

fluency-oriented, negotiation for meaning while speaking, accuracy-oriented, message

reduction and alteration, nonverbal strategies, message abandonment, and attempt to

think in English.

Students’ use of oral communication strategies.

There are studies of the use of oral communication strategies in English among

Filipino students. Asuncion (2010) investigated the coping strategies of 41 college

students in a private university in the Philippines when they were faced with

communicating in English. Strategies observed included switching to the mother

tongue, getting help, using mime, selecting the topic, adjusting the message, coining

words, avoiding communication partially or totally, and using circumlocution or a


44

synonym. The most frequently used strategy was switching to Tagalog or another

mother tongue. Code-switching from English to Tagalog and vice versa is a common

strategy among students and teachers.

Borlongan (2009) analysed 14 class discourses focusing on the frequency and

forms of teachers’ and students’ code-switches. The study demonstrated frequent

violation of the policy of English only as the medium of instruction. Frequent code-

switching reveals the problems Filipino students experience using English and their low

level of awareness of other strategies. Vizconde (2006a) observed use of code-switching

when she examined student responses to a prompt about a cartoon sketch. In her study,

74% of the respondents answered in Filipino where English was the expected language.

Querol (2010) conducted a classroom-based study investigating use of Oxford’s

(1990) Affective Language Learning Strategies (ALLS) and Social Language Learning

strategies (SLLS). ALLS include relaxation, deep breathing, making positive

statements, taking risks, writing a language learning diary, and discussing feelings with

someone. SLLS include asking questions, cooperating with others, and empathizing

with others (Gass &Mackey, 2011). Querol (2010) administered a survey containing six

affective strategies and six social strategies to 24 students majoring in English. She also

observed them doing a teaching demonstration.

Results showed that ALLS and SLLS are positively correlated. This means

affective strategies tended to be used in conjunction with social language strategies. The

study further revealed minimal use of language learning strategies by participants. The

researcher argued that generally students do not ask for help and do not ask questions

for fear that they would lack the words or not be understood. She also discussed the

Filipino perception that asking for help is a sign of showing off.


45

Similar oral communication strategies are reported in other Asian countries. A

study in Thailand (Somsai & Intaraprasert, 2011) involved interviews with 48 university

students majoring in English for International Communication (EIC). How did they

cope with problems in face-to-face communication in English? Strategies included

pointing to objects or materials, drawing a picture, spelling or writing out the intended

words, phrases, or sentences, using fillers, keeping quiet while thinking about how to

get a message across to the interlocutor, and making a phone call to another person for

assistance.

Mei and Nathalang (2010) examined the communication strategies used by

Chinese students in addition to code-switching. Paraphrasing, restructuring, and

repetition were the most common strategies. Students also confer among themselves,

use a Chinese-English dictionary, and ask native speakers to explain the meaning of

difficult words (Ngwainmbi, 2004).

Investigations of students’ use of communication strategies mostly reveal their

benefits (Dongyun, 2014). For instance, Sioson (2011) examined Filipino students’

language learning strategies, beliefs, and anxiety in an academic speaking task. Her

study revealed that the more strategies students use, the less anxiety they felt. She

concluded that use of learning strategies enabled learners to manage their learning,

increased their self-confidence, and decreased their anxiety.

In the preceding studies, the utility of oral communication strategies has been

established. Typologies used were based on widely used categories. It should be noted

that cultural context was a less explored area in understanding Filipinos’ use of

communication strategies, or mention of them was incidental to the study. In the current

study, examination of the oral communication strategies used by teacher educators and


46

pre-service teachers in English medium classes will be informed by existing inventory

of communication strategies.

2.7 Instructional Communication Strategies

Instructional communication strategies are behaviours teachers use to improve

students’ competence in English communication. They include devices teachers use to

stimulate communication with students (Lee & Ng, 2010). Cornett-DeVito and Worley

(2005, p. 315) describe instructional communication competence as “the teacher-

instructor’s motivation, knowledge and skills to select, enact and evaluate effective and

appropriate, verbal and nonverbal, interpersonal and instructional messages filtered by

student-learners’ perceptions, resulting in cognitive, affective and behavioural student-

learner development and reciprocal feedback.’’

Studies of teacher communication behaviour and student participation (Mazer,

2013) suggest that teacher communication strategies such as immediacy behaviours (i.e.

smiling, eye contact, proximity) stimulate student engagement in the learning process.

Teacher confirmation is another strategy found to increase students’ participation

(Goodboy & Myers, 2008).

Studies of instructional communication strategies in classes conducted in

English reveal use of the following strategies: repetition for emphasis (Sibayan, 1993;

Todd, 2005; Viano & Conejos, 1996); asking follow up questions; probing or prompting

questions (Reyes, 2000; Sibayan, 1993;Valdez, 2012); rephrasing students’ answers

(Sibayan, 1993); code-switching (Asuncion, 2010; Sibayan, 1993); establishing teacher

authority and harmonious relationships (Bernardo & Malakolunthu, 2013); an “English

only” policy (Martin, 2014); and non-verbal language (e.g., nodding, looking) (Reyes,


47

2000). Other teacher instructional communication strategies include behaviour

alteration techniques (McCroskey, Richmond, Plax & Kearney, 1985) classified into the

following categories: reward, self-esteem, punishment, guilt, positive and negative

relationship, authority, responsibility, rules, altruism and various teacher personality.

Another is Mehrabian’s (1969) non-verbal (e.g., smiling, eye-to eye contact) and verbal

immediacy (e.g., giving compliments, sharing of personal experience).

In the Philippines, there have been studies using classroom observation. They

examine the strategies teachers use to promote classroom communication. For example,

Reyes (2000) observed 69 Filipinos classified as expert teachers in higher education.

Reyes reported that outstanding teachers provide a psychologically safe learning

environment for students through the following behaviours: presenting a non-

threatening friendly disposition; smiling; being affectionate and informal with students;

building rapport; using humour to create a cheerful atmosphere; projecting enthusiasm

by being articulate and expressive through non-verbal body language including facial

expression, gestures, voice inflection, and body movements; using the voice

dramatically according to the mood of the subject matter; speaking clearly; and

providing opportunities for two-way communication by prodding and asking questions.

These teachers display Filipino ideals of good teachers. The strong resemblance of these

characteristics to Western concepts of a supportive learning environment is evident.

Poliden (2012) examined teaching practices that promote communication

opportunities in a language class in the Philippines. Teachers predominantly used

communicative methods such as building on students’ prior knowledge, participatory

teaching, using multiple representations and prolonged language events in language


48

teaching by asking many questions and encouraging responses. Again, students’

opinion about the usefulness of teachers’ practices was not explored.

Observing teaching practices among highly experienced teachers, De Mesa &

De Guzman (2006) describe teachers giving instructions and asking questions to start

classes and stimulating communication. Use of encouraging words, positive feedback,

and cues to prod students to speak are also evident. Pleasant voice quality had a positive

influence on classroom communication. Most discussions were teacher directed.

It should be noted that the studies described on this section focused on expert

teachers from major cities in the Philippines. Their findings may not reflect practices

across the Philippines. High ranking and outstanding teachers would be expected to

demonstrate best practice. Studies examining poor teaching practices are rare in a

hierarchical and high-context culture where face and face-saving are important.

Avoiding actions that may shame another or cause loss of self-respect is the norm in a

closely-knit family culture (Patacsil, 2009).

2.8 Summary

Oral communication skills in the language used as medium of instruction are

key competencies for educators (Ng, Nicholas &Williams, 2010). It is vital that oral

competency is developed during teacher pre-service training. There have been

numerous studies investigating the strategies second language speakers of English use

to develop their communication competence in English and in the instructional

strategies teachers use to help students develop English speaking skills.

Investigations also have focused on different factors affecting oral

communication in English such as proficiency, age, sex, and anxiety. However, there


49

are fewer studies that have investigated the influence of culture, particularly high-

context culture and high power distance culture, on classroom communication.

Furthermore, to date, no study has examined the influence of these two cultural

constructs on oral communication in teacher education English medium classes in

Mindanao, Philippines, from the perspective of pre-service teachers and teacher

educators. This study addresses that gap.

Moreover, the current study proposes to examine the communication dynamics

between teacher educators and pre-service teachers in Central Mindanao, one of the

major islands of the Philippines. That is, the focus is a region away from major urban

centres like Manila. The cultural and linguistic diversity and the religious-based

conflicts in Mindanao provide many challenges for students and teachers. The study

proposes to examine pre-service teachers’ oral communication strategies and teacher

educators’ instructional communication strategies from the perspective of the

Philippines as a high-context and high power distance culture.

Chapter Three: Research Design and Methodology

50

Chapter Three

Research Design and Methodology

3.1 Introduction

Existing studies on communication strategies and culture have been reviewed in

Chapter Two to support the relevance of the current study. In this chapter, details of the

research design and methodology are presented. The first part describes the research

locale. The second and third parts present the rationale for the use of the mixed method

approach using both qualitative and quantitative data. This is followed by a description

of the ethics clearance process. The data gathering procedures are described. Finally, the

approach to data analyses is explained.

3.2 Research Locale

Higher education in the Philippines is administered by the Commission on

Higher Education (CHED) and higher education institutions (HEIs) are classified as

public or private. Public HEIs are categorized as state universities and colleges, local

universities and colleges, CHED supervised institutions, other government schools and

special HEIs while private HEIs are categorized as non-sectarian or sectarian. Private

non-sectarian HEIs are owned and operated by private corporations without affiliation

with any religious group while private sectarian HEIs are owned and operated by

religious organizations (Viray & Perryer, 2008).

The research sites for the current study are three private sectarian Teacher

Education Institutions (TEIs) in Region XII located in Central Mindanao, Philippines.


51

The Philippine archipelago is grouped into 17 regions. Region XII is called

SOCCSKSARGEN which stands for the five provinces of South Cotabato, Cotabato,

Sultan Kudarat, Sarangani, and General Santos. Although religious congregations

manage private sectarian HEIs, student admission to these institutions is non-

discriminatory in terms of religion. In fact, courses advocating peace and religious

diversity such as Islamic Studies, Religions of the World and Interreligious Dialogues

(Notre Dame University, 2013) are among features of some private sectarian

institutions.

Since private HEIs are not subsidized by the government, the tuition and

miscellaneous fees are relatively high compared to public HEIs because these fees are

the institutions’ primary financial source for the entire school operation costs (including

salaries, physical plant, utilities, and programs). Despite having to pay more, parents

and students tend to opt for a private higher education provider when they can afford it

because “quality of higher education in the Philippines, with the exception of key state

universities and colleges like the University of the Philippines, is often equated with

high tuition fees” (Chao, 2012, p. 13). Also, because “higher education has always been

seen by the Filipinos as the key to poverty alleviation and social mobility, Filipinos

make substantial efforts to send their children to the best HEIs possible.”

There are approximately 44 higher education institutions offering a teacher

education program in Region XII (Commission on Higher Education, 2014). Only three

of these TEIs have university status. The research participants were from these three

universities. Basic teacher education curricula in the research sites follow CHED

mandated curriculum with the addition of religious and peace studies and activities. The

majority of the courses use English as the medium of instruction. Teacher educators


52

were born in the area and acquired their English language from their local teachers.

There has been no native English speaker teacher educators in the area in the last three

decades. The native English speakers who are known to have been in these HEIs, but

not necessarily as teacher educators, were the founding religious missionaries and

priests (Oblates of Mary Immaculate, 2007).

The TEIs comprising the research sites have demonstrated the quality standards

detailed by CHED and authorised private assessors. These TEIs undergo both

government and private quality assurance evaluation systems, developing a reputation

as high quality education providers. Most teachers, from kindergarten to high school,

central public schools and prestigious private schools within close proximity, are

graduates of these TEIs. The central role of these TEIs, as feeder institutions of the

Department of Education (DepEd) workforce in this area of Central Mindanao,

demands competence in oral communication.

3.3 Use of the Mixed Method Approach

A mixed method approach was employed in this study, making use of the

advantages of pooling qualitative and quantitative data. A convergent parallel design

(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011) guided the research in an attempt to provide a broad

understanding of classroom communication strategies used in English medium classes.

In convergent parallel mixed method design, qualitative and quantitative data are

analysed independently and results of both are used in the general interpretation phase

of the study (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Qualitative data were gathered through

classroom observation notes and focus group interviews and quantitative data were

gathered through surveys. Mixed methods help establish research validity by providing


53

more evidence when investigating a research problem than using only qualitative or

quantitative data (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011).

3.4 Qualitative Method

The study investigated the classroom communication strategies of both teacher

educators and pre-service teachers. Real time classroom observation was done to

examine communication strategies used in the classroom. Focus group interviews were

also conducted to collect first hand perceptions about classroom communication

strategies and cultural factors affecting communication.

Classroom observation.

Classroom observation enables a researcher to witness classroom interaction,

access participants’ behaviours, and gain an insight into their experience (Cotton,

Stokes, & Cotton, 2010). In this study observation as a data gathering method alongside

survey and interviews was used as part of a triangulation procedure to help validate

data.

Observing communication strategies in classrooms allowed the researcher access

to real time classroom interactions between and among pre-service teachers and teacher

educators and the frequency of use of strategies. The researcher took a non-participant

role (Cotton, Stokes, A., & Cotton, 2010) during observation.

Twelve teacher education classes were observed from three universities for

approximately two hours each. A total of twelve teacher educators and 437 pre-service

teachers consented and participated in the classroom observation phase of the study.

Total observation meetings were 23 sessions and observation time was approximately

25 hours.


54

The researcher was allotted a seat at the back of the classroom for most of the

observation time. There was one instance when the observer had to be seated in front of

the class (on one side) because of the classroom set-up. The researcher wrote

observation notes on the prepared observation protocol (see Appendix 1). Classroom

environment and interactions observed involved the following: classroom seating

arrangement, distinct culture specific classroom features, quantitative count of pre-

service teachers’ and teacher educators’ use of communication strategies with

observation and reflective notes, quantitative counts of high-context and high-power

distance culture indicators with observation and reflective notes.

The qualitative data included observation notes and reflective notes. These notes

are embedded in sections three to six of the observation protocol. A ten-minute interval

observation was used to regulate the observation process (Suen & Ary, 2014).

Focus group interviews.

Semi-structured focus group interviews were conducted among pre-service-

teachers and teacher educators to explore their communication experiences in an

English medium classroom. In a collective and high power distance culture, power in

number operates as an equalizer, decreasing apprehension among participants. Thus, in

such an environment, a group interview is deemed suitable. A list of prepared questions

was used to guide and prod the conversation with some modifications when needed

(Lichtman, 2006). Interview as a method of data gathering allows a researcher to obtain

in-depth information (Lichtman, 2006). In particular, interviews provide the opportunity

to draw personal opinions, emotions, interpretations or perspectives from respondents.

The presence of five to ten people in group interviews can elicit ideas and opinions from


55

people sharing similar backgrounds or experience. It also enables the researcher to save

time by obtaining information from more people at the one time (Lichtman, 2006).

Pre-service teachers.

Six pre-service teachers’ groups were organized, with two interviews conducted

in each TEI. Two group interviews from each TEI were conducted so that participants

from all year levels could be accommodated. First year and second year pre-service

teachers made up one of the two groups while the other group comprised pre-service

teachers in their third year and final year at university respectively. Interviews

investigated pre-service teachers’ experiences of classroom communication in English.

Questions focused on communication problems they encountered in English medium

classes, what they do when they encounter communication difficulties, what they

observe their teachers do when they (pre-service teachers) are experiencing difficulty in

expressing themselves, what teacher instructional strategies they find helpful, and how

culture influences the way they communicate (see Appendix 2). Participants were

recruited on a voluntary basis. Groups consisted of a minimum of five and a maximum

of 10 participants. Interviews lasted approximately one hour and were audio recorded.

Pseudonyms were assigned in the transcripts to ensure confidentiality. Interviews were

conducted at a common time outside class times.

Teacher educators.

Six focus group interviews were conducted among teacher educators, two

groups from each TEI with a maximum of five members in a group. The criterion for

inclusion in the group was teacher educators who were teaching pre-service teachers in

English medium classes. Interview questions focused on the communication difficulties


56

they observe among pre-service teachers in English medium classes, the communication

strategies used by pre-service teachers when they are confronted with difficulty

expressing themselves in English, which ones they think are helpful in developing pre-

service teachers’ communication skills, the instructional communication strategies they

use to help pre-service teachers overcome difficulties, and how cultural factors

influence classroom communication (see Appendix 3). Teacher participation in

interviews was also done on a voluntary basis and occurred when teachers were free

from teaching duties.

3.5 Quantitative Method

To gain a holistic interpretation of the phenomenon under investigation, the

researcher complemented qualitative data with quantifiable information. The

quantitative component of data collection was designed to obtain understanding of pre-

service teachers' and teacher educators' perceptions on the communication strategies

they use and perceived being used in English medium classes, which strategies they

consider effective, and the indicators of high-context and high power distance cultures

in classroom communication dynamics. Surveys were completed by a large number of

pre-service teachers (and a smaller number of teacher educators), enhancing the

generalisability of the findings of the study.


Systematic observation (Mercer, 2010) was used during classroom observation.

In systematic observation, targeted behaviours and information to be obtained are pre-

set or classified into categories. The purpose of pre-assigning categories is "to provide

quantitative results which can be subjected to statistical analysis" (Mercer, 2010, p.3).


57

Each section of the observation protocol had quantifiable data. In section one,

these were information about the class being observed, such as date, time of arrival and

departure, number of minutes, room, subject matter, number of students, medium of

instruction, teacher and observer. In Section two Part A, classroom sitting arrangements

were indicated, and in Part B unique physical features of the classroom were noted. In

Section three, categories of strategies to be observed among pre-service teachers were

assigned. In Section four, categories of instructional strategies to be observed among

teacher educators were set. In Sections five and six, indicators of high-context and high

power distance cultures were enumerated respectively. Frequency of occurrence of the

identified categories was recorded at ten-minute intervals.

Surveys.

Closed response questions were used to gather quantitative data on the

communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and teacher educators in English

medium classes. A sample was selected from a "particular population at a particular

time" (Guthrie, 2010, p. 79) to represent a larger population to describe a pattern of

behaviour or general perceptions and attitudes on a subject being studied (Guthrie,

2010).

Pre-service teachers and teacher educators from three teacher education

institutions in Mindanao, the Philippines, were the population of the survey component

of this study. Selection of teacher education institution was based on university status.

The three TEIs chosen were the only TEIs with university status in the region. The

respondents of this study were 428 (from a total of 1325) pre-service teachers and 59

(from a total of 75) teacher educators. Since this study is descriptive in nature, the


58

recommendation of having at least 20% sample of the population is considered

representative of the population (Charles and Metler, 2002). Stratified sampling was

used because it targeted each year level of pre-service teachers. Pre-service teachers

who were participants in the classroom observation segment of the study also responded

to the survey. All 75 teacher educators were given the survey, and 59 (79%) completed

and returned the survey. Figure 3.1 provides a graphic presentation of the research and

sample population and distribution of respondents from each teacher education

institution.

Note: TE stands for Teacher educators and PSTs for Pre-service teachers

Figure 3.1 Population, sample and distribution of research respondents.

A quantitative survey using four point Likert-scale responses was used. The

survey had four major sections: reports of communication strategies used by pre-service

teachers and teacher educators; the helpfulness of these strategies; high-context culture

indicators; and high power distance indicators.

A review of the oral communication strategies inventory developed by Nakatani

(2006) informed the construction of the 32- item pre-service teachers’ oral

communication strategies survey. Immediacy behaviours by Gorham (1988), affinity-

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Population

Sample

TEI C

TEI B

TEI A

TEs

PSTs


59

seeking techniques by Bell and Dally (1984), and behaviour alteration techniques by

Kearney, Plax, Richmond and McCroskey (1985) informed the construction of the 20-

item teacher educators’ instructional communication strategies survey. High-context

culture and high power distance culture indicators items were modified from the study

of Richardson and Smith (2007).

Face and content validity of the surveys were checked by submitting them to

supervisors for review of readability and clarity. Surveys were pilot-tested with Filipino

pre-service teachers and teacher educators before the final administration to

respondents.


The communication strategy survey (CSS) was the first part of the survey for

pre-service teachers (see Appendix 4). The CSS survey has four sections. The first

section provides the background information of respondents which include their course,

year level, sex, and languages spoken at home and how easy or difficult they find

spoken English. Response options for their spoken English were very difficult, difficult,

easy, and very easy.

The second section asks for pre-service teachers’ reports of their oral

communication strategies. Response options were 1 (Never) to 4 (Always). The third

section is pre-service teachers’ assessment of teacher educators’ instructional

communication strategies with response options from 1 (Never) to 4 (Always). The

fourth section deals with pre-service teachers’ assessment of the helpfulness of teacher

educators’ instructional communication strategies. Response options were 1 (Never

Helpful) to 4 (Very helpful).


60

The second and third parts of the survey examined high-context culture

indicators and high power distance culture indicators. The response options were 1

(Strongly Disagree) to 4 (Strongly Agree).

Teacher Educators.

The survey teacher educators begin with the oral communication strategy survey

(see Appendix 5) containing four sections. The first section provides teacher educators’

background information including years of teaching experience, sex and highest

educational qualifications.

The second section contained 20 items asking teacher educators to report how

often they used instructional strategies with response options from 1 (Never) to 4

(Always). The third section examined how often teacher educators observed pre-service

teachers' use of 32 oral communication strategies with response options from 1 (Never)

to 4 (Always). The fourth section asks teacher educators to rate the helpfulness of the 32

pre-service teachers’ strategies. Response options for section four were 1 (Never

Helpful) to 4 (Very Helpful).

The third and fourth parts of the survey examined high-context culture indicators

and high power distance indicators. Response options were 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 4

(Strongly Agree).

Pilot testing of the survey questionnaires.

Pilot testing of the survey questionnaires was conducted to check participants’

ease in understanding the English used in the directions as well as in the survey items.

Pre-service teachers are familiar with the English language because the majority of the

courses they take use English as the medium of instruction as well as the medium of


61

written assessments. The survey was administered to 37 first year pre-service teachers.

They were asked to take notice of instructions, sentences, phrases, or words in the

survey that they found hard to understand. They reported that they fully understood

items in the survey.

The survey for teacher educators was administered to two university professors

for pilot testing. They were also asked to identify sentences or items that were

ambiguous. No problems were identified.

3.6 Ethics Clearance

Because data gathering involved human participants, approval from the Human

Research Ethics Committee (HREC) of University of Newcastle was obtained. It was

granted research approval Number H- 2013-0241(see Appendix 6).

Upon HREC approval of the proposed research, letters of request to conduct

study (see Appendix 7) were sent to the target universities’ Vice-Presidents for

Academic Affairs. The letters contained all relevant research information and the

consent forms. When the Vice Presidents signified their consent, a similar set of letters

(see Appendix 8) was sent to the Deans of the College of Education.

With the Deans’ consent to gather data, letters were sent to teacher educators

(see Appendix 9) asking their permission to be observed in their classes and inviting

them to participate in the focus group interviews. Upon teacher educators’ consent, their

preferred class, time schedules and rooms were noted. Research information sheet and

consent forms were then distributed to all pre-service teachers (see Appendix 10) who

belonged to the class to be observed seeking approval for the class observation and the

invitation to take part in the focus group interviews. Only classes where all students


62

consented were observed and those who ticked yes for the interviews were contacted by

phone for the confirmation of the interview. Surveys were distributed to teacher

educators and pre-service teachers. Return of the completed survey was considered a

form of consent, as stated in the research information sheet.

3.7 Data Gathering Procedures

Upon the consent of teacher educators and pre-service teachers, the researcher

observed classes according to the agreed schedules. A total of 24 class observations

were made. From each of the three universities, four teacher education classes, one from

each year level, were observed twice or for an equivalent of two-hour class. There were

two classes that were observed in one sitting because they were two-hour classes.

After classroom observations, focus group interviews were conducted for both

teacher educators and pre-service teachers. To select the focus group interview

participants, the consent forms of those who signified willingness to participate were

selected. Students’ consent forms were grouped according to year levels. Then, First

year and second year pre-service teachers’ forms were put together and so were those of

third years and fourth years. The forms were further classified into males and females

for each group and were mixed randomly. Text messages were then sent to those who

had consented, stating the time and venue of the interview. Interview time was either

lunch break or after class hours in the afternoon. In cases when there were more than ten

pre-service teachers who expressed consent to participate in the interviews, the first ten

students who confirmed their participation were selected. Focus group interviews were

audio recorded for the purposes of transcription. The interviews lasted for

approximately one hour per session.


63

In the same manner, teacher educators who expressed their willingness to

participate in the interviews were sent text messages indicating the time and venue of

the interview. Two focus group interviews with a maximum of five participants were

conducted in each university, resulting in six interviews with 16 teacher educators. The

interviews were audio-recorded for transcription purposes.

The survey questionnaires were administered to all pre-service teachers in

classes observed after classroom observations and focus group interviews had been

conducted. The surveys were strategically conducted after the observations and

interviews had been done to avoid ideas on communication strategies being pre-empted

by the respondents. All teacher educators were given survey questionnaires.

3.8 Analyses of Data


Upon completion of classroom observation, quantifiable data were encoded into

SPSS version 22 program (IBM Corp., 2013). Quantitative data from observation

included seating arrangement, frequency counts of communication strategies used by

pre-service teachers and teacher educators and frequency counts of high-context and

high power distance indicators as they were observed in the classroom.

Qualitative data from the observation protocol including unique physical

classroom features, observation notes and reflective notes were reviewed, transcribed

and uploaded to NVivo 10 software. Qualitative data were coded by the researcher

according to communication strategies and indicators of high-context and high power

distance cultural orientations. Descriptive analysis identified patterns, regularities and


64

themes by coding and categorizing transcripts (Angrosino, 2007). NVivo software was

used to help organize data in a search for emerging patterns, themes and concepts.

Focus group interviews.

Focus group interviews were transcribed and coded. The technique used in

analysing the interviews was a comparison analysis of three major stages

(Onwuegbuzie, Dickinson, Leech & Zoran, 2009). Data were coded three times. In the

open coding, answers to the same question from all interviews were put together and

holistic coding was carried out. In the second stage, the axial coding was conducted

where the initial codes were grouped by categories. In the selective coding, data were

classified under themes that had been developed and viewed as encompassing the

content of the categories in the broadest sense.

Data transcription.

A visual version of the audio-recorded interviews was prepared by the

researcher by transcribing the data verbatim. Since the interviews were conducted using

the English language, most of the responses were in English with intermittent use of

Filipino and Ilongo, two of the local languages in Mindanao. The responses in

vernacular were transcribed as they were and their English translation was written

beside them enclosed in parentheses. The purpose was to retain a sample copy of the

participants’ original idea for reference.

Data Coding.

Interview transcriptions were uploaded to NVivo 10 Software for analysis. The

data transcription was formatted to enable auto coding as a technique in the initial

coding. Major interview questions were labelled as heading one, interviewees' names


65

were labelled heading two, and their responses were labelled as normal text. Using the

auto code command in NVivo 10, responses in all interviews to the same main question

were generated for both pre-service teachers’ and teacher educators’ interviews. From

there, holistic coding was applied where single codes where assigned “to each large unit

of data to capture a sense of over-all contents and the possible categories that may

develop" (Saldana, 2009, p.118).

Developing categories and themes.

Categories in qualitative data analysis are main ideas exemplifying specific

codes (Lichtman, 2006) and these were sought in the axial coding. Tentative categories

were developed by rereading and reviewing single codes produced from the initial codes

and the unit of data classified under them. Classifying the data, guided by the research

questions and key words from the interview questions (e.g. classroom atmosphere),

helped to draw categories.

Themes are key concepts reflecting the meaning attached to the data (Lichtman,

2006). Rereading of categories developed and reviewing chunks of data under those

categories were the initial steps that led to the emergence of themes.

Response interpretation.

The following questions guided the researcher. What does the interview say

about classroom communication in English medium classes in teacher education in the

Philippine context? What is the pre-service teachers’ voice? What is the teacher

educators' voice? What cultural dynamics are at play in classroom communication in

English medium classes?


66

Survey analysis.

The survey data were analysed using IBM Statistical Package for Social Science

Statistics version 22 (IBM Corp., 2013). Once the data had been entered into SPSS

statistical package, data were cleaned and only cases with complete data were included

(Creswell 2012, p 182). Factor analysis, using principal component analysis, was

conducted on survey items to check the strength of the scales and to form

communication strategies scales. Items with factor loadings above .40 on one factor

and below .40 on all other factors were included in scales. Cronbach’s alpha statistics

was generated to check for internal consistency of the scales. Inspection of correlations

among the scales provided a measure of external validity of the scales.

Descriptive analysis of survey data from pre-service teachers generated

frequency distribution of respondents by institution, sex, course, year level, languages

spoken at home, and how competent they are with spoken English.

Similarly, descriptive analysis of survey data from teacher educators generated

frequency distribution of respondents by institution, sex, educational attainment, and

number of years of experience.

Inferential statistics were used to compare pre-service teachers’ and teacher

educators’ reports of communication strategies and cultural indicators.

3.9 Summary

The methodological details of the present study have been presented in this

chapter. The decision to use a mixed method approach to collecting data to arrive at a

more holistic understanding of communication in English medium classrooms in the

Philippine context has been presented. Analyses of survey data are presented in Chapter


67

Four, analyses of interview data are presented in Chapter Five, and analyses of

classroom observation data are reported in Chapter Six.

Chapter Four: Analyses of Survey Data

68

Chapter Four

Analyses of Survey Data

4.1 Introduction

The rationale for the study design was presented in Chapter Three. The

quantitative component is analysed in this chapter. The Classroom Communication

Strategies Survey was administered to pre-service teachers and teacher educators. The

focus of the survey was reported classroom communication strategies used by pre-

service teachers and teacher educators and their perceptions on the helpfulness of those

strategies in communication in English medium classes. The survey also contained

items assessing perceptions of high-culture and high power distance aspects of Filipino

culture. Analyses of the data are organized in the following manner:

1. Description of respondents

2. Development of scales

3. Analyses of pre-service teachers’ reported classroom communication strategies:

Pre-service teachers Strategies Data obtained Oral communication strategies

-Informal -Silent -Formal -Polite -Assertive

-What pre-service teachers say they do -What teacher educators say pre-service teachers do -What teacher educators say is helpful

4. Analyses of teacher educators’ reported instructional communication strategies:

Teacher educators Strategies Data obtained Instructional communication strategies

-Questioning -Non-verbal immediacy -Authoritarian -Verbal immediacy

-What teacher educators say they do -What pre-service teachers say teacher educators do -What pre-service teachers say is helpful

5. Analyses of teacher educators’ and pre-service teachers’ perception of high-

context culture communication and high power distance culture


69

6. Analyses of the correlations between teacher educators’ and pre-service

teachers’ perceptions of high-context and high power distance and their reported

communication strategies.

7. Discussion of findings

8. Summary and conclusion

4.2 The Participants

4.2.1 Pre-service teachers

Demographic profile.

The distribution of pre-service teachers by institution, program of study, gender,

and year level is shown in Table 4.1. Data were collected from three private teacher

education institutions (TEI) in Central Mindanao, Philippines (TEI A, TEI B and TEI C)

on the second semester of academic year 2013-2014. Pre-service teacher respondents

from TEI A were 36.68% of the total; 27.10% were from TEI B and 36.21% were from

TEI C. The two educational programs were the Bachelor of Elementary Education

(BEEd) and the Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSEd). There were more BSEd

participants (65.65%) than BEEd participants (34.35%). The total number of pre-

service teachers at the three TEIs was 1,325 when the survey was conducted.

Respondents comprised 428 students, hence a response rate 32.30%. The majority of

respondents were female, 75% (n=321). Male respondents comprised 25% (n=107) of

the sample. The majority of the respondents were in their first year (39.25%), followed

by the third year (25.47%), second year (22.20%), and fourth year (13.08%).


70

Table 4.1

Pre-service Teachers by Institution, Program of Study, Gender, and Year Level

Year level School Course Gender 1stYr 2ndYr 3rdYr 4thYr Total %

TEI A

BEEd F 23 0 13 1 37 8.64 M 1 1 3 0 5 1.17 BSEd F 31 25 13 14 83 19.39 M 16 7 8 1 32 7.48 Total

71

33

37

16

157

36.68

TEI

B BEEd F 29 10 1 0 40 9.35 M 1 4 0 1 6 1.40 BSEd F 8 0 18 20 46 10.75 M 7 1 5 11 24 5.61 Total

45

15

24

32

116

27.10

TEI

C BEEd F 22 8 10 6 46 10.75 M 8 3 0 2 13 3.04 BSEd F 18 24 27 0 69 16.12 M 4 12 11 0 27 6.31 Total

52

47

48

8

155

36.21

Total BEEd F 74 18 24 7 123 28.74 M 10 8 3 3 24 5.61

Total

84

26

27

10

147

34.35

BSEd F 57 49 58 34 198 46.26 M 27 20 24 12 83 19.39

Total

84

69

82

46

281

65.65 General

Total

F

131

67

82

41

321

75

M 37 28 27 15 107 25 Total 168 95 109 56 428 100 % 39.25 22.20 25.47 13.08 100


71

Ratings of competence on spoken English.

Table 4.2 shows pre-service teachers’ perception of their competence in spoken

English using a four-point Likert scale (1-Very Difficult, 2- Difficult, 3-Easy, and 4-Very

Easy).

Table 4.2

Frequency Distribution of Pre- service Teachers’ Perception of Spoken English

language

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Very Difficult 1 0.2 0.2 0.2 Difficult 180 42.1 42.1 42.3 Easy 238 55.6 55.6 97.9 Very Easy 9 2.1 2.1 100 Total 428 100 100

Languages spoken at home.

Pre-service teachers are generally bilingual and often multilingual, as indicated

by the number of languages they speak at home. Table 4.3 summarizes the frequency of

languages pre-service teachers speak at home.

Table 4.3

Frequency of the Number of Languages Spoken at Home by Pre-service Teachers

No. of Languages Frequency % 2 250 58.41 3 116 27.10 4 50 11.68 5 11 2.57 6 1 .23

Total 428 100


72

4.2.2 Teacher educators.

Demographic profile.

A total of 59 teacher educators (out of a total of 76) from the three TEIs

completed the survey (78% response rate). There are more female than male

respondents, comprising 68 % of the sample. In terms of educational qualifications,

most have a master’s degree (61%), followed by a bachelor’s degree (22%), and a

doctorate (17%).

Table 4.4

Distribution of Teacher Educators by Institution, Gender, and Educational

Qualifications

School Gender Bachelors Masters Doctorate Total

Percent

TEI A female 2 10 5 17 29 male 2 8 0 10 17 Total 4 18 5 27 46 TEI B female 3 10 2 15 25 male 2 1 2 5 8 Total 5 11 4 20 34 TEI C female 2 5 1 8 14 male 2 2 0 4 7 Total 4 7 1 12 20 Total female 7 25 8 40 68 male 6 11 2 19 32 Total 13 36 10 59 100

Years of teaching experience.

Years of teaching experiences of teacher educators from each TEI are shown in

Table 4.5. Most respondents are experienced teachers.


73

Table 4.5

Distribution of Teacher Educators by Institution and Years of Teaching Experience

TEI A TEI B TEI C Total % Years of 1-5 3 6 5 14 24

Teaching 6-10 0 3 0 3 5 Experience 11-15 4 5 2 11 19 16-20 8 2 1 11 19 21-25 3 2 2 7 12 26-above 9 2 2 13 22 Total 27 20 12 59 100

4.3 Development of Scales

Principal components factors analyses were conducted to group similar variables

(Stevens, 2002) and to simplify structure (Costello & Osborne, 2005). Using Kaiser’s

criterion (eigenvalue >1), initial components were identified. To extract clearer loadings

and provide a simplified structure (Brown, 2009), a varimax rotation (SPSS statistical

package) was employed. Survey items with .40 or higher loadings on one factor and

less than .40 loadings on other factors were retained.

Pre-service teachers’ oral communication strategies scales.

Pre-service teachers’ oral communication strategies survey contained 32 items.

The items were designed to measure five types of strategies: silent strategies, informal

strategies, formal strategies, polite strategies, and assertive strategies. The oral

communication strategies inventory developed by Nakatani (2006) informed the

construction of the 32- item survey. An initial principal components analysis was

conducted. Upon inspection, Item 8 (I add English affixes to Tagalog words to make

them sound like English) and Item 13 (I rephrase the question to clarify that I

understood it correctly at the same time give me time to think on what to say) had low


74

communalities and were removed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Item 15 (I reduce what

I want to say and use simple expressions.); Item 18 (I replace my original idea with

another idea when I cannot express my original intent); Item 26 (I focus more on how I

say my ideas [Is my grammar and pronunciation correct] than the meaning of my

message); and Item 29 (I wait until the class ends before I ask clarification questions to

my teacher or classmates on topics I have difficulty with) were also deleted because

item examination showed poor fit with the factor.

A principal components analysis was run with the retained items, this time with

a varimax rotation. Items that did not load above .4 on one factor and below .4 on the

other factors were removed. That left a total of 24 items. The factors were labelled

silent strategies (8 items: 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23), informal strategies (5 items: 6,

9, 10, 11,12), formal strategies (4 items: 1, 2, 3, 5), polite strategies (4 items: 24, 25,

27,28), and assertive strategies (3 items: 31,32,33). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients

of internal consistency were 0.78 for silent strategies; 0.66 for informal strategies; 0.60

for formal strategies; 0.59 for polite strategies; and 0.63 for assertive strategies. Given

that the internal consistency for four of the five scales is not high, caution should be

taken in drawing conclusions involving the scales. Factor loadings and Cronbach’s

alphas are shown in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6

Factor Loadings of Pre-service Teachers’ Oral Communication Strategies Scales

Items F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Silent Strategies (Cronbach’s alpha 0.78) I give up speaking when I cannot express what I want to say. .705 I avoid discussing topics that pose language difficulties. .728 I keep quiet and say nothing at all when I cannot find the words to express myself. .687

“I swallow” what I want to say when I feel that it can be risky and embarrassing to speak up. .559


75

(Table 4.6 Factor Loadings of Pre-service Teachers’ Oral Communication Strategies Scales

continued)

Items F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 I withhold what I want to say when I sense that my idea will be rejected. .642

I hide my reaction specially when I disagree with what my teachers or classmates have to say and I do not want them to get offended.

.459

I keep quiet even when asked to answer a question to convey that I do not know what to say. .639

Informal Strategies (Cronbach’s alpha 0.66) I use non-verbal language to express speaking difficulty (e.g. frowning, looking helpless, looking at the floor or the ceiling, embarrassed smile)

.547

I say in Tagalog or my mother tongue words that I do not know how to say in English. .592

I ask for help from my classmates and teachers when I could not find the words to express what I want to say. .597

I speak slowly to give myself time to think on what to say next. .680 I use filling words such as well, let me see, actually, as a matter of fact, in my own opinion to gain time to think. .600

Formal Strategies (Cronbach’s alpha 0.60) I describe something in English when I do not know its English equivalent (e.g. the kind of bag worn on the back for backpack) .655

I use words closest in meaning to what I mean (e.g. glass for cup or goblet, car for all types of vehicle) .687

I use all-purpose-words (e.g. those sort of things or stuff and the like, etcetera, you know what I mean, do you get it, how do you call) when I cannot think of the specific word.

.633

I use gestures, facial expressions or sound imitation to help me express my thoughts in English. .501

Polite Strategies (Cronbach’s alpha 0.59) I use polite expressions (e.g. po, opo, thank you, please, kindly) when I speak to my teachers and classmates in the classroom. .642

I say what I think my teachers and classmates expect and will be pleased to hear. .568

I use formal titles when addressing my teachers (doctor, professor, ma’am, sir) and classmates (e.g. president, governor, mayor, mister, miss).

.662

I speak to my classmates and teachers with a softer voice tone to appear respectful and non-threatening. .757

Assertive Strategies (Cronbach’s alpha 0.63) I interrupt the teacher and ask for clarification when I encounter communication difficulty. .724

I ask question on topics I have difficulty with the moment the question pops up in my mind. .793

I keep asking follow up questions when the answer to my initial question does not help me in my difficulty. .664


76

Teacher educators’ instructional communication survey scales.

The teacher educators’ instructional communication strategies survey was

initially made up of 20 items. The construction of the survey was informed by existing

instruments including immediacy behaviours by Gorham (1988), affinity-seeking

techniques by Bell and Dally (1984), and behaviour alteration techniques by Kearney,

Plax, Richmond and McCroskey (1985). The initial scales were questioning, non-

linguistic (that was later changed to non-verbal immediacy), authoritarian, and verbal

immediacy. The decision was made to examine the factor structure using the 428 pre-

service teachers who responded to a similar survey on teacher educators’ instructional

strategies. There were 59 teacher educators who responded to the questionnaire, too

small a number for a factor analysis.

An initial principal components analysis yielded five factors with an

eigenvalue >1. Item 6 (I call students by their first name or nickname) and Item 15 (I

tap students’ shoulders or backs encouragingly) were removed because of low loadings.

A principal component analysis then was conducted, excluding the deleted items, with

the application of a varimax rotation. Four components with at least three items having

greater than 0.40 loadings on one factor and less than .40 loadings on other factors were

retained. Item 10 (I look for the good points in students’ work, papers, and

performance, and verbally praise them), Item 19 (I give rewards [praise, high grade, or

material objects things] to students for speaking) and Item 20 (I tell students it is their

duty to participate in class discussion) loaded on a fifth factor. The factor loadings

were not strong. As such, the fifth factor was not included in the analyses. The teacher

educators’ instructional communication strategies were categorized as questioning

strategies (5 items: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5), non-verbal immediacy strategies (4 items: 11, 12, 13,


77

14), authoritarian strategies (3 items: 16, 17, 18), and verbal-immediacy strategies (3

items: 7, 8, 9). Factor loadings and Cronbach’s Alpha reliability for each scale are

shown in Table 4.7. The verbal immediacy scale had low internal consistency, so any

findings using this scale must be accepted with caution.

Table 4.7

Factor Loadings for Teacher Educators’ Instructional Communication Strategies Scales

Items F1 F2 F3 F4

Questioning (Cronbach’s alpha 0.74) Teachers ask follow up questions to encourage students to speak. .670 Teachers rephrase the question when students are not able to give a quick response. .769

Teachers rephrase students’ answers or opinions and ask them if it is what they meant. .673

Teachers ask students for their viewpoints or opinions. .647 Teachers ask students to elaborate their answers by asking probing questions. .587

Non-Verbal Immediacy (Cronbach’s alpha 0.72) Teachers smile at individual students and at the whole class. .704 Teachers use positive gestures to encourage students to speak. .696 Teachers position themselves close to students while teaching. .741 Teachers look at students with encouragement, such as nodding their head. .653

Authoritarian (Cronbach’s alpha 0.71) Teachers use their authority to force students to speak. .766 Teachers punish or sanction students for not speaking or answering. .796

Teachers immediately pinpoint the faults with students’ speaking. .743

Verbal Immediacy (Cronbach’s alpha 0.63) Teachers engage into informal conversation with students in the classroom before and after class. .628

Teachers share their own experiences of difficulty in communication with students. .819

Teachers discuss topics students bring to class even when the topic is not related to the lesson. .729


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High-context culture communication indicators scale.

The high-context culture indicator items were modified based on the work of

Richardson and Smith (2007). An initial principal components analysis yielded two

factors with eigenvalues >1. Examination of the factor loadings revealed items 1, 2, 3

and 5 strongly loading on both components. These items were eliminated. Survey items

that loaded strongly on one factor (loadings above .4) were retained (items 4, 6, 7, 8, 9

&10). Factor loadings and Cronbach’s Alpha reliability are shown on Table 4.8. The

Cronbach alpha was less than .70 and so analyses using this scale must be accepted with

caution.

Table 4.8

Factor Loadings on High-Context Culture Scale

Items F1 (Cronbach’s alpha .67) Even if not obviously stated, a speaker’s intention will always be mostly understood. .625

People can understand the meaning of a statement by reading “between the lines.” .568

Intentions not obviously stated by speakers can often be guessed from the context (e.g. social and economic status of the speakers, relationship between speaker and listener).

.580

A speaker can assume that listeners will know what they really mean. .587 People perceive and presume many things that are left unsaid. .572 Speakers and listeners have a common understanding of how each is expected to act or behave in a conversation. .527

High power distance indicators scale.

The high power distance items were modified, based on the work of Richardson

and Smith (2006). An initial principal components analysis yielded three factors with

eigenvalues >1. Examination of loadings revealed items 1, 2, 3, strongly loading on two


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components. The first five items were eliminated while survey items that loaded

strongly on one factor (0.40 loadings and above) were retained (items 6, 7, 8, 9 &10).

Factor loadings and the Cronbach’s Alpha reliability are shown on Table 4.9.

Table 4.9

Factor Loadings on High Power Distance Scale

Items F1 (Cronbach’s alpha 0.75) Students are discouraged to challenge ideas when the teacher is present in class. .595 Students who often question teachers’ authority are perceived negatively. .649 Students can risk exclusion when they question teachers’ decisions. .751 Students can face negative consequences when they publicly express disagreement with their teachers. .717

Students can face negative consequences when they privately tell a teacher that he or she is wrong. .677

4.4 Pre-service Teachers’ Oral Communication Strategies Survey: Results

This section examines the reported oral communication strategies of pre-service

teachers based on the reports of pre-service teachers and teacher educators. It also

examines the relationship between high-context culture and high power distance aspects

of Filipino culture and the oral communication strategies used by pre-service teachers.

Analyses were conducted using SPSS software.

Pre-service teachers’ use of oral communication strategies and the

helpfulness of these strategies.

Four oral communication strategy scales have been developed for the present

study: silent, informal, formal, polite, and assertive strategies. Silent strategies measure

how often pre-service teachers use silence and message abandonment related strategies

when they encounter a language difficulty. Informal strategies include code-switching,


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and non-verbal languages that hint at speaking difficulty and as well as ways to extend

speaking time to get more time to think. Formal strategies explore other target language

possibilities to express what one intends to say. Polite strategies are the use of respectful

ways of speaking to get through a communication task. Assertive strategies are direct

ways of getting answers when confronted with a communication difficulty.

Teacher educators also rated the helpfulness of the strategies of pre-service

teachers. Mean and standard deviations of pre-service teachers’ and teacher educators’

responses on the use of oral communication strategies by pre-service teachers and how

helpful teacher educators find these strategies are shown in Table 4.10. For ease of

comparison, each scale is presented as a scale out of 4.0.

Table 4.10

Use of Oral Communication Strategies by Pre-service teachers, as reported by Pre-

service Teachers and Teacher Educators and Teacher Educators Reports of the

Helpfulness of these Strategies

Oral communication

strategies

Pre-service teachers N=428

Teacher educators

N=59

T-test Helpfulness reported by

teacher educators

M SD M SD p-value M SD Silent 2.21 0.55 2.42 0.59 .006* 1.94 0.69 Informal 2.71 0.50 2.77 0.53 .413 2.91 0.44 Formal 2.75 0.51 2.81 0.48 .402 2.93 0.42 Polite 3.18 0.51 2.95 0.45 .001* 2.99 0.40 Assertive 2.20 0.58 2.33 0.44 .047* 2.84 0.58

Note. Frequency: 1=Never 2=Occasionally 3=Most of the time 4= Always Helpfulness: 1=Never Helpful 2=Not so Helpful 3=Helpful 4= Very Helpful *p <.05.

The strategies arranged in order of frequency of use, as reported by pre-service

teachers and teacher educators, are polite strategies, formal strategies, informal

strategies, silent strategies, and assertive strategies.


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Did pre-service teachers and teacher educators agree on the strategies used by

pre-service teachers? Independent samples t-tests reveal significant differences in pre-

service teachers’ and teacher educators’ reports on silent strategies (p > .01), polite

strategies (p > .01), and assertive strategies (p >.05). Pre-service teachers say they use

silent strategies more than reported by teacher educators. Pre-service teachers say that

use polite strategies more than reported by teacher educators. Teacher educators report

greater use of assertive strategies than reported by pre-service teachers.

The significant differences between pre-service teachers’ and teacher educators’

reports on pre-service teachers’ use of silent, polite, and assertive oral communication is

consistent with the norms in high-context and high power distance cultures. Pre-service

teachers saying they use silent strategies more than reported by teacher educators

indicates that pre-service teachers are more aware than teacher educators of the

constraints on their behaviour. It also shows awareness among pre-service teachers of

their place in the communication continuum where they are expected to be the ones who

are expected to regulate their behaviour.

Similarly, pre-service teachers indicating that they use more polite strategies

more than teacher educators report demonstrate an awareness of the importance of

showing respect to teachers. The difference also suggests that teacher educators expect a

high level of polite behaviour in students. It validates the premium placed on politeness

by Filipino teachers. Pre-service teachers see themselves as less assertive than teacher

educators report. This suggests that teacher educators may not favour assertive students.

In terms of helpfulness of the strategies used by pre-service teachers, teacher

educators report that they find all strategies helpful except silent strategies.


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To obtain deeper insights on the impact of high-context and high power distance

culture on classroom communication dynamics, an examination of pre-service teachers’

oral communication scales (see Appendix 11), as well as relevant items within the

scales, is conducted in the following sections.

Polite strategies.

Consistency between pre-service teachers and teacher educators in identifying

polite strategies as the most frequently used oral communication strategies indicate the

value of politeness in the Filipino culture, even though the t-test showed that pre-service

teachers considered themselves more polite than teacher educators did.

Among the polite items, for example, it is interesting to note that item 24 (I use

polite expressions [e.g. po, opo, thank you, please, kindly] when I speak to my teachers

and classmates in the classroom) was rated highly by pre-service teachers and teacher

educators. The use of polite expressions is a means of maintaining a harmonious

classroom. Maintaining an atmosphere of outward harmony is a characteristic of a

collectivist society (Chan et al., 2009). One way to maintain harmony is to use words

that make people feel respected. Distinctive polite expressions should be used

particularly when speaking to someone older or of higher social status.

Teacher educators strongly endorsed Item 27 (Students use formal titles when

addressing their teachers [doctor, professor, ma’am, sir] and classmates [e.g.

president, governor, mayor, mister, miss]), highlighting the importance of status in the

classroom and that its recognition is seen as an expression of respect. Use of formal

titles promotes a smooth flow of communication in terms of how one should speak and

to whom one should speak. Use of social titles serves as a form of social recognition in

a hierarchical society.


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The Filipino language contains explicit polite expressions including voice tones

with their use subject to the social relationship of the communicators. Failure to

demonstrate polite expressions is seen as a sign of poor upbringing. Students who are

seen by teachers as polite are more likely to be treated leniently than students seen as

impolite.

Formal strategies.

It is interesting to note the use of gestures to support speaking in English is a

feature of high-context communication (Item 5: I use gestures, facial expressions or

sound imitation to help me express my thoughts in English). Pre-service teachers’ use

of body language to enhance speaking in English supports the vital role of non-verbal

language in Filipino classrooms.

Informal strategies.

Pre-service teachers report that they use informal communication strategies most

of the time. The use of time delaying techniques (Item 12: I use filling words such as

well, let me see, actually, as a matter of fact, in my own opinion to gain time to think.)

and Item 11 (I speak slowly to give myself time to think on what to say next) to obtain

more time to think before speaking, asking help (Item 10: I ask for help from my

classmates and teachers when I could not find the words to express what I want to say)

and code-switching (Item 9: I say in Tagalog or my mother tongue words that I do not

know how to say in English) are used frequently.

Indirect communication style or “going around the bush” is a characteristic of

local Filipino communication style. This may explain the appeal of time gaining

techniques to get through a communication difficulty. Code-switching, although


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generally discouraged in English medium classes, is a convenient strategy. Asking for

help from classmates rather than from teachers (more on this in the next chapter when

focus group interviews are analysed) is also frequently used specifically among those

who have established trusting relationship.

Use of filling words to gain time to think (Item 11) may be seen by teacher

educators as a delaying tactic that wastes class time. Examining the use of filling words

in the light of power relationships, pre-service teachers who use filling words may

sound more confident in their speaking than those who speak slowly to buy time.

Confident students may be a threat to the teachers’ role as the bearer of knowledge. On

the other hand, timidity reflected in speaking slowly, asking for help, and use of non-

verbal language to express difficulty may maintain the subordinate status of students.

Informal strategies that do not threaten the authority of teachers may be perceived as

more helpful by teacher educators.

Silent strategies.

It is useful to examine item 22 (I hide my reaction specially when I disagree

with what my teachers or classmates have to say and I do not want them to get

offended). This item had the highest mean among the silent strategies in the ratings of

pre-service teachers and also in terms of helpfulness as rated by teacher educators. The

importance accorded to this item supports the importance of face in Filipino culture.

This cultural construct refers to the preferred image a person wants to project to others

(Brown & Levinson, 1987). Face is a feature of high-context cultures where shame and

honour are important (Kemp, 2009). Face can be deduced from the use of silent

strategies. These include maintaining harmony by avoiding being offensive, fear of

rejection or being in an embarrassing situation, and saving one’s dignity.


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From the perspective of teacher educators, silence from pre-service teachers may

be seen as a sign of difficulties with English rather than fear of causing offence or

embarrassment. Teacher educators indicate on the survey that they do not find silence

to be helpful in the classroom. Avoiding confrontation and the maintenance of harmony

are aspects of a high-context culture where the group is more important than the

individual. Before one speaks, one considers how the group will react to what is said.

Assertive strategies.

Assertive strategies were not rated highly by pre-service teachers or teacher

educators. Among the assertive strategies, item 30, describing a more aggressive

behaviour (I interrupt the teacher and ask for clarification when I encounter a

communication difficulty) obtained the lowest ratings. Both teachers and students agree

that assertive strategies are seldom used. Assertiveness is less valued than compliance

or obedience, common behaviours in high-context and high power distance societies.

It is interesting to note that teacher educators indicated that it was helpful when

pre-service teachers initiate questions. However, the way that students assert themselves

seems to make a difference. For example, asking follow-through questions, as in item

32 (Students keeping on asking follow up questions when the given answer to their

initial question does not help them in their difficulty) is seen as more helpful than other

types of assertive behaviour such as Item 31, asking a question as soon as the student

thinks of it (Students asking question on topics they have difficulty with the moment the

question pops up in their mind). Although showing initiative is beneficial for language

learning (Item 30: Students interrupting the teacher and asking clarification when they

encounter communication difficulty), interrupting the teacher is not strongly endorsed

by teacher educators.


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Summary of pre-service teachers’ reported use of oral communication

strategies.

The current study provides pre-service teachers’ reported use of oral

communication strategies in English medium classes, teacher educators’ reports of pre-

service teachers’ use of communication strategies, and teacher educators’ ratings of the

helpfulness of those strategies. The reported high use of polite strategies confirms the

importance of politeness in Filipino society. Polite strategies had the highest means for

pre-service teachers’ reports of their classroom behaviour, teacher educators’ reports of

students’ classroom behaviour, and teacher educators’ ratings of the helpfulness of

students’ classroom behaviours. As noted, politeness is a significant feature of both

high- context cultures and high power distance cultures.

The common use of informal strategies mirrors the preference for informality in

communication in the Philippines. Pre-service teachers take this national style of

behaviour with them into English medium classrooms. The use of silence probably is a

more complex phenomenon. Pre-service teachers can be silent when confronted with

oral communication difficulties. They are silent not only because they do not know the

answer but also because they may feel embarrassed and worry about offending others.

The infrequent use of assertive strategies indicates unwillingness among pre-service

teachers to challenge authority, a marker of a high-context and a high power distance

culture.

Although pre-service teachers and teacher educators generally agree on the

strategies used in classrooms, there are some differences. From teacher educators’

perspective, students are silent in classrooms because they are experiencing difficulties

with the content of the class and the use of English. From the students’ perspective,


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they often are silent because they do not want to cause offence, they do not want to be

rejected, or they feel embarrassed. The importance of respect for authority is conveyed

in the results for polite strategies.

Teacher educators’ assessment of the helpfulness of students’ oral

communication strategies includes many strategies as long as students act with respect

for authority and propriety, in accordance with the norms of the local culture.

4.5 Teacher Educators’ Instructional Communication Strategies Survey: Results

This section examines the instructional communication strategies used by

teacher educators in English medium classes: what do teacher educators say they do?;

what do pre-service teachers say teachers do?; and what strategies do pre-service

teachers find helpful? Also, connections between teacher educators’ use of instructional

communication strategies and the high-context and high power distance aspects of

Filipino culture are examined.

Using a four-point Likert scale (1- Never, 2-Occasionally, 3- Most of the Time,

4-Always), teacher educators reported how often they use instructional communication

strategies and pre-service teachers reported how often they see teacher educators use

these strategies. In addition, pre-service teachers reported the helpfulness of these

strategies using a four-point scale (1- Never helpful, 2-Not so helpful, 3- Helpful, 4-Very

helpful).

Teacher educators’ instructional communication strategies were categorized as

questioning, non-verbal immediacy, authoritarian, and verbal immediacy. Questioning

strategies include teacher educators’ use of questions to stimulate or extend students’

speaking time. Non-verbal immediacy strategies encompass teachers’ actions to create a


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classroom atmosphere conducive for oral communication. Authoritarian strategies

encompass teacher educators’ use of their authority to force students to speak.

Immediacy strategies encompass teachers’ informal conversations with students inside

the classroom to encourage students to speak. Table 4.11 presents the means and

standard deviations of teacher educators’ and pre-service teachers’ reports of the use of

instructional strategies in English medium classes, how helpful pre-service teachers

find these strategies, and t-tests comparing the reports of teacher educators and pre-

service teachers.

Table 4.11

Means, Standard Deviations and t-tests of Reports of Use of Instructional

Communication Strategies Reported by Teacher Educators and Pre-service Teachers,

and their Helpfulness as Reported by Pre-service Teachers

Teacher educators’ strategies

Teacher educators’

reports

Pre-service teachers’ reports

t-test Helpfulness as reported by

pre-service teachers

M SD M SD p M SD Questioning 3.36 0.50 3.35 0.44 .754 3.35 0.46 Non-verbal Immediacy

3.37 0.53 3.11 0.53 .001 3.24 0.59

Authoritarian 1.63 0.46 1.77 0.60 .038 1.81 0.70 Verbal Immediacy 2.37 0.57 2.35 0.62 .758 2.63 0.64 Note. Frequency : 1=Never 2=Occasionally 3=Most of the Time 4= Always Helpfulness: 1=Never Helpful 2=Not So Helpful 3=Helpful 4= Very Helpful

Teacher educators’ reports on their use of strategies show questioning strategies

and non-verbal immediacy strategies are used frequently. They report they rarely used

authoritarian strategies. Pre-service teachers’ reports are very similar to teacher

educators’ reports. Teacher educators reported more use of non-verbal immediacy

strategies than reported by pre-service teachers.


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The results shown in Table 4.11 reveal two notable aspects of classroom

communication. Questioning by teachers is a key strategy. Second, the frequent use of

non-verbal immediacy strategies by teacher educators reflects the important role of non-

verbal strategies in a high-context culture.

It was notable that pre-service teachers’ ratings of the helpfulness of teachers’

strategies were very similar to their ratings of teachers’ current use of these strategies.

That is, pre-service teachers appear relatively satisfied with the way their classrooms

operate.

Again, to obtain deeper insights on the impact of high-context and high power

distance culture on classroom communication dynamics, an examination of teacher

educators’ instructional communication scales (see Appendix 12), as well as relevant

items within the scales, is conducted in the following sections.

Questioning strategies.

In the questioning strategies scale, Item 3 (I rephrase students’ answers or

opinions and ask them if it is what they meant) got the lowest mean for teacher

educators. This result could be related to teacher authority. Rephrasing students’

answers requires teachers to listen and pay attention in order to rephrase students’

English. In a high-power distance setting, teachers may be concerned that they do not

have the skills to rephrase students’ English correctly. Making a mistake may cause the

loss of face and reduce respect from students.

In terms of helpfulness of teachers’ strategies, pre-service teachers indicated that

having the teacher rephrase a question when they were not able to give a quick response

was a helpful strategy. The least helpful strategy was having teachers ask students to


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elaborate their answers by asking probing questions. It appears that students are wary of

teachers asking lots of questions.

Non-verbal immediacy strategies.

Among non-verbal scale items teacher educators and pre-service teachers both

indicated frequent use of looking at students with encouragement and using positive

gestures to encourage students to speak. It is not surprising to see teacher educators

making use of non-verbal behaviours given the key function of non-verbal language in

high-context culture communication. Teachers obviously are in control of the

classroom.

Authoritarian strategies.

Teacher educators and pre-service teachers agree that authoritarian strategies are

not widely used but they are used at times. Authoritarian strategies include forcing

students to speak, immediately pin-pointing faults with a student’s speaking, and

punishing students for not speaking or answering.

Coercion to speak may not happen often because of punishment of coercion

(Philippine Anti-Corporal Punishment Act, 2013). Although the act was promulgated

for the protection of minors (under 18), it should be noted that the entry age of Filipino

university students may be as low as 15 years. Pressuring pre-service teachers to speak

may occur because students’ performance is being graded. Grading usually includes

English oral participation. Getting good grades is a major goal of schooling in the

Philippines. High grades are a reflection not only of academic performance but also of a

person’s self-worth.


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Verbal immediacy strategies.

Verbal immediacy strategies include engaging in informal conversation with

students, teachers sharing their difficulties with English, and making use of topics that

students bring to class.

Teacher educators appear to approve of informal conversations with students

before and after class, though they are careful not to lose power inside the classroom.

There is the expectation of more formal communication during the class.

Teacher educators’ infrequent use of topics students bring with them to class for

discussion may be interpreted in three ways. One, teachers may feel pressured to cover

topics designated in the syllabus. Second, students seldom bring topics with them.

Third, it is the teacher who makes decisions about what happens in the classroom.

Making use of topics introduced by students may be seen as relinquishing power to

students.

In terms of helpfulness of verbal immediacy strategies, pre-service teachers

approve of teachers sharing their own difficulties in learning English and teachers

chatting informally with students.

Summary of teacher educators’ use of instructional communication

strategies.

The most commonly reported strategies were questioning strategies and non-

verbal immediacy strategies. These sorts of strategies preserve the teacher’s authority.

The pre-service teachers also reported that these were the most used strategies.

Pre-service teachers indicate that they find teachers’ questioning strategies

helpful. The helpfulness of non-verbal immediacy strategies fits the broader context of

Filipino society where a lot of information is supplied non-verbally.


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It was notable that not only were teacher educators’ reports and pre-service

teachers’ reports of strategies used in classrooms similar but also pre-service teachers

rated the helpfulness of these strategies in a similar manner. Given these findings, it is

likely that pre-service teachers will behave in a similar manner to the teacher educators

when they have graduated and are teaching English in schools.

4.6 High-Context and High Power Distance Culture Indicators and Use of


This section explores the relationship between indicators of a high-context

culture and a high power distance cultures and reported oral communication strategies

of teachers and students.

High-context culture communication and high power distance as reported

by teacher educators and pre-service teachers.

Using a four-point Likert scale (1- Strongly Disagree, 2- Disagree, 3- Agree, 4-

Strongly Agree), pre-service teachers and teacher educators reported their perception of

high-context culture communication and high power distance. In a high-context

communication culture, communication often happens in an indirect manner and in an

non-verbal manner. In a high power distance culture, there is strong hierarchical

distribution of power. Table 4.12 shows the means and standard deviations for the two

scales. In addition, independent measures t-tests were conducted to look for differences

between teacher educators and pre-service teachers in their reports of these phenomena.


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Table 4.12

Means, Standard Deviations and t-tests of Pre-service Teachers’ and Teacher

Educators’ Perceptions of High-Context Culture and High Power Distance

Pre-service teachers (n=428)

Teacher educators

(n=59)

Independent Samples Test

M SD M SD t df p-value High-context culture (α=0.67) 2.87 0.41 2.78 0.39

1.51

485

.13

High power distance (α=0.75) 2.33 0.56 1.95 0.57

4.79

485

.00

For high-context culture, both teacher educators and pre-service teachers agree

that, in the Philippines, meaning does not solely rely on the meanings of the words. The

context within which the spoken message occurs adds significantly to the meaning. The

t-test shows no difference between teacher educators and pre-service teachers in their

perception of a high-context culture.

For high power distance, a more complex picture emerges. Both pre-service

teachers and teacher educators perceive a high power distance culture lower than a high-

context culture. In addition, there is a significant difference between teacher educators

and pre-service teachers in ratings of high power distance. Pre service teachers see a

greater power distance operating than do teacher educators. This result was somewhat

unexpected, given that the Philippines is generally regarded as a high power distance

culture.

The finding that pre-service teachers endorse a high power distance culture

more than teacher educators is in keeping with Maggay (2002) who argues that in the

Philippines, the people who hold greater power are less aware of the power they hold

than the people who are subject to that power.


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Relationship between high-context culture and high power distance culture

and communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and teacher

educators.

A series of correlations examined the relationships among these variables. The

results are presented in Table 4.13.

Table 4.13

Correlations between Pre-service Teachers’ Ratings of High-context Culture, High

Power Distance, their Oral Communication Strategies, and their Teachers’


High-context culture High power distance R = .22** Pre-service teachers’ oral communication strategies (n=428) Silent .15** .19** Informal .15** .10* Formal .16** .05 ns Polite .02 ns .04 ns Assertive .05 ns .15** Teacher educators’ instructional communication strategies

Questioning .09 ns -.07 ns Non-Verbal immediacy .10* -.10* Authoritarian .20** .25*** Verbal Immediacy .18** .16** Note. ns=non-significant *p <.05. **p < .01.***p <.001

The significant positive correlation between reports of a high-context culture

and a high power distance culture (r = .22**) fit with Maggay’s (2002) argument that

the greater the power distance between communicators, the more that communication

becomes indirect or highly-contextualized. Hofstede (1986) also argues that power

distance is linked with the collectivist nature of high-context cultures.


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The correlations reveal significant relationships between endorsement of a high-

context culture and use of silent strategies, informal strategies, and formal strategies. It

was notable that there was no significant relationship between high-context culture and

use of polite strategies because the literature indicates that politeness is a major feature

of high-context cultures. There may be some statistical properties at play here. First, the

politeness scale was not a robust scale (Cronbach alpha = 0.59). Second, the mean for

this scale was high (M = 3.18 on a four point scale). There may have been a ceiling

effect that reduced the variance of the scale and thereby reduced the strength of the

correlation.

There were significant correlations between perception of high power distance

and reported use of silent strategies, informal strategies, and assertive strategies. The

strongest correlation was between high power and silent strategies. When power

distance is high, the powerless are hesitant to express their views (Maggay, 2002).

For pre-service teachers who perceive a high power distance in operation to

indicate that they use assertive strategies is somewhat surprising in a collectivist culture.

This outcome may be explained in part by what Maggay (2002) describes as the two

sides of Filipino communication style, especially on sensitive issues. There is a strong

tendency to hold back on one’s feelings, but these feelings eventually may be too

intense to hold back. Pre-service teachers recognize their place in the lower end of the

power distance scale, but there remains the desire to speak up, to be heard. There was

no significant relationship between high power distance and polite strategies. As noted

earlier, there may be statistical reasons for the lack of a relationship.

Other unexpected findings in pre-service teachers’ data, such as a lack of a

relationship between formal strategies and a high power distance, may reflect


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inconsistencies between modern theories of pedagogy (including some classroom

strategies used by teachers and students) that have been introduced to the Philippines

from Western sources and traditional practices of local cultures. Pre-service teachers

may be instructed to teach in a “Western manner” that is at odds with what currently

happens in classrooms.

Correlations between high-context culture, high power distance, and teacher

educators’ strategies, as perceived by pre-service teachers, reveal some interesting

findings. Pre-service teachers who perceive high-context communication and high

power distance report teacher educators’ use of non-verbal immediacy strategies,

authoritarian strategies, and verbal immediacy strategies.

Relationships between high-context culture, high power distance, and the

communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and teacher

educators from teacher educators’ reports.

Correlations among these variables are shown in Table 4.14. Compared to the

correlations for pre-service teachers (see Table 4.13), there were few significant

correlations for teacher educators. It is notable that there is no correlation between

teacher educators’ perceptions of high-context and high power distance (there was a

significant correlation between these two variables for pre-service teachers). Teacher

educators indicated that there was not a strong power distance in their culture (the mean

for this scale out of four was 1.95). Perhaps those higher in a power hierarchy are less

aware of the power imbalance than those lower in the hierarchy. It should be noted that

the relatively low scores on the power distance scale may have reduced variances and as

a result reduced the strength of the correlation.


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There were significant correlations between teacher educators’ perception of

high power distance and their perception of their students’ use of silent, informal, and

polite strategies. These findings support the perception that students in collective

societies are silent and polite. Informal strategies include strategies to cope with

problems speaking in English such as code-switching, asking for help, and gaining time.

One can imagine a classroom with a dominant teacher and students struggling to

achieve competency in English.

There was a significant correlation between perception of high-context culture

and pre-service teachers’ use of assertive strategies, as reported by teacher educators.

This was an unexpected result. Perhaps when English is used as a medium of

instruction, teachers may want students to act more like Western students and actively

to ask for help when they experience difficulties in English.

Table 4.14

Correlations among Teacher Educators’ Ratings of High-Context Culture, High Power

Distance, Instructional Communication Strategies, and Pre-service Teachers’ Oral


(n=59) High-context culture High power distance r=.02 ns

Teacher educators’ instructional communication strategies Questioning .22 ns -.15 ns Non-Verbal Immediacy .05 ns -.10 ns Authoritarian .08 ns .17 ns Verbal Immediacy .19 ns .16 ns Pre-service teachers’ oral communication strategies Silent .21 ns .33* Informal .10 ns .34** Formal .16 ns .25 ns Polite .04 ns .28* Assertive .32* .25 ns

Note. ns=non-significant *p <.05. **p < .01.


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Relationship between high-context culture and high power distance and the

helpfulness of communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and

teacher educators.

Finally, correlations were generated to examine the relationships among high-

context culture, high power distance, and the helpfulness of pre-service teachers’

strategies and teacher educators’ strategies. The results are shown in Table 4.15.

Table 4.15

Correlations between High-Context Culture, High Power Distance, and Perceived

Helpfulness of Oral Communication Strategies and Instructional Communication

Strategies

Helpfulness of oral communication strategies as rated by teacher educators (n=59)

High-context culture High power distance

Silent .32* .23 ns Informal -.02 ns .18 ns Formal .16 ns .21 ns Polite .00 ns -.01 ns Assertive .07 ns .06 ns Helpfulness of instructional communication strategies as rated by pre-service teachers (n=428)

Questioning .11* -.07 ns Non-Verbal Immediacy .11* -.10 ns Authoritarian .17** .28** Verbal Immediacy .19** .16**

Note. ns=non-significant *p <.05. **p < .01.

The only significant correlation for teacher educators was between high-context

culture and the helpfulness of students’ silent strategies. The use of silence can maintain

harmony. Those of lower status are expected to demonstrate restraint.

There were significant correlations between pre-service teachers’ perceptions of

high-context culture and their endorsing teachers’ use of questioning, non-verbal


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immediacy, authoritarian, and verbal immediacy strategies (though the correlations

were not particularly strong).

There also were significant correlations between students’ perception of high

power distance and their endorsing of teachers’ authoritarian and verbal immediacy

strategies. In conventional high power distance societies, although authoritarian teachers

(who are very much in control of the classroom) can be feared by students, they are also

perceived as having a more disciplined and orderly class compared to their non-

authoritarian counterparts who are perceived to have less serious and rowdy students.

4.7 Discussion of Quantitative Data

The quantitative data analyses yielded six findings of interest that will be

discussed in this section.

1. There is general agreement between teacher educators and pre-service

teachers about what happens in classrooms.

2. There is a preference by teacher educators and pre-service teachers for

strategies that maintain teacher authority,

3. There is some evidence for a disconnect between pedagogical ideas imported

from western countries and local pedagogical practice.

4. Pre-service teachers appear to be more aware of high-context and high

power influences on behaviour than teacher educators.

5. Teacher educators and pre-service teachers may have differing

interpretations of students’ use of silence.

6. Pre-service teachers indicated that teacher educators’ current teaching

strategies helped them to learn.


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1. General agreement by pre-service teachers and teacher educators on

strategies used in English medium classrooms

Teacher educators and pre-service teachers provide generally similar

reports about the strategies used by teachers and students in English medium

classrooms. This similarity enhances the validity of the survey data. There is a

strong convergence on the perceptions of pre-service teachers and teacher

educators on the use of communication strategies, high-context communication

style, and high power distance.

2. Preference of pre-service teachers and teacher educators for

communication strategies that maintain teacher authority

There emerges a preference for oral communication strategies that

maintain the higher status of teachers. The high regard placed on polite

strategies points to respect for authority. Analyses of formal, informal, silent and

assertive strategies also point to a preference for strategies that place teachers in

less vulnerable positions.

A similar focus on teacher authority emerges from the analyses of

teachers’ communication strategies. Questioning strategies and non-verbal

immediacy strategies emerge as the most commonly used strategies.

3. A possible disconnect between imported pedagogical ideas and local

practices

The correlational analyses yielded some unexpected results. It is

speculative, but perhaps these unexpected results come from a disconnect

between local communication practices and imported educational ideas, for


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example, the implementation of National Competency Based Teacher Standards

(NCBTS) (Department of Education, 2010, p. 54). NCBTS identifies indicators

of standard learning environments including promotion of fairness in the

classroom, creation of a safe physical classroom environment, and a healthy

psychological climate conducive for learning that encourages learners’ free

expression of ideas. The policy describes a classroom that is most likely found

in low-context and low power distance cultures. There may be some confusion

when teachers are expected to teach in a manner that is contrary to local

practices.

4. Pre-service teachers’ strategies are linked to high-context culture and high

power distance culture but the same patterns do not appear with teacher

educators’ strategies

The correlational analyses showed significant relationships between

high-context culture and high power distance culture and pre-service teachers’

use of oral communication strategies. A similar pattern did not emerge with

teacher educators. As noted, there may be statistical explanations for these

results. Another explanation may be that people in less powerful positions (in

this case, students) may be more aware of context and power than people in

more powerful positions (in this case, teachers). Maggay (2002) argued that in

high power distance collective societies, the ones who are expected to make

adjustments and observe contextual conventions in the way they communicate

are the less powerful.


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5. Teacher educators and pre-service teachers may have differing

interpretations of silent strategies

Pre-service teachers appear to see their use of silence as a way to

maintain classroom harmony as much as an indicator of not knowing what to

say. Teacher educators appear to interpret silence as students not knowing how

to respond. Differing interpretations of silence in English medium classes may

obstruct the application of useful instructional strategies. Students are unlikely

to develop their English speaking skills in a silent classroom.

6. Pre-service teachers’ endorsement of current teaching practices

It was notable that pre-service teachers endorsed as “helpful” the current

strategies used by teacher educators. This finding indicates that pre-service

teachers are likely to replicate the same instructional strategies when they

become teachers.

4.8 Summary and Conclusions

In this chapter, analyses and discussion of survey data from pre-service teachers

and teacher educators have been presented. The survey was designed to examine the

communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and teacher educators and their

helpfulness in promoting oral participation in English medium classes. In addition, the

survey data included pre-service teachers’ and teacher educators’ assessment of high-

context culture and high power distance culture. The Philippines has been characterized

as a high-context, high power distance culture. There were 428 pre-service teachers and

59 teacher educators who completed surveys.


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In general, pre-service teachers and teacher educators agree that classrooms are

conducted in a traditional Filipino manner with teachers in a position of authority and

students remaining quiet and reserved unless called to respond by teachers.

Furthermore, pre-service teachers indicated that current teaching strategies help them to

learn English. This suggests that they will conduct classes in a similar manner when

they graduate. However, it is highly unlikely that a relatively silent classroom will help

students develop oral English proficiency.

These survey findings are extended with data obtained in focus group interviews

and in classroom observation. The interview data are presented in the next chapter.

Chapter Five: Focus Group Interview Data Analyses

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Chapter Five

Focus Group Interview Data Analyses

5.1 Introduction

Quantitative data about strategies used in English medium classes have been

analysed in Chapter Four. To obtain more information from teacher educators and pre-

service teachers about their communication experiences, semi-structured focus group

interviews were conducted using the interview protocols reproduced in Appendices 2

and 3. This chapter presents analyses of the group interview data. The analyses begin

with the presentation of participants’ demographic profile followed by the questions that

guided the semi-structured interviews. Findings are presented and discussed.

5.2 Participants


There were 41 pre-service teachers who participated in the focus group

interviews. Table 5.1 shows the year level, gender, and institution of the participants.

Table 5.1

Distribution of Pre-service Teachers by Institution, Gender and Year Level

1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total TEI A Female 3 2 3 3 11 Male 3 4 0 0 7 TEI B Female 1 1 6 4 12 Male 1 1 0 0 2 TEI C Female 3 3 3 0 9 Male 0 0 0 0 0 Total 11 11 12 7 41 % 26.82 26.82 29.26 17.07 100


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Teacher educators.

Table 5.2 shows teacher educators’ distribution by gender and years of teaching.

Table 5.2

Distribution of Teacher Educators by Gender and Years of Teaching Experience

Years of Teaching Experience Gender 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26 and above Total % Female 0 1 2 1 2 1 7 43.75 Male 1 2 1 3 0 2 9 56.25 Total 1 3 3 4 2 3 16 100 % 6.25 18.75 18.75 25.00 12.50 18.75 100

Table 5.3 presents teacher educators’ profile by institution and highest

educational qualifications.

Table 5.3

Distribution of Teacher Educators by Institution and Educational Qualifications

Educational Qualifications Bachelors Masters Doctorate Total % TEI A 2 3 1 6 37.50

B 2 1 1 4 25.00 C 0 5 1 6 37.50

Total 4 9 3 16 100 % 25.00 56.25 18.75 100

5.3 Interview Questions

The following aspects were explored in the interviews: general atmosphere

of the classroom; classroom activities and opportunities for oral communication in

English; communication difficulties pre-service teachers encounter and the strategies

they use when they encounter them; teacher educators’ instructional strategies to


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promote communication in English; cultural factors affecting difficulties in

communication; and strategies used in classroom oral communication. More detailed

information about the interviews is found in Appendices 2 and 3.

5.4 Description of the Information Analyzed

The data analysed are transcriptions of 12 recorded focus group interviews

involving six groups of pre-service teachers and six groups of teacher educators from

three teacher education institutions in Central Mindanao, the Philippines. The

interviews were conducted in English. English is the medium of instruction in the

Philippines and its use in interviews within an academic setting is generally expected.

The researcher informed the participants that it was acceptable to use the local language

if they felt more at ease with it.

Interview sessions started with the researcher thanking the participants for

attending. There was a brief orientation to the interview, confirming the confidentiality

of what might be said during the interview, and participants’ right to leave the interview

at any time without giving a reason for leaving. Participants did not have to answer

questions if they did not wish to do so. Most of the participants responded to every

question.

Although most participants answered in English, some of them answered in a

mixture of English, Tagalog, the Philippine national language, and Ilongo, another local

language. The words by those who answered using mixture of English and local

languages were transcribed verbatim to retain the original thought. However, in the

transcription, English translations were provided, enclosed in parentheses, beside the

equivalent local language for ease in coding and organising data. Repeated and


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incomprehensible words were removed from the transcripts to make them easier to read.

It is important to note that, in the Philippines, the words “recite” or “recitation” refer to

all forms of oral participation in the classroom, including answering questions, asking

questions, making oral presentations, role plays, and so on. Pseudonyms were assigned

to maintain participants’ confidentiality. Pre-service teachers’ pseudonyms are prefixed

with PST and TE for teacher educators.

5.5 Focus Group Interview Analyses

Interview protocols (see Appendices 2 & 3) guided the semi-structured

interview. Data analyses focused on three major areas: the general oral communication

atmosphere of classes; pre-service teachers’ and teacher educators’ oral communication

strategies; and the influence of high-context and high power distance culture on oral

communication.

Oral communication in the classroom.

General class atmosphere.

The majority of pre-service teachers described the atmosphere as quiet with only

a few students participating in class discussions. The description of the classroom was

followed by reasons for the silence, or passivity, even before the question was asked.

Here are two responses from pre-service teachers:

Based on my experiences in my English classes or my major subjects where the

medium of instruction is English, some of these classes are quiet. Only a few

are participating, especially when there are discussions and when the teacher is

asking questions which are very reflective and which need more vocabulary


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words. For example, in my English class, my teacher asked some questions, only

minimal number of students is answering (PST-Rain).

I can say that in our classes, especially in Professional Education classes, we

use English as our medium of communication. The atmosphere inside the

classroom is somewhat quiet because others are not really participative

especially when the teacher throws a question in English (PST-Alma).

Pre-service teachers provided a number of reasons why they were quiet: they

preferred to talk in a local language; they lacked confidence in speaking in English; they

worried about making mistakes in public; they worried about being yelled at or

humiliated by teachers; and they worried about looking stupid or lazy. Here are some

responses:

When English is the medium inside the classroom most of my classmates are

quiet and they are afraid to recite or to answer the teacher because they are

afraid to commit mistakes and they don’t want to be judged immediately for that

mistake (PST-Renz).

I have mannerisms…. after the class my teacher approaches me and tells me I

should be aware of my mannerisms. Based on my experience in my professional

education subject there is one teacher who is bluntly frank. While you are doing

the micro teaching she would directly stop you from speaking and tell you not to

do that, the mannerism. I am shaking, my hands, they usually tremble so I hide

them in my pocket. Then I shake my body like that while I am teaching. I know

that’s wrong. I know I should be aware of my actions because as a future

teacher everything I do in class will be noticed by students. If I continue my


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mannerisms and not correct them, later my students won’t be able to focus on

the subject matter at hand because they will be distracted.

There are teachers who stop you in the middle of speaking to pinpoint your

wrong doing and this leads to my forgetting the next step. With my major

subjects, where my classmates and I are together most of time yes, it is okay. But

in other professional education subjects, it is really not okay because the

intention to be helpful is not there. It’s like I am shy, ashamed, yes embarrassed,

because some of my classmates are laughing. I see that they are criticizing me

because they are gossiping about me because of what my teacher has done to me

(PST- Frannie).

It is interesting to note that even students who believe that they are capable of

expressing themselves in English choose to say little. They are facing peer pressure.

They say that they choose not to speak even when they want to say something because

they will be perceived by their classmates as showing off:

Another is the hesitation because others mockingly say you always recite. That's

it the feedback of my other classmates. Actually there is a reverse psychology

that is happening. They will praise you that you are always reciting. But the real

message and implication is for you to stop reciting and instead give a chance to

others. So your hesitation could lead you to speak less or a sense of making

yourself stop speaking or that's enough, even if you still wanted to say more. You

also feel embarrassed because others might say you are far too intelligent, and

you recite most of the time. It is part of the educational system although we are

supposed to be equal in the classroom (PST-Heart).


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The comments of pre-service teachers are similar to those by teacher educators.

Teacher educators say that pre-service teachers are responsive when the medium of

instruction is not English. Classroom dynamics change when English is used:

One way communication is actually what is happening in the classroom (TE-

Lito).

There are only two or three who really actively participate in the discussion.

(TE- Whitney).

There are instances when you are going to force them to stand and then answer

the questions given (TE-Eddie).

In my own experience generally students are passive. Unless they are asked,

they will not respond. Unless they are questioned, they simply will not initiate an

answer unless you ask them by name (TE-Brad).

From the testimonies of pre-service teachers and teacher educators, three points

can be made. First, there are reasons why students remain silent. Second, pre-service

teachers and teacher educators offer differing reasons for students’ silence. Teachers

say students choose to be passive while students say they are anxious about speaking in

English, and that they will be humiliated by the teachers and peers if they make

mistakes. Third, silence is part of the cultural phenomenon of high power distance.

Silence is common when those with less power are in the presence of those with more

power.


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Use of local language versus use of English.

For pre-service teachers, there is the dilemma of preferring to speak in a local

language but recognising the importance of developing English proficiency if they are

to become teachers. They feel more capable of expressing what they want to say when

they switch to the vernacular. This is demonstrated in code-switching:

Commonly I just speak in Tagalog words or in Hiligaynon words to be able to

express my thoughts and my ideas than to speak in English (PST-Gil).

I just continue in Tagalog or Hiligaynon so that it is easier to understand what I

am really trying to say because if I speak in English yet wrongly, the more I

won’t be understood. You will be interpreted differently from the real message

that you wanted to say. This results to misunderstanding (PST-Judith).

However, pre-service teachers know it is important for them to use English.

University classes are expected to be in English. Some teachers encourage students to

use English yet allow them to use the local language when there are troubles with

English. There are other teachers who will not allow the use of any local languages.

Greater pressure and expectations are placed on English major students

compared to those whose majors are mathematics, science, Filipino, social studies,

music, arts, physical education, and health.

Speaking in English presents daily problems for most pre-service teachers. They

must understand the content of the communication as well as devise a way of

responding in English. For example, in a professional education class on principles of

teaching, pre-service teachers are expected to understand educational concepts in


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English from English textbooks. Then they listen to the teacher talking about these

concepts in English. They must reply in English to the teacher’s questions.

Oral communication activities.

Pre-service teachers were asked about the classroom activities that provide them

with opportunities to speak in English. Mostly, they identified compulsory graded

activities:

As far as I have observed, most of my teachers have this oral recitation in class

which is graded. So for those students who are aiming for good grades, well,

whether they like it or not, they are forced to recite. And I just feel sad for those

who do not want to recite since they won’t have points. That is very unfortunate

for them (PST-Emma).

Students also described reporting tasks and microteaching. In reporting tasks,

students are assigned a topic, usually from a chapter of a book, to present in class. With

microteaching, students prepare a lesson plan and teach the lesson with their peers

acting as students. Reporting and microteaching usually are compulsory and graded.

Other activities mentioned sparingly in the interviews were broadcasting, declamation,

extemporaneous speaking, roleplaying, debate, show and tell, storytelling, and small

group discussion. All these activities are generally graded except for small group

discussion where the grading occurs when the leader of the group reports the content of

the discussion to the whole class.

Teacher educators indicated that the most common use of English occurred with

reporting:


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In terms of classroom activities, I usually let them do the report. But I have this

strategy. The first day of report, three days before the report of a particular

student, they have to give me a hard copy of their report. And then, time for them

to report, first day is when they will be in the hot seat. All classmates will be

asking questions. And each question is worth five points just to get them to ask

questions, to motivate them to ask. And then in the case where a reporter could

not answer their question, let the five points be earned by the person who asked

that question. But if they answer the question, the one who asked the question

will have no score (TE-Amy).

Another common activity is small group discussion that culminates with group

leaders reporting to the whole class. This reporting is graded. Individual students have

to respond to teachers’ questions, another graded activity. Graded roleplaying is used as

well as micro-teaching, games, and sharing of experiences. The strong link between

students speaking in English and grading is clear:

They will just talk when they are asked to by the teacher, for example, in graded

recitation. (TE-Aileen)

In terms of expressing themselves orally, verbally, reciting in class like raising

their hands and volunteering themselves to talk. They prefer giving their

classmates the chance instead of getting the points for themselves, may be

because that’s the way they are. They see talking as a chore (TE-Rick).

Getting good grades is the prime motivation for speaking in English. In

collective societies, high grades are valued and are equated with higher social status


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(e.g. Kleinsasser & Liu, 2013; Omidvar, Chan, Yap & Bolong, 2012; Shaila Banu,

2014; Wang, & Liao, 2015). However, grading virtually all communication in English

is unlikely to help students to improve their English because it places excessive pressure

and anxiety on most students.

Oral communication difficulties.

The following communication difficulties were identified by pre-service

teachers: nervousness; mental blocks; difficulty with vocabulary and grammar; lack of

self-confidence; difficulty with pronouncing words; stuttering; and sentence

comprehension and construction. These difficulties create a sense of anxiety. Feelings

of nervousness and experiencing mental blocks were the most common difficulties:

Sometimes I am talking to the wall. With the fear that I cannot do it, I cannot

even look at my classmates and teachers. I feel this nervous, I don’t look at them

so I don’t get to see their facial expressions which might degrade me so much

that I won’t be able to answer (PST-Heart).

Most of the time when I recite, I have a lot of things that I want to say. But then

when I’m in front of my classmates or standing in front of many people it’s as if

the words I want to say get blocked (PST-Lovely).

Whenever there are group discussions inside the classroom I would raise my

hand and stand up and I would share my ideas. There are times that I could

not really express my feelings in the English medium because I have the lack of

words or I cannot find the exact word to define a specific thing or specific

feelings (PST-Bong).


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Students worry about grammatical mistakes. Correct grammar is seen by

Filipinos as the most important aspect of speaking English: whether to use is or are,

when to use on, in, and at, plural and singular forms, verb tenses, and so on. Lack of

confidence with English grammar skills causes anxiety:

I am afraid to recite or speak in English because I am so sure within myself that

I will have an error in terms of grammar (PST-Ashra).

I am afraid to express my ideas because sometimes I am afraid to commit

mistakes in terms of grammar because we cannot deny the fact that I cannot

speak directly or fluently through English or the language. While you are

constructing your sentence you are not aware that there are subject and verb

errors. (PST-Xianee).

Pre-service teachers also lose confidence in the presence of unapproachable

teachers:

If called by the teacher I will have no choice but to answer. I just lack self-

confidence to speak out (PST-Ashra).

The teacher wants the right answer, wants the ideas that he has in her mind or

in his mind (PST-Bong).

The teacher will make you look ridiculous in front of the class instead of saying

very good, good, better luck next time. He or she will just say, you know, class

do you agree with his or her ideas? Is that appropriate? So the student will

definitely feel the inequality in terms of sense of acceptance. So of course our

level of confidence will become low (PST-Wadi).


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There is a teacher that we have encountered where if you ask him a question he

will just say something that can insult you that your classmates will laugh at

you, that you will lose your confidence because of what he said (PST-Jenny).

Teacher educators identified three main difficulties among pre-service teachers:

poor pronunciation, lack of vocabulary, and incorrect grammar. With pronunciation,

the accent of pre-service teachers’ ethnic language affects their English pronunciation.

Our students come from different feeder schools where the language ranges

from Bisaya to Ilongo (local languages). Like local residents they use

Hiligaynon or Ilongo. For the surrounding areas Bisaya is used. So whenever

they talk in front, the difficulty I think that they encounter is in terms of

pronouncing words. Like they have the tendency to make wrong stresses or

accents, their f becomes p and their p becomes f (TE-Rick).

The second difficulty cited by teacher educators is lack of vocabulary. This

hinders students’ ability to express themselves spontaneously. Students are not used to

using English in oral communication. They code-switch:

May be they don’t find the right word to say and they just say quote (“) and

quote (“) (using the fingers to illustrate the quote and unquote symbols). Quote,

the Filipino word, and then quote and continue using the English language. One

would say for example, do not “pukpok” (verb, means to pound) this; or I really

study hard when my parents “pukpok” me. But as a teacher, I try really to

translate what they want to say. On the dot I say: what you mean is you need to

be hammered before you begin to study well. (TE-Dulce)


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They have a hard time finding for the right word and I think that is the main

problem because even in their examinations they would ask you, “Sir what is

this in English?” So they have inadequacy in their vocabulary (TE-Brad)

With grammar, teacher educators state that most of the difficulties lie with

subject and verb agreement.

Students forget when to use the simple verb or the present form of the verb or

when to use the future tense or the past tense of the verb (TE-Carlo).

Teacher educators do not understand that students’ problems with speaking in

English are intensified by anxiety, a fear of being humiliated if they make mistakes.

This anxiety points to an uneasy relationship between teachers and students. The fact

that students are graded on most occasions when they speak in English aggravates their

anxiety.

Pre-service teachers’ strategies when they encounter difficulties in English

Verbal strategies.

Pre-service teachers described nine oral strategies they use when they encounter

communication difficulties: code-switching; asking help from classmates; repetition of

words, description, synonyms; giving examples; paraphrasing; smiling; and using

keywords regardless of sentence construction. Teacher educators agreed that the main

strategies used by students were asking for help from their classmates and code-

switching.

Code-switching.

Students say that they try to speak in English as much as they can, but for words

they cannot translate to English or they do not know the English equivalent, they use


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Tagalog or their mother tongue. Sentences produced when pre-service teachers code-

switch are made up of combinations of English and Tagalog words which Filipinos call

Taglish:

When I encounter difficulties in reciting in the classroom, all I have to do is to

combine the English and Tagalog so I have the “Taglish” (Tagalog and

English) in order to express my feelings (PST- Ejay).

I just continue in Tagalog or Hiligaynon so that it is easier to understand what I

am really trying to say. If I insist to speak in English yet wrongly, the more that I

won’t be understood and will be interpreted differently from the real message

that I wanted to say. This may result in misunderstanding (PST-Judith).

Teacher educators indicate that pre-service teachers are able to participate more

in class when they speak in the vernacular. Some teacher educators said that they used

code-switching too:

They [students] always start with “aaa” because they are thinking of the right

word to say. And if they could not do it, gestures will follow, or that’s the time

for them to say it in Ilongo. But usually, so that they can participate, more active

participation, they speak in the vernacular (TE-Amy).

Some teacher educators think code-switching is helpful for pre-service teachers’

communication. Some allow students to express their thoughts in the vernacular and

worry about the translation later. They can ask other students to translate it into English

afterwards:


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I would rather tell them to say it in vernacular if they can hardly say it in

English. So it is better to say it in vernacular and others can translate what it

means in English (TE-Teresa).

Asking for help.

This is a common strategy:

When I don’t know what to say, sometimes I ask my classmate, what’s the

meaning of this (referring to unfamiliar words in the question)? Can you help

me? (PST-Nette).

One teacher educator noted students’ use the local idiomatic expression

“nganga!” which literally means to open one’s mouth wide. As an idiom it means that is

too hard for me to understand or I did not get it, as a way to let classmates or teachers

know that they need help.

Most teacher educators approved of students’ strategy of asking for help when

they encountered difficulties:

The tapping of the classmates and asking the teacher, I think those are helpful

because, after seeking that help, they can continue. (TE-Dulce).

English strategies.

The following strategies were mentioned occasionally: use of description,

synonyms, giving examples, paraphrasing, and using keywords only regardless of the

sentence construction or grammatical error.

Saying less.

One interesting strategy mentioned was saying as little as possible:


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In every subject and every time I will recite, I have in my mind that I will answer

it in one sentence only. I have already set in my mind that less talk, less mistake.

Because sometimes when you talk, the more you talk, the more you’re talking or

the more you speak the more confused you become with the word that you are

going to use next. (PST-Bessy, February, 2014)

Non-Verbal Strategies.

Pre-service teachers articulated body languages they use to help them get

through a communication difficulty: hand movements, eye movements, facial

expressions, moving their feet, holding objects, stopping and keeping themselves calm,

and whole body movements. Teacher educators identified eye movements, facial

expression and hand movements, scratching of the head, smiling or laughing, and whole

body movements.

Hand movements.

Among the non-verbal strategies, the use of hand movements was mentioned

most by pre-service teachers. These include circular motion of the hands, waving,

drawing on air, snapping of fingers, crumpling gestures (like crumpling a piece of

paper), moving of hands like an orchestra conductor, shaking of hands, or tapping a

hard surface such as that of a table or arm chair:

I always move just like this (demonstrates moving her hands outwards in a

circular motion). I also wave like this. And whenever, like for example it is a

word it is a noun or something that I can somehow picture out with my hands

yes, I tend to draw it with my hands (drawing on air) and somehow my

classmates would understand it. (PST-Emma, February, 2014)


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Holding objects.

Students hold tightly on to ID lanyards or the ID itself, biting their IDs, rolling a

small piece of paper or playing with it, holding coins or bills inside their pockets,

twisting a pen or holding a notebook or cardboards. It seems that holding objects or

doing something with them provides an activity to fill in the thinking time they need to

articulate their ideas:

For me I’m twisting my pen. I know I am nervous. I mean as if I am shifting my

nervousness to the pen. So I’m twisting my pen until such time I will be awaken

then probably I can think of something else. Because I have shifted my difficulty

to the pen and I think I have displaced it and then so that I can think again

(PST-Sette).

I hold a notebook; even it is not related to the topic, I get it from my bag or get

another book. Or even when I am reporting, I scan everything on the table when

I am feeling confused on what to say (PST-Lyn).

Stopping.

Students stop talking in order to compose themselves and think more clearly or

they stop and request more time:

I asked ma’am for a minute. I said please wait, just give me a minute, a minute

to prepare because I really have nothing to say. I stopped for a short time. And

yes, I was able to speak (PST-Belle).

Eye movements.

Students use eye movements to help them communicate. They look up the

ceiling, the wall or the floor while thinking what to say. Eye expression is also used to


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appeal for help from classmates:

To cope with difficulty in speaking, I usually raise my eyebrows. I look to my

classmates and waiting for them to help me by simply looking at them like with

my raised eyebrow (PST-Cely).

Teacher educators indicated that students looked up at the ceiling, with

eyebrows meeting expressing difficulty, and looking at their classmates as if seeking

help. Some teacher educators say when students avoid looking at them, it means they

could not express themselves anymore. They say there are instances when a student has

already stood up and started speaking but could not go on. He then would look down on

the floor to indicate abandonment of speaking. He will bow his head instead of sitting

down immediately because sitting down without being told to sit is a form of disrespect.

Facial expressions.

Pre-service teachers smile to hide their embarrassment when experiencing

difficulty conveying their ideas. Squinting facial expressions or wrinkling the forehead

when experiencing difficulty are other facial expressions:

So when I was speaking at those times I can’t express my feelings with words I

use non-verbal communication. Facial actions when I can’t imagine that thing

like expressing the word it’s very difficult (demonstrates how he expresses

difficulty by squinting hard) just like that so I can’t express that in words so I

use facial actions, (demonstrates a look that shows, it’s really hard, with

forehead muscles folding) just like that by using my non-verbal communication

(PST-Hisham).


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Whole body movement.

Some pre- service teachers use whole body movements to help them cope with

speaking difficulties:

So when I can’t think for a word that suits my ideas, I am walking, walking,

walking in front and then I do like this (moving her arms rolling over), gestures

and then my classmates will say some words and that’s the time I can (PST-

Girlie).

Examining the strategies pre-service teachers use when experiencing difficulties

reveal that they mostly use indirect strategies to indicate that they are having difficulty

in speaking in English. There was no mention of students saying directly that they were

having problems. This use of non-verbal strategies is common in high-context cultures.

In addition, the quiet classroom atmosphere points to high power distance, with students

saying nothing rather than making mistakes in front of their teachers.

Teacher educators’ use of instructional communication strategies.

Pre-service teachers noted questioning, encouragement in the forms of

scaffolding, filling the gap, giving time, hinting, and discreet correction, tolerance of

students’ code-switching, direct correction, and use of sarcasm as instructional

strategies used by teacher educators.

Use of questions.

Teachers rephrase their questions to help students understand and organize

answers. Some teachers keep asking questions until students are able to give the correct

answer:

Usually my teachers throw questions to me that can help me to express my ideas


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or my thoughts (PST-Girlie).

Our teachers always use Socratic Method. When you say Socratic Method, it is

asking question. Asking and asking question so when the teacher ask me that,

ask me when I was in first year I have difficulty answering the teacher’s

question. Then when I was in my second year still teachers always ask question,

until I got the correct answer (PST-Cely).

When a teacher observes that I am having a hard time she tries to rephrase the

question (PST-Alma).

I think it also depends on how the teacher revises the question for the students to

answer it or understand it. And they can formulate their answers so I think some

teachers are very good in leading the students into the answers that they need or

into the right answers. So others may use scaffolding, so like they lead the

students to coming up to the answers so they revise and revise and revise the

question to help them to the answer. So I think that’s a very good skill of a

teacher (PST-April).

Teacher educators also indicated that they used questioning strategies to help

students:

Sometimes the students could not get the first question. So what I do is I give

probing questions, I simplify or modify the question. Then I observe for the

second time if they could get the answer (TE- Chab).


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In terms of strategy, when I ask questions and they don’t respond, I would

rephrase my question. I would rephrase my question in a way they would

understand by using layman’s terms (TE- Lito).

We do redirecting by asking questions if a student stops, then you have to clarify

what he was he is actually saying. You redirect, you give him questions, you

feed him questions, so the students may be clarified of his thoughts and when the

student goes back in track from where he stopped, you have to step back and

allow the student to continue. So you ask questions to clarify. However, there

are students who, even if you clarify, you redirect, the student surrenders and

does not want to talk. You give him time. Ask him to take his seat and call

another student to help (TE- Whitney).

Although pre-service teachers recognize the helpfulness of questioning

strategies, some of them indicated that questioning increased their anxiety:

It is not really helpful when a teacher forces the question for the student to

answer because if the student cannot really answer it then of course the teacher

cannot force him or her mentally. It only gives the student this feeling of being

afraid. And with that the student couldn’t really answer properly (PST-Emma).

It is when she doesn’t look like satisfied with what you have said. She always

looks for something. She always throws question after you finish answering the

question She would say why, why, why. That is delivered sternly. So she is

always asking question and doesn’t stop until the answer that she wanted you to

say is being achieved. So when the teacher does it like that and when she looks


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at you like, with the eyebrows meeting, when you are standing in front of her

and you saw your teacher doing like that, you say what’s wrong? What should I

say? (PST, Rain).

Use of encouragement.

The use of encouraging strategies by teacher educators was mentioned. Teachers

encourage students by saying that they can do it, not to be afraid, or there is no right

answer. There are teachers who allow them to use the vernacular to express their ideas.

They encourage pre-service teachers to ask questions.

For instance when I experience speaking difficulty, my teacher told me to relax.

Just don’t feel nervous because your classmates, they don’t know what you are

saying. So they told me that I have to relax. I have to believe in myself that I

that I can relay the ideas that I have (PST-Rain).

The teachers save us. For me, when I get stuck, I usually shift to Ilongo. In our

Professional Education subjects, teachers tell us to use either English or

Tagalog. When I shift to Ilongo, my teacher would remind me not to use it. She

adds that if I cannot express it in English, I can say it in Tagalog. They

encourage us (PST-Heart).

Pre-service teachers also noted other forms of encouragement such as

scaffolding, filling the gap, giving time, hinting, discreet correction, and tolerance when

students code-switch:


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When someone is speaking and they already notice that the student is having

difficulty in expressing their thoughts and ideas, they immediately say that word

or guess that word that the student is trying to say (PST-Venus).

The teachers help us by saying words that are related to the word that we want

to say. They also give hints or sometimes allow their students to express in the

vernacular (PST-Jude).

There is a teacher of mine who when I cannot speak myself she just encourages

me. She reinforces my speaking so that I could be able to deliver well and to

share the idea that I wanted to convey (PST- Love)

Generally I am encouraging them to participate because sooner or later they

will become teachers. And I told them that there are teachers who are really

down (have low English oral proficiency) and do not speak, so you try to speak

up now. It’s the time for you to train yourself (TE-Teresa).

They seem to be reluctant to answer. I am encouraging them. Don’t be ashamed,

do not be shy. Everyone gets this. So this is a good training for you who are to

become teachers someday. You have to, you know. Every day you have to train

students. You’ll be facing people, so you can overcome. If you are shy, you can

overcome that shyness. I you are ashamed to recite you can overcome it if you

do recite regularly (TE-Brad).

Some teacher educators indicated that when they correct students they do it in

private to spare them from embarrassment. Some also say they encourage students by


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using body language and making them feel comfortable even if they commit mistakes.

Others avoid giving direct corrections when students are still speaking to spare them

from being embarrassed or laughed at by classmates. When a student says something

wrong, they do not embarrass him or her:

Not really a glaring way of correcting them. Like we give subtle hints, but we

don’t really interrupt them in their train of thoughts. Like we give them this

nodding motion with our heads to tell them continue that’s okay. Don’t be

frightened (TE-Rick).

Using the English language is a problem for them. They don’t want to recite and

they don’t want to answer the question because they might have the problem of

expressing themselves using English. But I usually arrest that kind of problem by

saying, it’s all right to commit mistakes, it’s all right to use wrong grammar, it’s

all right to commit wrong pronunciation. But allow me to correct you whenever

you commit these errors because this is my way of checking your grammar,

checking your pronunciation not for the purpose of humiliating you rather

helping you. (TE-Carlo).

The use of encouragement as an instructional strategy appeals on both pre-

service teachers and teacher educators. Students value the words of advice their teachers

give them especially when teachers show sincerity in their willingness to help.

Encouragement strategies are part of the immediacy strategies reported in the surveys.


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Use of teacher authority.

Teachers use their authority to direct classroom communication. Teachers

indicate there are instances when they have to force students to answer questions. An

“English only” policy often is applied to students teachers whose major is English

language teaching:

We have a rule inside the classroom that they are not allowed to speak in any

other language except in English. Students in most of my courses are English

majors. I don’t give such instruction as a threat or consequence or punishment

for them but a way of motivating them to speak English. 80 to 90 % participate

in my class because if they are not inclined to talk I usually ask them. If there

are people who are not listening, I usually call their attention and they don’t

have any choice but to speak and answer the question (TE-Carlo).

Students rarely say publicly that they do not have the answer. Even if teachers

make mistakes, students do not point out the mistakes:

I did not encounter students who did not agree with me. So I sometimes give

them wrong concepts and then wait for them to react, but there was no reaction

(TE-Amy).

Teachers feel sorry for students when they cannot do what they are asked to do:

I really pressured a student who already sat down and he stood up. When he

mentioned something which was out of topic and he was laughed at and so I

stopped that. I said that’s not a good gesture from your classmates. I simply

allowed him to sit down (TE-Brad).


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I ask them and then they have to stand. You are going to force them to stand

and then to answer the questions. If they could not deliver their report, I ask

them to take their seats. I have to remind the reporter that next time, you have

to be prepared (TE-Eddie).

Students cited experiences when they felt discouraged because teachers

identified their faults in a very direct manner in front of the class:

You will be discouraged to recite again because you will be directly told that

you are wrong instead of helping you get to the right answer. It really affects the

students because he or she frankly says to the student that is wrong. What

happens is the student will not recite anymore because the teacher will not

accept their own opinion or their own understanding (PST- Ejay).

There are teachers who stop you in the middle of speaking to pinpoint your

wrongdoing which leads to my forgetting the next step. (PST- Frannie)

My teacher is very perfectionist especially when she teaches; she wants

everything to be in order, for example, no, you do this. Even the way you stand

is being observed, “Stand straight, why you are stamping your foot? Is that a

teacher? How should you act? What is the proper way of acting there in front, if

you speak?” When the teacher is always doing like that, she is always

correcting what you are doing. You have the ideas in your mind that fly away

because she interrupts you (PST-Rain).

I have noticed that some teachers when they ask us questions, when we answer

they do not agree with us. They have their own way, an absolute idea that they


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believe is right. Some of my teachers cannot accept that students have correct

points too. They are so centred on themselves because they are the teacher and

their ideas are more correct (PST-Love).

That expression of the teacher sometimes motivates me to participate because I

want to challenge myself to impress the teacher, to somehow change her mood

after coming inside the class because we are labelled the “not participative

students.” But we are students who have something to offer, who know

something (PST-Camille).

This type of response points to the relationship between a high-context, high-

power distance culture and authoritarian strategies. Communication strategies are

imbued with strong teacher authority indicative of high power distance. The importance

of saving face is highlighted.

Classroom dynamics influencing classroom communication.

Teachers as authority figures in the classroom.

The interview data provided many details about teachers as figures of authority.

There are non-verbal gestures such as the way teachers walk and carry themselves, what

they wear, their facial expressions, the tone of their voice, and their gaze. The following

excerpts show how teachers project themselves in the classroom:

One indicator is the way they talk, the way they are walking inside the

classroom. They act like military commanders. They act like you have no choice

but to listen. They show that they are really strict. They walk really straight. You


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have to behave well, because if you do something naughty, you should worry.

You’ll be finished (PST-Ashra).

Most of the teachers when they enter the classroom, they seem so strict

sometimes they will not smile. Sometimes they just say okay get one fourth (of a

piece of paper compared to a whole) and we will have a quiz (PST-Gil).

The voice; if the voice of the teacher is loud and firm. I am afraid of their voices

because for me, their voices, the tone of their voice simply portrays who they are

(PST- Belle).

When the teacher comes in, they really project that they have the authority over

us. Straight posture and the hands are like this, they sometimes stare at you and

they act at first they will not smile but later on they will be at ease (PST-Daisy).

For example, during assignment submission, they would command “pass your

assignment 1, 2, 3 in an authoritarian voice. Then their authority is also

expressed when they give you a piece of their mind through their words of

wisdom. Their long hard gaze is enough for you to understand you have to

change what you are doing. For example you are doing something, when they

gaze at you long and hard, you get conscious and need to do self-check. Ma’am

is really tough, I’d think. I think we can’t blame them because we are already

college students (PST-Judith).

Although there was one student who said that he is motivated and challenged by

the authoritarian stance of teachers, the majority of students indicate that teachers’

behaviour hinders their oral expression:


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They have the aura of being authoritarian because you could not really ask

them; they do not have an aura of being approachable. They really have the

authority. You are not able to deliver and express your own thoughts if you

have any questions. Because you have, what do you call this, fear of them. Fear

of being wrong (PST- Camille).

When she looks at me very …as if ...she …oh my God, you’re dead if you cannot

express yourself because sometimes if he or she looks like that in my classmates

who are reporting. I observe my classmate and she will scold her. And then I

will feel, My God, it is time for me to get scolded. And then that is the time I will

have a mental block (PST-Love).

There are times when what the teacher said the previous meeting is totally the

opposite of what she says today. Of course, the teacher's command prevails. So

you can’t question something she said in the previous meeting (PST-, February,

2014).

Teachers also note the restraining effect of teachers’ use of authority:

The kind of teacher-student relationship that would hinder students to be open is

the kind of relationship that is too stiff. Like, I am the teacher, you are just the

student. I think that would be a hindrance. Generally I still observe that mindset

among teacher educators. I am the teacher, you are the student and you should

know the gap (TE- Dulce).

The reason why students are not open on participation is because some teachers

are very strict. They would give very strict commands inside the class. So I


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consider that as a hindrance. When the teacher is too stiff or strict, the students

would somehow lose their motivation to participate. They would just rather

behave and be passive. That’s why I try to avoid to be branded as a strict

teacher because I do believe if you are too stiff, you already lose your teaching

strategy in the first place. We all know that math anxiety exists. Added with a

stiff attitude of a teacher, student learning would be lesser. Students who have

very stiff teachers tend to less participate (TE- Matthew).

There are teachers who give unfavourable comments to students who ask

questions and those who react to their opinion. And I think it hinders the

students from participating more because of those unfavourable comments. I

oftentimes hear that from students. That has happened many times. They said

there are teachers who don’t want to be asked questions. Students would say,

how can we clarify things if the teacher does not want to be asked? (TE- Brad).

Students’ perception of teacher authority based on teacher demeanour is

indicative of communication in a high-context culture. The display of teacher authority

that infringes on students’ dignity is one reason for students do not want to speak in the

classroom.

Sense of belonging.

Students noted the importance of a sense of belongingness. If they feel

supported by everyone, that sense of acceptance gives them the confidence to pursue

what they are trying to say. Maggay (2002) argues that a requirement for a more open

sharing of ideas is a high level of comfort with teachers and classmates:


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One thing that could help you a lot is the acceptance of the group and your

classmates, as well as your teachers. Some of my classmates have seen my

difficulty and they just say keep going, you can do it. So by that I could gain

something, yes I need to do this right (PST-Heart).

One teacher noted the importance of trust and a sense of belonging:

The kind of student-teacher relationship that would encourage them to speak is

the kind of relationship that is welcoming. That is when the teacher should lend

an ear, should be very willing to listen to the student. So there should be a

friendly environment that the teacher should create for students. There are

students that I have established that relationship - that is open (TE-Dulce).

When students do not feel a sense of belonging, its absence creates negative

feelings and thoughts. The anxiety is magnified by having to speak using another

language:

Maybe you could feel that rejection, rejection of your idea. So it is, as a student,

if you are going to say something, even I found it hard to be rejected. I do not

want to feel that rejection inside the classroom. You have an idea, you’ve

gathered all of your confidence to speak that idea in front of the class and in

front of the teacher and then you may not to be appreciated. Instead you would

be rejected (PST-Heart).

Students’ sense of a lack of acceptance is heightened when teachers make them

feel unworthy of attention. A sense of frustration and discouragement can emerge:


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Teacher behaviours I have experienced that contributed to my difficulty in

expressing myself is when the teacher tries to ask you a question and then when

you are answering she’s not looking at you. She is preparing on the board. I am

not really confident of what I am saying because she is looking at the board not

looking at me. She doesn’t have facial expressions to show she approves of

what I am saying (PST-Lyn).

There are behaviours such as favouritism that reduce a sense of solidarity

among students: There are some instances that a particular teacher in terms of

recitation calls only his favourites. No matter how high you raise your hand, you

won’t be called because of favouritism. So those students, who are average,

refuse to raise their hands anymore. Why should I raise my hand, I will not be

called anyway? (PST-Love)

There are many intelligent students here, just let them speak instead (PST-

Ashra).

Informal atmosphere.

Students feel more confident in more informal settings. It is difficult to speak in

a tense classroom:

I feel free when the teacher makes us feel like a friend and makes the classroom

a friendly zone. So because of that it makes us very confident to speak in English

even if our grammar is not right (PST-Levi).


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Students’ interest is stimulated when they are valued and respected by both

teachers and fellow students. They describe teachers in these classes as open-minded

and approachable:

When those classes were so good, good in the sense that students are very

participative, teachers also are friendly, very friendly to the students. And being

a teacher, being a friendly teacher, it is a very good motivation to the students to

become participative and build a good relationship with each other (PST-Nette).

We have teachers that will make us say something we want to say especially

when the teacher is close enough to our batch. We have this confidence to speak

up and argue with him, to tell him that he is wrong, we disagree like that (PST-

Aileen).

Some teachers also agree that a freethinking environment encourages students to

speak:

I think my students feel free to ask because in most of my classes my students ask

questions even when I am still in the middle of my lecture. There are times when

some students would raise their hands even if I am still in the middle of my

teaching and even if I haven’t asked are there any questions yet. There are also

times when I ask questions they answer in chorus even if I haven’t called a

student yet, I mean a particular student, there are students who would start

mumbling the answer waiting for me to call them, hinting that I need to call

them for answers. My students are free to express ideas, their thoughts in the


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class during the session. It depends also on the situation; sometimes I entertain

the questions, sometimes I tell them reserve your question (TE-Whitney).

However, teachers’ idea of students’ freedom is moderated by their notion of the

appropriate relationship between teachers and students:

We are quite open with them. By open we mean that our students can approach

us. They are not really afraid to question some concepts we teach in the class.

Like I had this experience wherein the students will raise their hands and tell me

at my face and say sir I believe that isn’t happening in the real world. And I’m

open to that, I don’t reject their ideas. But outside the classroom I am not a

popular teacher. Not the kind of teacher that students talk to like friends, but

we’re the kind of teachers that they can approach anytime and ask on how they

can improve themselves (TE-Rick).

There is still the “I am the teacher, you are the student and you should know the

gap.” That’s based on my observation in the school that I am working. But I

would defend that one. It is because the type of students that we have now, there

are students who sometimes go beyond the norm. They are more open and more

liberated I think than teachers. Example, the teachers are walking and then

students put their hands on the teachers’ shoulders. And I think personally as a

teacher, it should not happen. It should not happen because teachers are guided

by our code of ethics. The teacher is a teacher and student is a student and the

student should know there is a gap (TE-Dulce).


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Students’ preference for a lighter more informal atmosphere fits with the local

communication style. Teachers’ responses reveal reservations about a relaxed

atmosphere - there should be a clear demarcation between the role of teachers and

students.

Four factors in particular emerged from the interviews with pre-service teachers

and teacher educators: teacher authority; pervasive grading of oral communication;

sense of belonging; and a friendly classroom atmosphere. Both pre-service teachers and

teacher educators agree that the use of teacher authority in such a way that pre-service

teachers lose face restricts open communication. The grading of almost all English oral

communication adds a level of anxiety to speaking in English. Most pre-service teachers

and teacher educators acknowledge the importance of acceptance and a feeling of safety

and protection as necessary to promoting communication. There was some support by

pre-service teachers and teacher educators to the proposition that creating an informal

classroom atmosphere would encourage more oral communication. However, teacher

educators have reservations about breaking down the wall between teachers and

students.

5.6 Focus Group Interviews: Discussion

Four significant findings emerged from the focus group interviews. First, teacher

authority is a central feature in the Philippines. Second, the quiet classroom atmosphere

may be interpreted as an indicator of lack of linguistic competency and feeling of

anxiety among students. Third, the major impetus of oral communication is evaluation

rather than development of oral competence. Fourth, respect for and protection of face


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as a fundamental cultural value is essential in promoting greater oral communication.

Discussion of these findings follows.

1. Teacher authority as a central feature in Filipino culture

Analyses demonstrate the centrality of teacher authority. Pre-service

teachers describe most teacher educators as strict and authoritarian with quiet

classrooms. Being pressured to speak in these conditions adversely affects students’

oral communication. They feel nervous, experience mental blocks, and lack of

confidence to speak. Some teacher educators admitted that they force students to speak.

Questions are used to interrogate students rather than to facilitate learning.

2. The quiet classroom atmosphere may be interpreted in two ways: an indication

of lack of conceptual and linguistic competence or an indication of anxiety about

speaking in English

Teacher educators tend to attribute silence to pre-service teachers’ passive

attitudes and lack of competency in English. Pre-service teachers acknowledge that they

have difficulty with English vocabulary and grammar and that contributes to their

anxiety about speaking. They fear humiliation in front of peers and teachers if they

make mistakes. If teacher educators think that students’ passivity is a result of their lack

of preparation rather than their fear of public embarrassment, then teachers are unlikely

to change their behaviours.

3. Oral communication is used as a medium to assess rather than a medium to

develop oral competence in English

Most oral activities in English medium classes are graded. It appears that the


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prime motivation of pre-service teachers to speak in English is to pass the course or to

get good grades. Teacher educators use grading as an incentive to get students to speak.

Students and teachers share a common understanding of the value of high grades in

collective societies (Hofstede, 2001). There is a shared understanding of the impact of

good grades to individual and familial status. Grading as a power vested in teachers also

points to a power imbalance.

4. Respect for and protection of face pervades classrooms

Examination of the interview data exposes the paradox of a society that puts a

premium on saving face yet disregards the face of students. The less powerful students

are the ones who want to protect their face while the more powerful teachers often show

little regard for saving the face of students.

Students would rather code-switch, say less, stop speaking and be quiet than

makes mistakes in English. Their tensed body language manifests their anxiety. They

are nervous and suffer from mental blocks. They are all too aware that they will lose

face if they speak poorly in English.

Some students indicated that they wanted friendlier classrooms where making

mistakes would not cause such anxiety. They could speak in English with a local accent,

they could mispronounce English words, and they could make grammatical mistakes. A

more relaxed classroom atmosphere where there was a sense of collegiality would make

them more confident speaking in English.

5.7 Summary and Conclusions

The interview data analysed in this chapter shows pre-service teachers’ and

teacher educators’ insight into what happens in English medium classrooms.


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Key findings were the impact of teachers as authority figures and the flow-on

effect of quiet classrooms, the pervasive grading of students’ oral communication, and

the importance to teachers and students of saving face. To add to data gathered in

surveys and interviews, classroom observations were conducted to examine the

communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and teacher educators in English

medium classes. Classroom observation data are reported in the next chapter.

Chapter Six: Classroom Observation Findings and Discussion

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Chapter Six

Classroom Observation Findings and Discussion

6.1 Introduction

To complement survey data and focus group interview data, classroom

observations were conducted. An observation protocol (see Appendix 1) was used, as

detailed in the methodology chapter. In this chapter findings are presented and

discussed.

6.2 Profile of Observed Classes

Institution, gender, year level and class size.

Class observations were conducted in three teacher education institutions (TEI)

in Central Mindanao, the Philippines. A total of 417 pre-service teachers and 12 teacher

educators participated in the classroom observations. Teacher education is a four-year

program and the intention was to observe one class from each year level in each of three

institutions. However, in TEI C there was no observation in the fourth year level

because pre-service teachers were undertaking practicum during the time of the

classroom observation schedule. Instead, two classes from the third year level were

observed.

There were more female than male pre-service teachers in all TEIs. The first

year level had the highest class size and the third year level had the lowest. The average

class size was 32, with 45 as the highest number of students per class and 10 as the


144

lowest. Table 6.1 shows the profile of classes by institution, gender, year level, and

class size.

Table 6.1

Class Profiles by Institution, Gender, Year Level and Class Size

1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total Gender

TEI A

Female 30 30 30 24* 31* 145 Male 11 7 12 1* 5* 36

Class Size 41 37 42 25* 36* 181

TEI B

Female 37 10 16 25 88 Male 8 3 5 8 24

Class Size 45 13 21 33 112

TEI C

Female 23 29 23* 3* 0 78

Male 16 11 12* 7* 0 46

Class Size 39 40 35*

10*

0 124

Total 125 90 108 94 417 Note. *2 different classes observed but within the same year level

Teacher educators’ educational qualifications and years of teaching

experience.

Table 6.2 shows teacher educators’ years of teaching experience and educational

qualifications. Given the educational background and years of teaching experience, it

can be argued that the teachers observed were mostly seasoned teacher educators who

would not be concerned by the presence of an observer. Obviously, each teacher

volunteered to be observed in his or her classroom.


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Table 6.2

Teacher Educators’ Years of Teaching Experience and Educational Qualifications

TEI

Years of Teaching

Experience Educational Qualifications Bachelor’s Master’s Doctorate Total A 16-20 -- 2 -- 2 26 -- -- 2 2 B 11-15 -- 2 -- 2 16-20 -- -- 2 2 C 1-5 1 -- -- 1 11-15 -- -- 1 1 21-25 -- 1 -- 1 26 -- 1 -- 1 Total 1-5 1 -- -- 1 11-15 -- 2 1 3 16-20 -- 2 2 4 21-25 -- 1 -- 1 26 -- 1 2 3 Total 1 6 5 12

Teacher educators, times observed, subject matter, and class duration.

There was a total of 14 classes observed, taught by 12 teacher educators. Nine of

the classes were observed twice and four classes were observed once, making a total of

22 classroom observations. Classes were run for either one hour or one and a half hours.

The total number of hours of classroom observation was 25 hours and 13 minutes.

There were three first year and second year classes observed, four third year classes, and

three fourth year classes. Ten of the classes observed were part of professional

education courses. The other three were English, religion, and information and

communication technology courses. All classes used English as the medium of

instruction and communication. The details of classes observed by year level, number of

times of observation, course, and duration of observation are presented in Table 6.3.


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Table 6.3

Classes Observed by Year Level, Number of Times Observed, Course and Number of

Minutes of Observation Time

Classes Year level

No. of times observed

Course Number of minutes

1 1 2 English 60 60

2 1 2 Professional Education 90 80 3 1 2 Religion 60 60 4 2 2 Professional Education 60 60 5 2 1 Professional Education 45 45 6 2 1 Information

Technology 80

7 1 Professional Education 90 8 3 2 Professional Education 60 80 9 3 2 Professional Education 50 50

10 3 1 Professional Education 90 11 3 2 Professional Education 90 30

12 4 1 Professional Education 60 13 4 1 Professional Education 60 14 4 2 Professional Education 60 Professional Education 60

14 -- 22 25hrs 13min

6.3 Distinctive Class Features

The physical set up of the classroom was observed and other unique features that

may influence communication. Seating arrangement and the provision of risers for

teachers in most of the classes were distinct physical features observed.


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Seating Arrangement.

The classroom set-up in terms of seating arrangement, as detailed in the

observation protocol, was noted during the class observation. Three seating

arrangements were observed and labelled based on McCroskey and McVetta’s seating

arrangements (1978), as shown in Figure 6.1. These seating arrangements are as

follows: traditional; a combination of traditional and modular; and modular. Figure 1

provides an illustration for traditional and modular seating arrangements.

Figure 6.1 Classroom seating arrangements

The traditional seating arrangement is the set up where chairs are arranged in

several rows and columns and the teacher teaches in front of the class. The modular

seating arrangement is where chairs are arranged in such a way that a group of students

face each other such as in a small group discussion. Of the 22 classes observed, 63.63 %

(n=14) of the seating arrangement was traditional. Seven classes (31.81%) shifted from

traditional to modular sometime during the class and one class started from modular and

shifted to traditional. Table 6.4 shows the distribution of seating arrangements.


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Traditional seating appears to be the customary seating arrangement in most of

the classes observed, with one third of the classes using a modular seating arrangement

for group discussion sometime during the class. Hurt, Scott and McCroskey (1978), in

their study of seating arrangement and classroom communication, argued that the

traditional seating arrangement may be useful for some teaching purposes but it does

not foster interaction. Ridling (1994) investigated three seating arrangements and their

effect on interaction. The traditional arrangement generated the least interaction. A

more recent study had similar findings (Gurzynski-Weiss, Long & Solon, 2015, p74).

Table 6.4

Classroom Seating Arrangements of Observed Classes

Seating Arrangement

Total traditional traditional +

modular modular+ traditional

TEI A 4 4 0 8 B 4 3 0 7 C 6 0 1 7

Total 14 7 1 22

Riser in front of the room for the teacher.

One feature common in the classroom set up was the provision of a riser

(elevated platform) in front of the class. Among the 22 classes observed, 20 have risers

where teachers stand while teaching. The teacher’s table and chair were also on the

riser. The primary purpose of the riser appears to be visibility of the teacher to students

as well as visibility of the students to the teacher. From a high-context culture and high

power distance perspective, the riser also may reinforce the hierarchical nature of the

classroom, symbolising the division between teachers and students. As Weaver (2005)


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observes, the use of a riser also may constrain participation. Figure 6.2 provides an

illustration of how the riser was positioned.

Figure 6.2 Riser in front of the classroom.

6.4 Classroom Communication Strategies

Number of students who participated in classroom communication.

Table 6.5 shows the count of students who spoke to the whole class as well as

the number of group activities in each class. The average percentage of pre-service

teachers’ oral participation that was addressed to the whole class was 15.53%. The

lowest oral communication rate was 5% and the highest was 40%. Generally, the

smaller the class size, the higher the rate of oral communication. This has been observed

with the exception of one class, class number four, where class size was 45 but with an

oral participation rate of 24.44%. Oral participation in class number four was high

because during the observation, there were ten students assigned to discuss an issue

related to the lesson.

BOARD

Riser


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Class size has been associated with classroom participation (Weaver, 2005). The greater

the class size, the lesser the participation because bigger class sizes usually would entail

greater attention to management and thereby lesser attention to communication. One

would expect that large classes would hinder students’ developing oral communication

in English.

Use of group work was observed in ten sessions, almost half of the total number

of classes observed. During group work, students used English for words that do not

have easy local equivalents but otherwise used local language. In the classes where

teachers strictly implemented use of English for group discussions, students spoke less

than in groups where they used the local language.

The very limited use of oral English observed fits with the description of quiet

classrooms that emerged in the interview data and in the survey data. Navaz (2013)

reported similar findings in an English medium university science class in Sri Lanka, as

did Yi Lo and Macaro (2012) in their examination of medium of instruction and

classroom interaction in secondary schools in Hong Kong. In Navaz’s study, 97% of

the students responded that they do not answer teachers’ questions, and in the classroom

observation there were only three instances when students asked questions, and one of

these questions was asked in the first language. Similarly, Yi lo and Macaro (2012)

observed that when a shift was made from use of first language to use of English,

classes become more teacher-centred and students’ participation decreased.


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Table 6.5

Number of Students Who Spoke to the Whole Class and Group Works

Class No. of students Number of group

works

No. of students who spoke to

the whole class

% of students who

spoke to the whole class

1 39 2 3 7.69 2 38 2 3 7.89 3 45 1 4 8.89 4 45 1 11 24.44 5 39 0 2 5.13 6 39 0 3 7.69 7 36 0 5 13.89 8 37 0 6 16.22 9 13 1 5 38.46 10 40 0 2 5.00 11 35 1 2 5.71 12 35 2 5 14.29 13 36 1 5 13.89 14 21 0 4 19.05 15 20 0 5 25.00 16 10 0 4 40.00 17 32 0 4 12.50 18 35 0 2 5.71 19 25 0 5 20.00 20 36 1 5 13.89 21 33 0 5 15.15 22 33 1 7 21.21

Average 32.82 0.59 4.41 15.53

Students’ oral communication strategies.

Observation of oral communication began a few minutes before classes started.

When the teacher arrives, students greet them “Good morning/Good afternoon/Good

evening Sir/Ma’am.” Classes began with a prayer followed by a greeting, this time

initiated by the teacher. The students returned the formal greeting and waited for the

teacher to start the lesson.


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In some classes where there was no obvious signal from the teacher for students

to sit, students looked around to see what their classmates were doing. In one class

where students sat down immediately after the prayer, the teacher said “I have not told

you to sit down yet.” The students had to stand again and waited till the teacher told

them to be seated. Initial exchanges, use of Sir and Ma’am, and waiting for permission

to sit indicate respect for teachers.

In terms of speaking during the class, students raised their right hand to express

their intention to answer the teacher’s questions. In classes where students were pre-

assigned to present a report to the class, they waited for the teachers to tell them to

report. When students wanted to ask a question, they asked permission first. For

example, a student would begin by saying “Excuse me Ma’am” and wait to be

acknowledged before asking a question. Use of the Filipino politeness indicator “po” (a

polite version of saying “yes” to someone older or of higher authority or status) was

also used by students. Students were also observed saying “Thank you Ma’am/Sir”

after teachers asked them to sit, answered a query, or gave them feedback about their

performance.

The importance of observing politeness protocols is evident in the raising of

hands and waiting for teachers’ acknowledgement before speaking, the use of local

polite words, and expressions of gratitude. These protocols regulate the flow of

communication. This observation of the ubiquity of polite gestures fits with the survey

data where both teachers and students indicated frequent use of polite strategies in

communication.

During oral activities, code-switching to the national language (Filipino) or their

mother tongue (vernacular) was observed frequently. Code-switching was observed


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when students answered teachers’ questions and during small group discussions.

Examples of code-switching included: “Pasok dito labas doon” (What comes in and is

heard by the right ear comes out of the left ear.); kawawa (pitiful); isapuso (internalize);

sinasabi rito (It is stated here); ano ( What I mean is..); yon na yon ( That’s what I meant

and that was enough, I have nothing else to say); ayos na yon (That will suffice.); kasi

(because) ;yon lang (That’s all I wanted to say.). Students indicated in the interviews

that code-switching was very common when teachers allowed it to happen.

Students slowed down their speaking pace by prolonging the utterance of a

word. Especially for initial words, they use “so”, “the”, “aaaa”, and “to.” Speaking

slowly enables them to buy time while trying to think what to say next and how to say it

in English.

Another notable practice observed was students’ tendency to answer in unison to

factual and yes or no questions. However, choral response was discouraged. Teachers

were observed saying “Do not answer in chorus. Raise your hand if you want to answer

the question.” Research into the effectiveness of choral response mostly has been

carried out in non-university settings and among those who have learning difficulties.

Nonetheless, findings point to the efficacy of choral responding in generating students’

participation in classroom activities (Haydon, Marsicano, & Scott, 2013).

Students were also observed looking at their classmates in an imploring manner

when experiencing difficulty speaking in English. They were hoping that one of their

classmates would be able to provide the English word they needed. Students also

smiled or laughed when they were at a loss at what to say.

Stopping mid-sentence and abandoning speaking were other strategies. Some

students who were called to answer a question stood up and then stopped speaking


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before they had finished. They remained standing and waited for the teacher to tell them

to sit down. There were others who stopped talking and sat down to indicate that they

had nothing more to say.

Some standing students covered their face when they experienced difficulty.

Another student who was giving a presentation hid her face behind the poster she was

holding when she had no more words to say. Another one smiled, covered her face with

the paper she was holding, and then stopped speaking. Another student stopped talking

and looked at the copy of the text he was holding. Another one closed his eyes.

Swallowing and smiling sheepishly were signals that students could not continue with

the oral task. One student appeared to be having difficulty understanding the teacher’s

instructions. He frowned and scratched his head, but did not ask the teacher or his

classmates for help.

These various behaviours that follow students’ inability to speak in English in

front of teachers and peers are also mentioned in the interviews. Students do not say

explicitly that they cannot continue in English. There is the assumption that teachers

and students know what silence means in this context.

Instead of speech, there were many gestures involving hands, arms, fingers,

head, and eyes, as well as leaning the whole body forward. One student used finger

movements to demonstrate “twinkling lights.” Another showed “the peace sign” using

the fore and middle fingers to form the letter “V.” An example of using gestures to

send a message was when some students were part of a group presentation blinked their

eyes several times to their classmates after their presentation. The blinking was a cue

for their classmates not to ask any more questions. The frequent use of non-verbal

gestures to send messages is typical of a high-context culture.


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The use of other English options to finish a report was observed rarely. Only

two students tried to use English synonyms and explanations to clarify what they

wanted to say. The use of the phrases “something like that” and “you know” were

observed only once.

Some students asked questions as a communication strategy, for example,

“What is the question again ma’am?” Another student asked if there would be an

examination or if the presentation would be used instead of an examination. One student

approached the teacher and asked a question in private. The few questions that students

asked to teachers, focused on how to accomplish a task. There were no questions about

clarifying or challenging information presented in class. In collective societies such as

the Philippines, teachers’ knowledge is taken as absolute and is not to be questioned.

Based on the observations, oral communication strategies used by students were

classified as informal, formal, silent, and polite. Code-switching, time-gaining, and non-

verbal cues that express language difficulty are classified as informal strategies. Silent

strategies include students’ stopping talking in front of the class as well as silence

among students when they are not engaged in group discussions and when they are not

called on by teachers to speak. Formal strategies include the use of other English words

to compensate for required English words. Examples of these are the use of synonyms,

descriptions, and English all-purpose words. They also include gestures that help

students to express their thoughts in English. Polite strategies include formal greetings

and use of courteous words. Asking questions (even when the questions were

accompanied by polite gestures) was classified as assertive strategies.


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Frequency of pre-service teachers’ use of oral communication strategies.

The number of times different oral strategies were used by students was counted

during observation. Their occurrence and percentage of total strategies observed is

shown in Table 6.6: informal strategies, 29.45%; silent strategies, 28.55%; polite

strategies, 11.81%; and assertive strategies, 5.98%.

Table 6.6

Frequency and Percentage (of the total number of oral communication strategies

observed) of Pre-service Teachers’ Oral Communication Strategies

Oral communication strategies

Class Informal Silent Formal Polite Assertive Total

1 4 7 6 3 1 21 2 16 6 7 7 5 41 3 10 3 6 3 1 23 4 8 9 5 2 1 25 5 16 9 1 3 0 29 6 7 2 5 4 0 18 7 9 1 3 4 1 18 8 3 1 1 2 1 8 9 10 9 4 4 0 27 10 34 17 5 17 2 75 11 12 12 14 2 0 40 12 3 4 5 3 0 15 13 2 2 7 2 0 13 14 15 13 16 2 0 46 15 13 16 11 3 1 44 16 4 8 7 2 1 22 17 8 8 6 2 1 25 18 0 8 5 2 3 18 19 4 5 13 5 17 44 20 7 14 22 3 0 46 21 13 28 9 2 3 55 22 2 9 1 2 2 16

Total 197 191 159 79 40 669

% 29.45 28.55 23.77 11.81 5.98


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These findings support the interview data in that code-switching is common,

classes tend to be quiet, and non-verbal gestures are used frequently in place of direct

speech. Both the survey data and the interview data showed the infrequent use of

assertive strategies.

It was surprising that polite strategies were not observed more often. However,

given the quiet nature of classrooms with individual students only talking in public

when specifically called upon by teachers (except when they were talking in groups),

there may be relatively few times during a class when students can be observed using

polite behaviours. Table 6.6 shows frequency and percentages (of the total number of

oral communication strategies observed) of pre-service teachers’ oral communication

strategies.

Teacher educators’ instructional communication strategies.

Classroom interactions were largely initiated by questions from teachers. Initial

questions were in the form of review or motivation questions asked at the beginning of

the class. Discussion questions were also asked during the course of the lesson to check

comprehension. Where there were students who volunteered to answer a question,

teachers called on those who raised their hands. However, when the same students

volunteered again and again, teachers called other students even when they did not

volunteer. Teachers used the class roster or seating plan to identify students and then to

present them with a question.

In classes where teaching demonstrations were conducted, students acted as

teachers and directed questions to their peers. In some classes students were required to

make a report or present to the whole class. During presentations, teachers asked


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questions of the presenters. Teachers also asked follow up questions that prodded

presenters to elaborate on their answers. Teachers also asked students if they

understood what was happening in the class.

The use of questions by teachers is central to generating oral communication.

Questions serve as a precursor, providing opportunities for students to speak in English.

During the course of most lessons, teachers called on students who did not volunteer to

answer. Often teachers would decide which students would form a group and which

student would report on behalf of the group. The use of threats not to give assessment

credit or to give a lower mark if students did not speak in class was observed. Students

were required to speak in full sentences. Students were expected to stand when they

replied to teachers’ questions.

Teachers’ non-verbal cues signalled strong authority: their gaze; their tone of

voice; their behaviours; and their posture. One teacher used a hand signal of raising the

hand with open palm facing the class to call for silence. Another was observed using

her eyes to send a message, opening them wide and looking at a student who was

chewing gum.

Almost all classrooms had risers in the front. On the riser, teachers were able to

look around to check that everybody was ready. At times during the class, teachers

would step down and walk around the room.

Teachers were observed smiling and nodding their heads in approval and

encouragement. In classes where small group discussions were in progress, some

teachers would tap students gently on the shoulder as they moved around the room.

Some teachers became quite animated when they explained important points to


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students. During group work, teachers moved around to monitor each group, sometimes

helping students to prepare posters and similar products.

Teachers were observed showing concern for students and praising their work.

For example, one teacher, while checking class attendance, asked if anyone knew what

happened to a student who was absent. Teachers said “thank you” to students who

answered questions and offered praise such as “your answer is correct”, “very well

said”, and “it’s your turn to shine.” Teachers would acknowledge good points made by

students.

Teachers gave advice to students, for example, “Ask questions to find out

something, not to put someone down”, “Do not impose respect, gain it”, “There are

people who do not become successful because of their attitude”, and “You cannot give

what you do not have.” One teacher said “I won’t say your answer is wrong, I just share

ideas.” Another one said “Do not get nervous because then I get nervous too.”

Upon inspection, the instructional strategies could be clustered into questioning

strategies, authoritarian strategies, non-verbal immediacy strategies, and verbal

immediacy strategies. Questioning strategies refer to teachers asking questions to start

interaction, to prod students to speak or to elaborate ideas, or to help students

understand the question better. Authoritarian strategies are teacher strategies displaying

higher power and control over students in the form of forcing them to speak, giving

reprimands, or critically pointing out faults. Non-verbal immediacy strategies are

teachers’ use of positive gestures and unspoken expressions that are meant to encourage

students. Verbal immediacy strategies are speaking encounters with students within or

outside of class when teachers encourage students.


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The use of these strategies was counted and the percentage of each type of

strategy compared to the total number of strategies is shown in Table 6.7.

Table 6.7

Frequency of Observed Teacher Educators’ Strategies and Percentage of Total Number

of Strategies

Instructional communication strategies Class Authoritarian Questioning Non-

Verbal Immediacy

Verbal Immediacy

Total

1 12 2 6 6 26 2 5 5 5 8 23 3 9 9 7 7 32 4 10 7 5 7 29 5 13 18 5 4 40 6 36 22 9 17 84 7 14 6 3 7 30 8 24 25 2 2 53 9 30 16 15 11 72 10 12 16 6 14 48 11 3 4 12 13 32 12 14 6 6 3 29 13 13 8 4 4 29 14 19 9 3 9 40 15 8 17 19 10 54 16 2 4 3 1 10 17 5 6 16 1 28 18 4 2 7 6 19 19 10 5 14 12 41 20 15 24 11 6 56 21 6 5 8 1 20 22 3 6 6 8 23

Total 267 222 172 157 818

% 32.64 27.14 21.03 19.19


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Authoritarian strategies comprised 32.64%, questioning strategies comprised

27.14%, non-verbal immediacy strategies comprised 21.03%, and verbal immediacy

strategies comprised 19.19% of the total number of strategies observed.

The frequency of observed use of authoritarian strategies is at odds with the

survey data. Some inconsistencies of results between the survey data and the classroom

observation data, specifically use of authoritarian strategies, may be resolved by looking

at the interview data. These data confirm the centrality of teacher authority and

frequent use of authoritarian strategies.

6.5 Indicators of High-Context and High Power Distance Culture in Classroom

Communication

High-context communication style and high power distance as cultural

phenomena are closely connected. Their interweaving can make it difficult to

distinguish between the two.

High-context culture communication.

Classroom exchanges indicative of indirect communications are commonly

understood within the particular context. Five indicators were used to gauge their

occurrence. Although the indicators do overlap, there was an attempt to discriminate

among them. The indicators and the frequency of their occurrence are shown in Table

6.8. Percentages were not tallied because the indicators had too much overlap to be

treated as individual entities.


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Table 6.8

Frequency of Observed High-context Communication Indicators

Frequency 1

Listeners sensing and understanding what speakers are expressing, even when the speakers do not say in words everything they intend to communicate.

69

2 Speakers choose not to complete their utterances to avoid shame or embarrassment.

16

3 Speakers’ intention was not obviously stated but was mostly understood.

25

4 Speakers and listeners displaying a common understanding of how each is expected to behave during a conversation.

40

5 Speakers assuming that listeners will know what they really mean.

23

Shared understanding of unspoken messages.

The following exchanges noted in the observations demonstrate shared

understanding of unspoken messages as a salient feature of high-context

communication. Classroom routines were well established. For example, classes began

with a prayer. The moment the teacher came in, students stood for the prayer without

being told. They greeted the teacher. Students usually did not sit down until prompted

by the teacher.

Shared understanding without explicit verbal communication was also

demonstrated in the following interactions. In one class, for instance, the teacher

mispronounced the words “do’s” and “interviews.” Students did not say anything but

the mispronunciation triggered covert reactions such as students looking at each other

with secret smiles. Another was a student reporter who was having difficulty in

elaborating on a topic. She stopped talking and did not say anything, nor did she ask for

help from her teachers or her classmates. Her facial expression was of a person looking

for help. The teacher asked some questions to get her to continue with her report.


163

In one of the classes, the teacher instructed students to count off for a group task.

The teacher’s voice was not loud enough for everyone to hear. Students who were told

to start the counting off began. The rest of the class, even those who did not hear the

teacher’s instruction, continued the activity. When students answer the teacher’s

questions, the volume of their voices was relatively softer than that of the teacher.

Control in the volume of voice is also a high-context culture communication dynamic at

play inside the classroom.

Another indirect communication observed, a source of amusement, was the boy-

girl tandem in group work presentation and role plays. In one roleplaying activity, the

scene called for a handshake. However the female character would not accept the hand

of the male character. What should have been a two-second scene dragged out with

everyone laughing and teasing the two characters involved. A similar experience was

observed when a teacher said she wanted a girl and a boy to lead a song. Another

observation was a pair of male and female reporters standing up to present their work.

The moment they stood up, teasing enveloped the room. When a male reporter

mentioned a girl’s name there was a similar reaction.

Choosing not to speak to avoid shame.

Another prominent feature of high-context communication is opting to remain

silent rather than be embarrassed or be the cause of another’s shame. This feature is

more often observed in subordinates than in those in authority. The following exchanges

show choosing to remain silent as a means of saving face. Often when students who are

presenting to the class cannot continue, they look down at the floor, drooping their

shoulders in a dejected manner.


164

In one class where students were presenting their research titles, they sensed

their teacher’s disapproval of their title by the look on the teacher’s face. The teacher

did not say anything. The teacher then proposed other titles to which students

immediately agreed.

Another instance was in a discussion when the word “frugality” was read from

the lesson text. The teacher asked if anyone knew the meaning of the word. There was

no response and the question was left unanswered. It can be concluded from this

observation that the teacher did not know the meaning of “frugality.” If she did, she

would have explained it. She did not want to admit her ignorance and so continued with

the lesson leaving the word unexplained. In another classroom, the teacher asked the

question “Are you truthful?” The class answered “sometimes” in chorus. The teacher

replied “Never mind” and the question was not discussed further. In this instance, the

response of the students appeared to have caught the teacher off-guard. It was not the

response she expected. Rather than pursuing an unanticipated line of questions about

truthfulness where she might have encountered trouble remaining in a position of

authority, she chose to drop the topic and move the lesson on.

Attempts by some students to ask for clarifications were observed. However,

they did not ask follow-up questions when unsatisfactory answers were given. For

example, a student raised a question. The teacher answered but the student’s confused

look suggested that he still did not understand. Despite the confusion, he sat down and

did not ask further questions. Another student asked a question from his seat without

formally raising his hand. He appeared surprised with his own spontaneity and then

self-corrected by raising his hand to be formally acknowledged. However, he was not

called to ask that question. He then stopped raising his hand and abandoned his attempt


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to ask a question. There were students who wanted to answer questions but were not

called on by the teacher. After a few unsuccessful attempts, they stopped raising their

hands and remained quiet for the rest of the class.

Intentions not stated but understood.

There were implied but not stated messages observed. A teacher disapproved of

students’ work but did not express her disapproval explicitly. Raising her voice was a

sign that she was not happy with students’ work. Another example was the “Shhh”-ing

sound initiated by students when the class got noisy. Other students followed the first

student to do it. Similarly, a student was observed nudging another to stop what he was

doing by tapping his elbow.

In most classes, when it was close to dismissal time, students became rather

restless. One teacher made students remain for a few minutes after the bell rang. There

was no exchange of words between the teacher and the students who understood they

were being kept in for poor behaviour.

Common understanding of expected behaviour in conversation.

When students were identifying leaders in groups or assigning different tasks

for group members, students who were not happy with the result would not say anything

but would frown, look sullen, or twist their mouth in disapproval. In one class prior to a

group report, two students argued loudly about whether or not to use the board as part of

their presentation. Everyone turned their attention to the argument and there was a brief

period of tension. However, when the two noticed that they had the attention of the

class, they calmed down and the atmosphere became comfortable again. It was

interesting to note that, in another setting, two students who were presenting their work


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occasionally pinched each other. This appeared to be a way of diffusing their anxiety

during the presentation.

Assumption by speakers that what they really mean will be understood.

Students would often avoid the gaze of the teacher. This behaviour is understood

by teachers and students to mean that the student is not ready to speak. Also, stopping

speaking in mid-sentence and then smiling, sticking out one’s tongue, or looking down

is a sign that a student cannot continue. Teachers would then call on another student.

High-Power Distance Relationships in the Classroom.

Classroom exchanges indicative of high power distance between teachers and

students were noted. Five indicators were used to assess occurrence of communication

indicative of a high power distance relationship: teachers make decisions without

consulting students; teachers avoiding discussing ideas they disagree with; exchanges

show teachers have higher status than students; students challenging teachers in class

(an inverse indicator); and students face consequences for challenging teachers.

Communication activities may be classified as closer to one indicator than another. The

frequencies of these indicators are shown in Table 6.9.

Table 6.9

Frequency of Observed Communication Indicative of High Power Distance

Relationship in the Classroom

HPD Indicators Frequency 1 Teachers making decisions on issues that affect the students without consulting

them. 65

2 Teachers avoiding or refraining from discussing ideas that they do not agree with or dislike or they find taboo in the classroom.

11

3 Exchanges that show teachers have higher status than students in the classroom. 77 4 Students challenging ideas the teachers present in class. 2 5 Students facing consequences for challenging ideas the teachers present in class. 3


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Teacher as decision maker.

Teachers as major decision makers in the classroom were indicated by the

following observations. Teachers dictated what activities would happen and when they

would start and finish. Teachers decided the make-up of groups and where students

would sit within a group. Teachers decided who would be called upon to speak publicly

in class. Teachers graded all students’ tasks. For example, in one class a teacher said

the following: “I will give you a deduction for complex activities you do not do on each

sheet. I will check your work at home; if your folder is empty you would get nothing.

I’ll give extra points to those who know how to rotate. Deductions will be given for not

following instructions.”

Teachers not discussing unfamiliar ideas.

Some evidence of teachers not discussing ideas they were unfamiliar with

emerged. For example, the term “learning to know as a means to an end” emerged

during a class but the teacher did not explain what it meant even though she gave

explanations for other terms that emerged. Similarly, the word “frugality” came up but

the teacher did not explain what it meant, probably because she did not know its

meaning. Other words and phrases that emerged but were not explained included the

following: “Doctrine on sacrament as affecting what it symbolizes and symbolizes

what it affects”; “grassroots”; and “explicitly and implicitly.” Teachers did not admit

they were unfamiliar with the words and did not ask if any student might be able to help

the class.

High teacher status.

Indicators of teachers’ high status could be seen with the classroom physical

setting. The provision of the riser literally elevated teachers. In terms of verbal


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communication, the following interactions provide a picture of teachers’ status: “Close

your laptop and pay attention to the presentation in front”; “Be conscious of your

spelling, your spelling is wrong” (said in a loud derogatory manner); “You are not ready

to be a teacher”; “Proceed” (after interrupting a speaker); “You are wasting time, your

presentation is lacking”; “Use English or Filipino, if you can’t, keep quiet”; “Sit down

and clarify first what you want to say before you speak”; “The two of you (pointing at

students) are not participating”; “Why are you noisy when only one voice should be

heard”; “Do not discuss that, let us go back to the objectives” (addressed to a student

reporting to the class). One teacher scolded the whole class for 20 minutes for not doing

a task. No student spoke to explain why the task was not completed.

In one class where a group of students acted as reporters in the previous

meeting, it is routine for these students to administer a quiz to the class on the contents

of the report. When the teacher asked the reporters to stand up, they hesitated. The

teacher said: “Do you want to take the test as well?” With that, the group members

quickly stood up and positioned themselves around the room to make sure nobody

cheated during the quiz.

Not all teachers acted in a harsh manner. There were teachers who very politely

asked students to undertake activities.

There was no evidence of students refusing to comply with instructions from

teachers or of students reacting openly to criticism from the teacher. In one class, the

teacher invented a marking rubric on the spot to mark a collage students were preparing.

No student protested that it was unfair to be marked according to a marking rubric they

were not given before they started making the collage. Teachers controlled which


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students spoke publicly in class. Even if students did not volunteer to speak, the teacher

would call on them to do so.

Challenging teachers.

The rarity of students’ challenging teachers’ authority is a gauge of power

distance. There were only two minor instances when students attempted to challenge a

teacher. In one class students were given homework of preparing rubrics as an

evaluation tool for a task. During the presentation of their rubrics, the teacher mentioned

that there were students who simply browsed the Internet and copied from ready-made

rubrics. The reporters quickly responded that they did not copy the rubrics they

presented. The teacher replied that she did not accuse them of copying. The discussion

ended there. In another class, the issue of cheating was discussed. After a lengthy

discussion on the immorality of cheating, one student interrupted saying “Cheating is

sharing, Ma’am.” The teacher ignored the comment and no discussion ensued.

Students know that challenging teachers will result in negative consequences for

them. One female student was singled out by the teacher for putting on lipstick minutes

before dismissal time. The teacher said the act was unethical inside the classroom.

Another occasion was a discussion about the importance of test reading. A student

commented that for him test reading was not important. He was not given the

opportunity to explain what he meant by this remark. Instead the teacher said “I do not

agree that test reading is not important. I will talk to you in private.” That was the end

of the matter.


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6.6 Discussion of Findings from Classroom Observations

The classroom observation phase of the study revealed four significant findings.

First, communication dynamics are teacher-centered. Second, there is little oral

communication in English by students. Third, the Filipino communication style that

makes use of indirect, informal, and non-verbal behaviour is discouraged in most

classrooms. Fourth, behaviour by both teachers and students reinforces the powerful

position of the teacher. This includes the almost constant grading by teachers of

students’ oral communication.

1. Classroom communication in teacher education is teacher-centred

Indicators of the central role of the teacher include the following: the traditional

seating arrangement of rows and columns of seats in front of a riser where the teacher

stands; strong teacher authority; and submissiveness among students. This traditional

classroom organisation is common in the Philippines. It was changed occasionally by

teachers to a structure that suited group activities. Teachers usually controlled the make-

up of the groups and decided who would report for the group. Some teachers did allow

students to use a local language during group work but students were required to speak

in English when they reported to the whole class. There were very few assertive

strategies used by students.

2. Low rate of oral communication

It is possible that the low rate of students talking in English might be lower than

that observed. Teachers would have been aware that the observer was looking at

students’ English skills. Some teachers may have increased the level of students’

English communication.


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This finding of low levels of communication among pre-service teachers in

Mindanao Philippines is similar to Martin’s study (2006) of university students in

Manila, the country’s capital. She observed two first year science classes using English

as medium of instruction for one and a half hours and two hours. Although the main

concern of the study was to investigate whether code-switching is facilitating or

inhibiting science education, part of her data recorded teacher and student oral

utterances. In one class 18% of utterances were student utterances. In the second class,

only 10% of utterances were student utterances.

3. An informal communication style is discouraged in teacher education

When students spoke in local languages, communication tended to be informal

and indirect. When students were required to speak in English they adopted more

formal behaviour. They used body language rather than spoken language to show that

they were having trouble expressing themselves in English. Maggay (2002) argues that

an informal style typifies Filipino communication.

Code-switching is an informal strategy used by Filipino students. However,

code-switching is discouraged in English medium classes (Bernardo, 2005). It is seen

as a violation of the Philippine Bilingual Education Policy (Martin, 2006). Code-

switching has been blamed for declining language skills (Bernardo, 2005) in both

Filipino and English, despite studies demonstrating the usefulness of code-switching in

enhancing communication (Martin, 2006; Bernardo, 2005). Answering in chorus is

another distinctive practice discouraged by teachers. Answering together is a feature of

a collectivist community where it brings a sense of safety and belonging.

Students’ use of indirect oral communication appears to fill the purpose of

withholding their feelings. Being candid may mean a loss of face. Power distance to


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maintain classroom harmony means that students must regulate their behaviour to

maintain good relationships with their teachers. To do this, students use socially

accepted behaviours such as politeness and silence.

4. Classroom communication dynamics maintain a high-power distance

between teacher educators and pre-service teachers

The classroom physical set-up and use of authoritarian strategies by teachers

perpetuates a high power distance between teachers and students. This social divide

between teachers and students reduces students’ oral communication. In the interviews,

students indicated that they remained silent most of the time because they feared being

rejected or humiliated, particularly by the teacher. The almost constant assessment of

students’ oral communication adds to the power distance and the level of anxiety within

the classroom.

It is not surprising that teachers downplay their authority in the classroom, as

emerged in the survey data. In fact, people in authority may not be as aware of their

power as those who are subject of it. For example, a study of English teachers in Japan

revealed that native English teachers teaching English to Japanese students were more

conscious about the cultural influences that affect Japanese learners than the Japanese

learners themselves (Harumi, 2011). Immersion within one’s own culture makes it

difficult to step away from it and look at it from a distance (Cortazzi & Jin, 1999).

6.7 Summary and Conclusion

Chapter Six covered the presentation and discussion of the classroom

observation data. Twenty two classes were observed from three institutions in

Mindanao, the Philippines, from November 2013 to January 2014. The number of


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teacher educators observed was 12 and the number of pre-service teachers in the

observed classes was 417.

Classroom observation revealed four related findings: teacher-centred

classrooms that do not foster students’ oral communication in English; the suppression

of the informal communication style of the local culture; frequent assessment of

students’ oral communication; and a strong power distance between teachers and

students. Given these conditions, it is not surprising that that students’ use of oral

English is low.

Findings in this chapter are consistent with the interview data in Chapter Five:

the centrality of teacher authority in the classroom; low rate of oral classroom

communication in English; frequent use informal and silent strategies among pre-

service teachers and little use of assertive strategies; and the prominence of questioning

as an instructional strategy used by teaches. Links have been made with indicators of a

high-context culture and a high power distance.

In the survey data, there was convergence in the reports of pre-service teachers

and teacher educators on the use of oral communication strategies and the influence of

high-context and high power distance aspects on classroom communication. However,

the survey data at times were not always consistent with the interview data and the

observation data.

Despite some inconsistencies, the researcher argues that the characteristics of

teaching and learning in teacher education in the Philippines create conditions that

restrain rather than promote oral communication in English medium classes. In the final

chapter, general conclusions are reached and a set of recommendations for ways to

improve the teaching of English in Mindanao, the Philippines, is presented.

Chapter Seven: Findings, Recommendations and Conclusion

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Chapter Seven

Findings, Recommendations and Conclusion

7.1 Introduction

Analyses of data obtained from pre-service teachers and teacher educators

through surveys, interviews, and class observations of English medium classes were

presented in Chapters Four, Five, and Six. In this concluding chapter, the major findings

of the study are summarized. These are followed by a set of recommendations for

fostering oral communication in English medium teacher education classes in

Mindanao, the Philippines. These recommendations build on the inter-related

phenomena of high-context and high power distance culture. Limitations of the study

are noted along with suggestions for future research.

7.2 Major Findings

Teacher education classes in Mindanao mirror the broader Filipino socio-

cultural context where there is a significant gap between those who hold power and

those who do not. Contrary to the notion of education as an emancipatory activity, the

current study has demonstrated the continuance of the traditional power imbalance. It is

unlikely that this power imbalance will reduce in the near future. In the survey data, it

was striking that not only did the pre-service teachers identify the power invested in the

teacher, but also they endorsed current classroom practices as the best way to improve

their oral English. In the absence of any experience of alternative classroom practice,

perhaps the pre-service teachers could not conceive of other ways of conducting English


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medium classes. In all likelihood they will conduct English medium classes in a similar

manner when they are professional teachers.

An associated finding was the quiet classroom and the low occurrence of

students speaking in English. Teacher educators attribute silence to students’ general

passivity and lack of competence in English. Pre-service teachers, on the other hand,

attribute silence to anxiety and fear of losing face in front of the teachers and their

peers.

Most oral communication occurs for the purpose of evaluation and not to

encourage greater oral competence. It is not surprising that there is a high level of

anxiety. The current study has provided many accounts of pre-service teachers losing

confidence and experiencing mental blocks and physical tension when presenting to the

class for purposes of evaluation.

The use of informal strategies that fit the local indirect high-context

communication style was not encouraged by teachers. These strategies include code-

switching, answering in chorus, time gaining techniques, and seeking help from

classmates. Perhaps teacher educators think they should conduct classes in a “western”

manner and so they do not encourage strategies that are synonymous with local

practices.

However, when pre-service teachers are questioned about practices that would

help their English communication, they describe a friendlier and less critical

environment where there would be no loss of face when they make mistakes in English.

All too often pre-service teachers are embarrassed because of difficulties in expressing

themselves in English. This results in loss of face in front of teachers and peers. Many

lose confidence in their ability to speak English and try to avoid it if they can.


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Classroom communication in English is rigid and formal. There is a lack of warmth

and little acceptance of mistakes. In addition, there is the anxiety associated with the

formal evaluation of speaking in English in front of the class. Students who perform

poorly feel humiliated while students who perform well are accused by their peers of

showing off. Some teachers can be intimidated by high performing students if it appears

that the students’ English is superior to their own. This could result in loss of face for

the teacher.

Conditions in English medium classes can be understood within a high power

distance culture that characterizes collectivist societies like the Philippines. The

researcher has argued that these conditions are not conducive to improving students’

oral communication. However, it is unrealistic to recommend wholesale changes to

classroom behaviours because such change is unlikely to occur. Strong cultural

traditions are not easy to shift. Instead, the researcher presents recommendations for

change that can be accommodated within the cultural traditions of the Philippines.

The recommendations are designed to create classrooms characterized by high levels of

trust and informality.

In high power distance societies, the system is accepted by those who are

subordinate on the assumption that those in power will take on nurturing, protective,

and mentoring roles. Table 7.1 compares how a high power distance culture, in

conjunction with a high-context communication style, currently operates in English

medium classes with how the culture might operate in a more constructive manner.


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Table 7.1 Comparison of Current Effects of High-context and High Power

Distance Cultural Variables and More Constructive Effects

Current effects

Possible effects

1. Low-Trust 2. Defensive 3. Critical 4. Formal 5. Authority as intimidating 6. Disconnected 7. Local culture as inferior 8. Lack of cultural awareness

High-Trust Protective Facilitative Friendly Authority as inspiring Collaborative Local culture as valuable

Increased cultural awareness

Current classroom environments are typified by low trust, formality, and fear of

losing face. This environment, in part, may be the result of teachers’ decisions to

downplay local approaches to communicating because local approaches are considered

inferior to imported pedagogical ideas. Transforming a low-trust environment to a high-

trust environment is essential because trust is the foundation of open and authentic

communication. An amiable atmosphere should encourage greater collaboration

between teachers and students. In this context, the teacher’s authority could be used to

inspire students rather than to intimidate or humiliate them.

To create an amiable atmosphere, the local informal communication style can be

employed. Finally, raising awareness among pre-service teachers and teacher educators

of the Filipino cultural characteristics of high-context and high power distance may lead

to greater understanding of their own communication behaviours.


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7.3 Recommendations

The following recommendations are made based on the argument that high-

context and high power distance cultural features have the potential to enhance

communication in English medium classrooms. It should be noted that there is a

considerable overlap among the recommendations put forward because they are closely

linked. As such, the recommendations should be considered interdependent.

Recommendation 1: Build high-trust relationships in the classroom.

To improve oral communication it is important to develop an atmosphere of

trust. Pre-service teachers’ silence has undercurrents including anxiety about making

mistakes, being rejected, or being ridiculed. No doubt anxiety constrains language

learning (Lightbown & Spada, 1999). Teacher educators should take the lead in creating

more trust in their classrooms. Moore (2009) pointed to the benefits of building high

levels of trust in the classroom. A sense of trust is especially important in Mindanao

where lack of trust is common because of social, political, and religious tensions

(Campo & Judd, 2005; Kamlian, 2007; Macdonald & Viñals, 2012).

Building a trusting relationship requires the commitment of teacher educators.

They should adopt the role of mentors who are there to coach, support, and encourage

pre-service teachers. Among pre-service teachers, a high-trust environment should

generate a feeling of security, treating each other as “insiders” or “one of us” (Narag

and Maxwell, 2014). In high-context cultures, people know they are insiders when they

can access confidential information shared among insiders. A sense of belonging

should bolster pre-service teachers’ courage to be more open and take risks in oral

communication.


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Recommendation 2: Create a protective classroom environment.

Fear of losing face emerged as one of the key causes of anxiety among pre-

service teachers. This finding confirms previous studies that concern for face is a

restraining factor in English medium classes (e.g. Hung-Chang and Ya-Huei 2015; Ha

& Li, 2014) and that eliminating threats to face increases English proficiency (Wang &

Liao, 2015).

Teacher educators should be aware of the importance of maintaining face and

introduce strategies so that pre-service teachers do not lose face. Teacher educators

should explain that committing mistakes is inherent to the learning process. Pre-service

teachers should understand that it is all right to make mistakes. There is no loss of face.

Teacher educators and pre-service teachers should make a pact at the beginning of the

semester to protect each other’s face.

Individuals and groups entering into an alliance founded on trust is a Filipino

long standing custom. In ancient times, it was done through a blood compact to seal

friendships between tribal or clan leaders (Aguilar, 2010). Among school peers, similar

alliances are signified by code names, group cheers, or signature hand and body

movements. Holding a brainstorming session to build agreement to commit to protect

each other’s face may be a step in this direction.

When pre-service teachers’ and teacher educators’ commitment to a trusting

classroom is established, they can then discuss how pre-service teachers prefer to be

supported when they are experiencing difficulties. They also can discuss how teacher

educators prefer to be approached when students have questions. Ideas that can be

generated from discussion could provide a “customized” guide for students and teachers

in times of speaking difficulties.


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Recommendation 3: Empower students through graded oral activities.

Evaluation as a motivation for students in collective societies can be

advantageous when used effectively. However, pre-service teachers expressed anxiety

over random, spur of the moment, or unannounced oral activities that were graded. All

oral activities that will be graded should be explicitly identified in advance with clear

assessment rubrics provided. Students should be given adequate time for practice.

Sufficient preparation for tasks lessens anxiety and increases self-confidence (Sioson,

2011). In this way, graded speaking activities should become an empowering

experience for students.

Assessment rubrics should be worded constructively so that they highlight

progress rather than focus on deficiencies. Pre-service teachers should be asked for

their input in the construction of rubrics. Presenting feedback on aspects of oral

communication needing improvement should be provided to the class as whole rather

than identifying individual students. Outside graded activities, considerable time should

be used to practice spontaneous and free flowing oral English. This removes

performance anxiety. Unplanned graded oral “recitation” and random graded activities

should be discouraged if not eliminated altogether.

Recommendation 4: Establish rapport using immediacy strategies.

Teacher educators are in the position to make pre-service teachers feel at ease.

Teacher educators’ words and gestures affect the general mood. Words and gestures that

strengthen positive relationships between teachers and students are called immediacy

strategies.

The results from the three data sets indicated teacher educators’ reasonably

frequent use of non-verbal immediacy strategies but infrequent use of verbal immediacy


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strategies. Pre-service teachers noted that encouraging words from teacher educators

help them get through oral difficulties. As such, teacher educators should use more

immediacy strategies, both verbal and non-verbal, to enhance participation. Roberts and

Friedman (2013) observed greater participation in classes with teachers who display

frequent immediacy behaviours.

Teacher educators should develop a compendium of appropriate verbal

immediacy strategies for different opportunities. These strategies could include how to

engage in conversation with students outside class time, within or outside the

classroom. Affirmative words to acknowledge good performance as well as uplifting

words for dispirited students would be useful. Teachers could ask pre-service teachers

to indicate topics that interest them and then use these topics to encourage

communication. Teacher educators’ use of these strategies can serve a dual purpose: to

encourage oral communication in English and to model strategies that pre-service

teachers can use in their future teaching careers.

Pre-service teachers also should use immediacy strategies to develop rapport

with teachers. Strategies could include greeting or smiling at teachers when meeting

them outside the room, offering to help teachers, and enquiring about teachers’ interests.

Use of immediacy strategies should strengthen the student-teacher bond and thereby

introduce more open and genuine communication between them.

Recommendation 5: Use teacher authority to encourage and inspire.

This study has demonstrated the authority vested in teacher educators. The

perception of teachers as authority figures in a high-context and high power distance

culture remains pervasive. Use of this authority to force pre-service teachers to speak is

counter-productive. However, authority can have a positive side. Teacher-centred


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classroom may provide an advantage for teacher educators. It can be used to introduce,

elicit and, facilitate activities that promote oral communication. It can be used to inspire

and encourage students rather than ridicule them. Encouragement in the form of

supportive and affirmative practices from teacher educators increases students’

participation rate in activities (Rocca, 2008).

Some pre-service teachers identified teacher educators’ use of authority to

encourage oral communication. However, this was not common. Teacher educators

should be encouraged to use their authority to encourage pre-service teachers to speak

in English even if they make mistakes.

Teacher educators can introduce classroom activities and practices with the

sincere interest of developing students’ communication skills, enhancing learning and

empowering learners in the process. This is possible when teachers say more affirming

words in the course of teaching, highlighting strengths of students rather than their

difficulties (VanderStaay, Faxon, Meischen, Kolesnikov, & Ruppel, 2009). It can be

displayed in expressions that develop student empowerment such as “Let us…”, “We

can…” and “It can be done.” Teachers can set high expectations for students and

encourage them to achieve those goals. They can delight when students become

articulate. They can tap student’s expertise and actively involve them as resource

persons in the class.

Recommendation 6: Teach and learn communication strategies.

Pre-service teachers’ difficulties in speaking English can provide opportunities

for teacher educators to demonstrate how they can help students gain confidence to

proceed. Previous studies have found that the use of communication strategies is

beneficial (Dongyun, 2014; Sioson, 2011) and that the teaching of these strategies is


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recommended (Mei & Nathalang, 2010; Ünal, 2012). The teaching may be explicit or

implicit. For example, providing helpful phrases that students can easily access to give

them more time to think would be useful or rephrasing instructions or questions to give

students greater preparation time for speaking.

Working collaboratively when students are experiencing problems enhances the

feeling that others are there to help and nobody need loses face. Expressions commonly

used in the local culture may be developed into an English language resource folder for

use in classes. For example, there are phrases like “yes, please”, “yes, I do”, yes, I will”

or “yes I can” as variations of “yes ma’am/sir” or instead of plainly saying “yes.” The

expression “yes please” and similar expressions are equivalents of the Filipino polite

expression “opo” that is often translated as “yes” in English.

To express a negative response, saying “no” is considered rude. Instead,

responses such as “I am sorry but I can’t” or “I wish I could, but as of now I cannot”

should be encouraged. Appropriate expressions of refusal are important because both

students and teachers need to preserve face (Taguchi, 2013). Having culturally

appropriate expressions in English should help everyone express themselves with

dignity when they encounter speaking difficulties.

Recommendation 7: Promote local communication styles as a valuable resource.

Informal and polite communication strategies that permeate local

communication should be encouraged. These strategies should not be treated as

liabilities. Rather, they should be treated as a means to promote oral participation in

English medium classes. For example, code-switching, the most common informal

strategy, should be encouraged. Students’ code-switching can be used as a diagnostic

opportunity: to understand where students are experiencing trouble with English.


184

Students answering in chorus should be perceived as helpful. The use of

multiple responses has been observed as a useful element of language acquisition (Ko,

2014). It should be seen as an opportunity for dual linguistic stimulation among

learners: they get to hear words from others and join others in saying it at the same time.

Choral responses are also desirable for those who have language difficulties. They can

speak with the group and feel a sense of engagement.

When pre-service teachers appeal for help from their classmates, this should be

seen as a useful strategy. Teachers should not denigrate students who ask their peers for

help. When students make mistakes in grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary, teachers

should use these mistakes as learning opportunities and encourage the class to work

together in a cheerful manner to reduce mistakes.

Make use of partner-collaborators to promote oral communication. The presence

of a spokesperson serving as an intermediary is part of Filipino communication style. It

is another indication of the indirectness of local communication when the main

character hesitates or lacks the courage to speak for himself or herself. An intermediary

can speak for a group, especially on sensitive issues. These go-betweens are often

selected as group leaders. Encouraging go-betweens to speak on behalf of others can

spark communication. In collective societies, expressing intentions on behalf of another

or of a group is easier than expressing your own intentions because it is less threatening.

The use of short informal talks to begin a class could be used to diffuse speaking

tension. Teachers can use this time to engage students in light conversation, for

example, giving compliments or asking about family, friends, or hobbies. These

strategies can make students feel more at ease prior to engagement in more academic


185

speaking tasks. The use of local informal communication strategies should signal that

students are feeling comfortable.

Recommendation 8: Integrate concepts of high-context culture and high power

distance into professional education courses.

The related cultural concepts of high-context communication and high power

distance that permeate Filipino society are rarely addressed in a direct manner, perhaps

because they do permeate society and seem entirely natural. However, given their

impact on the behaviour of Filipinos, these concepts should be examined in a more

direct manner. To raise the level of awareness on high-context and high power distance

cultural orientations, these concepts should be incorporated into the professional

education curriculum specifically in courses that discuss the relationship of culture and

education such as Social Dimensions of Education, Facilitating Learning and Principles

of Teaching. This may help improve understanding of classroom behaviours by both

teacher educators and pre-service teachers.

Acknowledging and accepting the indirect local communication style should

build tolerance among teacher educators when students struggle to express themselves

in English. Acknowledging and accepting high power distance is more problematic if

teacher educators use their power to belittle students who struggle with English. If, as

noted earlier, teacher educators use their power in a more positive manner, there can be

benefits for students.

Figure 7.1 provides a graphical representation of the eight recommendations to

improve pre-service teachers’ oral proficiency in English medium classrooms.


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Figure 7.1 Recommendations to improve pre-service teachers’ oral proficiency in

English medium classrooms

7.4 Implications of the Study for Teacher Education in Mindanao, Philippines

The recommendations for using local cultural traditions to promote oral

communication in English would require conscious modification of practices. It would

require a re-examination of teacher educators’ use of instructional strategies. Teachers

would need to examine their use of power. They should use it to empower and

UTILIZING HCC AND HPD

TO PROMOTE ORAL CLASSROOM

COMMUNICATION IN EMC

BUILD HIGH- TRUST

RELATIONSHIP IN THE CLASROOM

CREATE A PROTECTIVE CLASSROOM

ENVIRONMENT

EMPOWER STUDENTS

THROUGH GRADED ORAL ACTIVITIES

ESTABLISH GOOD RAPPORT USING

IMMEDIACY STRATEGIES

USE TEACHER AUTHORITY TO

ENCOURAGE AND INSPIRE

TEACH AND LEARN COMMUNICATION

STRATEGIES

PROMOTE LOCAL COMMUNICATION

STYLE AS A VALUABLE

COMMUNICATION RESOURCE

INTEGRATE CONCEPTS OF HCC

AND HPD INTO PROFESSIONAL

EDUCATION COURSES


187

encourage students rather than to belittle and humiliate them. It fits with the National

Competency Based Teacher Standards of the Philippines, specifically, the creation of

safe physical classroom environment and healthy psychological climate conducive for

learning that encourages free expression of ideas. A high-trust atmosphere that protects

face is necessary to create this environment.

For pre-service teachers, being aware of the concepts of high-context

communication and high power distance can increase their understanding of how

learning occurs and how they should act when they themselves become teachers. Self-

aware students are in a better position to manage their learning than students who are

not aware of factors that help or hinder their learning (Steiner, 2014). Raising pre-

service teachers’ awareness of strategies to use when they encounter difficulties in

speaking English should boost their confidence to speak in English (Mei & Nathalang,

2010; Ünal, 2012).

7.5 Limitations of the Study

The data collected in this study were from pre-service teachers enrolled during

the second semester of the school year 2013-2014 and teacher educators from three

teacher education institutions in Central Mindanao, Philippines. Care should be taken

not to generalise the findings of the study too widely outside this time and this region of

the Philippines.

In the classroom observation phase, audio or video recording was not used,

limiting the researcher to her written observations. Video and audio recording may

have captured more subtle aspects of the classroom. To enhance the generalisability of

the classroom observation, the researcher could have observed more classes. Similarly,


188

to enhance the generalisability of the focus group discussions, the researcher could have

conducted more interviews.

The researcher could have gathered more survey data, thus enhancing the

generalisability of the findings of the study. In addition, the survey data gathered from

both pre-service teachers and teacher educators should be interpreted with caution.

First, there was a relatively small number of teacher educators who completed the

survey. Second, some of the scales had rather low levels of internal reliability. As a

result, findings drawn from those scales need to be interpreted with caution.

For further exploration it may be useful to compare pre-service teachers’ oral

communication strategies and teacher educators’ instructional communication strategies

in non-English medium and English medium classes. This would allow a more

stringent examination of the impact of high-context culture communication style and

high power distance in the classroom communication dynamics.

7.6 Conclusion

This study examined the oral communication strategies in English medium

classes used by both pre-service teachers and teacher educators in Mindanao, the

Philippines. What strategies were used and were they effective in terms of improving

oral proficiency? If it could be demonstrated that at least some of the strategies were

not effective, were there other strategies that could replace them? To what extent could

the oral communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and teacher educators be

characterised within the high-context and high power distance culture of the

Philippines? It is important for teacher educators to become proficient in spoken

English because they will be expected to conduct lessons in English when they become


189

teachers themselves. English is an official language of the Philippines. It is the

language of education, business, industry, governance, and international relations.

To understand communication dynamics in English medium classes in teacher

education, the communication strategies of pre-service teachers and teacher educators

were examined in three ways: surveys for pre-service teachers and teacher educators,

separate focus groups interviews for pre-service teachers and teacher educators, and

classroom observation. This research design provided a mix of quantitative and

qualitative data. It provided a methodological triangulation that has enhanced the

reliability and validity of the findings.

The study has demonstrated that many strategies currently in use do not

enhance students’ oral communication in English. Rather, the strategies stifle

communication. The study concluded with a set of recommendations for ways in which

pre-service teachers and teacher educators could work together to create a classroom

atmosphere that fostered greater openness and informality, an atmosphere that should

encourage pre-service teachers to practise their English without fear of loss of face

when they make mistakes.

These recommendations incorporate use of the Filipino cultural characteristics

of high-context communication style and high-power distance. The eight

recommendations are as follows:

(1) Build high-trust relationships in the classroom;

(2) Create a protective classroom environment;

(3) Empower students through graded oral activities;

(4) Establish rapport using immediacy strategies;

(5) Use teacher authority to encourage and inspire;


190

(6) Teach and learn communication strategies;

(7) Promote local communication style as a valuable resource;

(8) Integrate concepts of high-context culture and high power distance into professional education courses.

The intent of the recommendations is the provision of effective classroom oral

communication experiences for pre-service teachers during their teacher training. They

can then use these strategies when they graduate as teachers who themselves will be

working within English medium classrooms. It would be heartening to provide Filipino

students with increased confidence and proficiency in oral English.

References

191

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Appendices

Appendix 1: Classroom Observation Protocol

Classroom Observation Protocol

Document Version [2] Dated 10/9/2013 I. Background Information Date: _____________ Class /Course:_____________Room Number:____________ Total Number of Students :__________ Male:_________ Female:_______________ Time of Arrival:_________________Time of Departure:______________________ Total Number of Minutes:_________Medium of Instruction:___________________ Teacher Educator:_____________________Observer: _______________________ University: __________________________________________________________ Subject Matter:_______________________________________________________ II. Description of Classroom Environment

A. Arrangement

Appendices

222

B. Unique/Unusual Features ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

III. Pre-Service Teachers Communication Strategies Class Observation Record of Pre-Service Teachers Oral Communication Strategies in English Medium Class Codes FS - Formal Strategies PS - Polite Strategies AS – Assertive Strategies IS - Informal Strategies SS - Silent Strategies

Time in Minutes

Activity Communication Strategies

Used

Observation Notes

Reflective Notes

FS IS PS SS AS 1-10

11-20

21-30

31-40

41-50

51-60

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223

IV. Teacher Educators Instructional Communication Strategies Class Observation Record of Teachers Educators’ Instructional Communication Strategies in English Medium Class Codes QS - Question Strategies VIS - Verbal Immediacy Strategies NVIS – Non-verbal Immediacy Strategies ATS – Authoritarian Strategies

Time in Minutes

Activity Communication Strategies

Used

Observation Notes

Reflective Notes

QS VIS NVIS ATS Others 1 -10

11-20

21-30

31-40

41-50

51-60

Appendices

224

V. Notes on High-Context Culture Communication Indicators HCC Indicators Frequency Observation Notes Reflective Notes

1. Listeners sensing and understanding what a speakers are expressing, even when the speakers do not say in words everything he/she intends to communicate.

2. Instances when speakers choose not to say everything than to avoid shame or embarrassment.

3. Speaker’s intention was not obviously stated but was mostly understood.

4. Speakers and listeners displaying a common understanding of how each is expected to act or behave in a conversation.

5. Speakers assuming that listeners will know what they really mean.

VIII. Notes on High Power Distance Indicators HPD Indicators Frequency Observation Notes Reflective Notes

1. Teachers making decisions on issues that affect the students without consulting them.

2. Teachers avoiding or refraining from discussing ideas that they do not agree with or dislike or they find taboo in the classroom.

3. Exchanges that show teachers have higher status than students in the classroom.

4. Students challenging ideas the teachers present in class.

5. Students facing consequences for challenging ideas the teachers present in class.

Appendices

225

Appendix 2: Interview Protocol for Pre-Service Teachers

Focus Group Interview Questions for Pre-Service Teachers

Document Version [2] Dated 10/9/2013

Project Title

Cultural influences on the oral communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and teacher educators: An investigation of English medium classrooms in Central

Mindanao, the Philippines

Start time of interview: ________________ End time of interview: _______________ Date of interview: __________________________ Venue of interview: _________________ Interviewer: _______________________________ Participants: _______________________________ _________________________________

_______________________________ _________________________________ _______________________________ _________________________________

I. INTRODUCTION:

1. Thank the interviewees for agreeing to join the interview.

2. Establish rapport by asking everyday questions to make participants feel comfortable.

• In what year level do you belong? Do you enjoy being a pre-service teacher?

3. Explain that the focus of the interview is their communication experiences in

English medium classes.

II. GENERAL CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION EXPERIENCE

1. How would you describe your experiences in classes where English is the medium of instruction? What is the general atmosphere? (quiet, participative, responsive, passive)

Appendices

226

• Do you have participatory activities where you get the opportunity to speak? • What are the activities that give you the chance to share your ideas and thoughts? • How often do you get the opportunity to engage in these kinds of activities?

2. What difficulties do you experience in English medium classrooms? • How do you find the use of English in expressing yourself? • What do you do when you cannot think of the word that expresses what you want

to say? • Share instances when you have experienced communication difficulties in English

medium classes. Describe these instances.

III. PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ ORAL COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

3. What verbal communication strategies do you use to manage a communication difficulty? • When you cannot find the word to express your thoughts, for example, what do you

say or what do you do? 4. What indirect, subtle, or non-verbal strategies do you use to manage a communication

difficulty? • What mannerisms, actions or gestures do you make when you are experiencing

difficulty?

IV. TEACHER-EDUCATORS’ INSTRUCTIONAL COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

5. What do teachers do when you experience communication difficulty? • What strategies do teachers use when you have difficulties? • Which of these strategies do you find helpful?

V. HIGH-CONTEXT CULTURE COMMUNICATION

6. What are the behaviours teacher-educators use when communicating with you in the classroom?

• When your teachers come into the room, what mood do they project? (serious, strict, cheerful, etc.)

• What are the indicators of these moods? 7. How do teachers’ communication behaviours affect your participation in the classroom?

• Do these behaviours encourage or hinder you from expressing yourself? Why?

VI. HIGH POWER DISTANCE RELATIONSHIP

8. Do you feel free to express your thoughts in the classroom? (agreement, disagreement, fears, not understanding the lesson, problems with the class, etc.). What makes you feel this way?

• Are you confident to express how you feel about an activity or issue? • Is it okay to express how you honestly feel about an issue or an experience?

9. How do teachers affect your participation in the classroom?

Appendices

227

CLOSING:

Thank the interviewees for their time and participation. Ask if they have any questions.

Appendices

228

Appendix 3: Interview Protocol for Teacher Educators

Focus Group Interview Questions for Teacher Educators


Project Title

Cultural influences on the oral communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and teacher educators: An investigation of English medium classrooms in

Central Mindanao, the Philippines

Start time of interview: _________________End time of interview: _______________

Date of interview: ______________________Venue of interview: _________________ Interviewer: _______________________________ Participants: _______________________________ ___________________________ _______________________________ ___________________________ _______________________________ ___________________________

I. INTRODUCTION:

1. Thank the interviewees for agreeing to join the interview.

2. Establish rapport by asking everyday questions to make participants feel comfortable.

• How long have you been teaching pre-service teachers? What do you like most about teaching pre-service teachers?

3. Explain that the focus of the interview is their communication experiences in English

medium classes.

II. GENERAL CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION EXPERIENCE

1. How would you describe your interaction with pre-service teachers in classes

where English is the medium of instruction?

Appendices

229

• What is the general classroom atmosphere? (quiet, participative, responsive, passive, etc.)

• What kind of activities do you use to give students opportunities to speak or share their views or opinions?

• How often do you engage in these kinds of activities?

2. What are the common oral communication difficulties you observe with pre-

service teachers?

• What are the common problems with speaking English you observe with your students? • Do you have students who very rarely speak in class? What do you think are the difficulties that stop them speaking?

III. PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ ORAL COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

3. What strategies do your students use when they encounter difficulty with oral communication? Which of the strategies they use do you consider helpful or effective?

• What do they do when they cannot find the right words?

4. What indirect, subtle, or non-verbal strategies do students use when they encounter difficulty with oral communication?

• What mannerisms or gestures do students use when they are having a hard time expressing themselves?

5. Which of these strategies do you consider helpful or effective?

• What strategies are used by students who often communicate in English?

IV. TEACHER EDUCATORS’ INSTRUCTIONAL COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

6. What do you do when you encounter students having difficulty expressing themselves orally in English?

• When a student does not respond to your questions or prompts, what do you do?

V. HIGH-CONTEXT CULTURE COMMUNICATION

7. What are the behaviours you expect pre-service teachers to use when communicating with you?

• What do you expect students to do if they want to speak? Are there times when you need to ask them if they need something from you? How do you sense

Appendices

230

these instances? What are the signs? 8. How do you think expectations about relations between teachers and students affect the way students communicate? Do these expectations encourage or hinder their English communication? Why?

VI. HIGH POWER DISTANCE RELATIONSHIP

9. Are your students able to express their ideas and opinions freely in your classes?

• What strategies do you use that help them to do so? • Do you think there are factors that hinder students from expressing themselves freely?

10. Do you think that students’ sense of what they can say in class affects their participation in classroom interaction? In what way?

CLOSING: Thank the interviewees for their time and participation. Ask if they have any questions.

Appendices

231

Appendix 4: Survey Questionnaire for Pre-Service Teachers

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND ARTS

Associate Professor Shen Chen School of Education Faculty of Education and Arts The University of Newcastle University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia Phone: (+61) 2 4921 6705 [email protected]

Survey Questionnaire for Pre-Service Teachers


Project Title



§ This survey should take around 15 minutes to complete. § You may complete the survey at a time and place convenient to you. § You are requested to drop the completed survey in the designated box located in the College of Education office within two weeks. § Thank you for your participation.

Delma Yuarata Researcher +639055770140 [email protected]

Appendices

232

I. Communication Strategy Survey (CSS) for Pre-Service Teachers

A. Background Information

Please tick the box that corresponds your answer.

1. Course: BEEd☐ BSEd☐ 2. Year Level: 1st ☐ 2nd☐ 3rd☐ 4th☐

3. Sex: Female☐ Male☐

4. Language/s spoken at home:Cebuano ☐ Ilocano☐ Maguindanaon☐ Tausug☐ Chabacano ☐ Ilongo☐ Maranao☐ Waray ☐ Iranon☐ Tagalog☐ Others ☐

5. How do you find the use of the English language in speaking?

Very Difficult ☐ Difficult ☐ Easy ☐ Very Easy ☐

B. Pre-Service Teacher’s Oral Communication Strategies

Below is a list of statements that can apply to classroom oral communication strategies in English. There are no right or wrong answers. What counts is your honest assessment of how often you use them. Using the scale below rate how often you use each strategy in classroom interaction.

1 = Never 2= Occasionally 3= Most of the Time 4= Always

1 2 3 4 1. I describe something in English when I do not know its English

equivalent (e.g. the jacket with a head covering for hoody) ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

2. I use words closest in meaning to what I mean (e.g. glass for cup or goblet, car for all types of vehicle)

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

3. I use all-purpose-words (e.g. how do you call, those sort of things or stuff and the like, etcetera, you know what I mean, do you get it,) when I cannot think of the specific word.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

4. I coin or create words following the rules of English (e.g. gooder for better, binded for bound)

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

5. I use gestures, facial expressions or sound imitation to help me express my thoughts in English.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

6. I use non-verbal language to express difficulty in speaking (e.g. frowning, looking helpless, looking at the floor or the ceiling, embarrassed smile)

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

7. I translate Tagalog words, or words from my mother tongue to English word for word.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

8. I add English affixes to Tagalog words to make them sound like English (e.g. putolize, i-Tagalize, tingination)

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Appendices

233

9. I say in Tagalog or my mother tongue words that I do not know how to say in English.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

10. I ask for help from my classmates and teachers when I could not find the words to express what I want to say.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

11. I speak slowly to give myself time to think on what to say next. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 12. I use filling words such as well, let me see, actually, as a matter of

fact, in my own opinion to gain time to think. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

13. I rephrase the question to clarify that I understood it correctly at the same time give me time to think on what to say.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

14. I leave a message unfinished when I experience a language difficulty.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

15. I reduce what I want to say and use simple expressions. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 16. I give up speaking when I cannot express what I want to say. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 17. I avoid discussing topics that pose language difficulties. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 18. I replace my original idea with another idea when I cannot express

my original intent. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

19. I keep quiet and say nothing at all when I cannot find the words to express myself.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

20. “I swallow” what I want to say when I feel that it can be risky and embarrassing to speak up.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

21. I withhold what I want to say when I sense that my idea will be rejected.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

22. I hide my reaction specially when I disagree with what my teachers or classmates have to say and I do not want to offend them.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

23. I keep quiet even when asked to answer a question to convey that I do not know what to say.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

24. I use polite expressions (e.g. po, opo, thank you, please, kindly) when I speak to my teachers and classmates in the classroom.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

25. I say what I think my teachers and classmates expect and will be pleased to hear.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

26. I focus more on how I say my ideas (Is my grammar and pronunciation correct?) than the meaning of my message.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

27. I use formal titles when addressing my teachers (doctor, professor, ma’am, sir) and classmates (e.g. president, governor, mayor, mister, miss).

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

28. I speak to my classmates and teachers with a softer voice tone to appear respectful and non-threatening.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

29 I wait until the class ends before I ask clarification questions to my teacher or classmates on topics I have difficulty with.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

30. I interrupt the teacher and ask clarification when I encounter communication difficulty.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

31. I ask question on topics I have difficulty with as soon as the question pops up in my mind.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

32. I keep asking follow up questions when the initial answer to my question does not help me.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Appendices

234

C. Teacher Educators’ Instructional Communication Strategies Below is a list of statements that can apply to classroom teacher educators’ instructional communication strategies in English. Using the scale below rate how often you observe your teachers in general use these strategies in the classroom. 1 = Never 2= Occasionally 3= Most of the Time 4= Always

1 2 3 4 1. Teachers ask follow up questions to encourage students to

speak. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

2. Teachers rephrase the question when students are not able to give a quick response.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

3. Teachers rephrase students’ answers or opinions and ask them if it is what they meant.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

4. Teachers ask students for their viewpoints or opinions. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 5. Teachers ask students to elaborate their answers by asking

probing questions. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

6. Teachers call students by their first name or nickname. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 7. Teachers engage into informal conversation with students

in the classroom before and after class. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

8. Teachers share their own experiences of difficulty in communication with students.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

9. Teachers discuss topics students bring to class even when the topic is not related to the lesson.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

10. Teachers look for the good points on students’ works, papers and performance, and verbally praise them.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

11. Teachers smile at individual students and at the whole class.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

12. Teachers use positive gestures to encourage students to speak.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

13. Teachers position themselves close to students while teaching.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

14. Teachers look at students with encouragement, such as nodding their head.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

15. Teachers tap students’ shoulders or backs encouragingly. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 16. Teachers use their authority to force students to speak. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 17. Teachers punish or sanction students for not speaking or

answering. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

18. Teachers immediately pinpoint the faults with students’ speaking.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

19. Teachers give rewards (praise, grade, things) to students for speaking.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

20. Teachers tell students it is their duty and responsibility to participate in class discussion.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Appendices

235

D. Helpfulness of Teacher Educators’ Instructional Communication Strategies Below is a list of statements that can apply to classroom instructional communication strategies in English. Using the scale below rate how helpful these strategies to you in English medium classroom. 1 = Never Helpful 2= Not so Helpful 3= Helpful 4= Very Helpful

1 2 3 4 1. Teachers asking follow up questions to encourage me to speak. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 2. Teachers rephrasing the question when I am not able to give a

quick response. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

3. Teachers rephrasing my answers or opinions and asking me if it is what I meant.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

4. Teachers asking my viewpoint or opinion. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 5. Teachers asking me to elaborate my answers by asking me probing

questions. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

6. Teachers calling me by my first name or nickname. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 7. Teachers engaging in informal conversation with me in the

classroom before and after class. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

8. Teachers sharing their own experiences of difficulty in communication, experiences similar to mine.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

9. Teachers discussing topics I bring to class even they are not related to the lesson.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

10. Teachers looking for the good points on my works, papers and performance, and verbally praising me.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

11. Teachers smiling at me and at the whole class. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 12. Teachers using positive gestures to encourage me to speak. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 13. Teachers positioning themselves close to me while teaching. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 14. Teachers looking at me with encouragement, such as nodding their

head. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

15. Teachers tapping my shoulders or back encouragingly. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 16. Teachers using their authority to force me to speak. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 17. Teachers punishing or sanctioning me for not speaking or

answering. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

18. Teachers immediately pinpointing the faults in my speaking. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 19. Teachers giving me rewards (praise, grade, things) for speaking. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 20. The Teachers telling me it is my duty and responsibility to

participate in class discussion. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Appendices

236

II. High-Context Culture Indicators How much do you agree or disagree with each statement below? Please tick the box that corresponds to the number that best describes your opinion. There are no right or wrong answers. 1= Strongly Disagree 2=Disagree 3=Agree 4=Strongly Agree In my communication experience : 1 2 3 4 1. Listeners can sense and understand what a speaker is expressing; even when the

speaker does not say in words everything he/she intends to communicate. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

2. A listener understands the feeling, intention, or motive of the speaker from the way the person talks, moves and behaves.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

3. There are instances when it is better not to say everything than to be shamed or embarrassed.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

4. Even if not obviously stated, a speaker’s intention will always be mostly understood. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

5. Generally, people find how the message is communicated more important than the intended meaning of the message.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

6. People can understand the meaning of a statement by reading “between the lines”. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 7. Intentions not obviously stated by speakers can often be guessed from the context

(e.g. social and economic status of the speakers, relationship between speaker and listener)

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

8. A speaker can assume that listeners will know what they really mean. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

9. People perceive and presume many things that are left unsaid. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 10. Speakers and listeners have a common understanding of how each is expected to act

or behave in a conversation.

☐

☐

☐

☐

III. High Power Distance Indicators Using the scale tick the box that corresponds to how you feel in general about teachers and students’ relationship. There is no right or wrong answers.

1= Strongly Disagree 2=Disagree 3=Agree 4=Strongly Agree

In my experience: 1 2 3 4

1. Teachers make decisions on issues that affect the students without consulting them. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

2. Teachers avoid or refrain from discussing ideas that they do not agree with or dislike. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 3. Teachers have higher status than students in the classroom. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 4. Teachers evaluate students’ performance based on whatever they deem appropriate. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 5. Teachers decide and design standards of performance expected of students. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 6. Students are discouraged to challenge ideas when the teacher is present in class. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 7. Students who often question teachers’ authority are perceived negatively. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 8. Students can risk exclusion when they question teachers’ decisions. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

9. Students can face negative consequences when they publicly express disagreement with their teachers.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

10. Students can face negative consequences when they privately tell a teacher that he or she is wrong.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Appendices

237

Appendix 5: Survey Questionnaire for Teacher Educators


Associate Professor Shen Chen School of Education Faculty of Education and Arts The University of Newcastle University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia Phone: (+61) 2 4921 6705 [email protected]


Questionnaire Teacher-Educators

Project Title



§ This survey should take around 15 minutes to complete. § You may complete the survey at a time and place convenient to you. § You are requested to drop the completed survey in the designated box located in the College of Education Office within two weeks. § Thank you for your participation.

Delma Yuarata Researcher +639055770140 [email protected]

Appendices

238

I. Communication Strategy Survey (CSS) for Teacher Educators

A. Background Information Please tick the box that corresponds your answer.

1. Number of Years of Teaching:1-5☐ 6-10☐ 11-15☐ 16-20☐ 21-25☐ 26-above☐ 2. Sex: Female☐ Male☐

3. Highest Educational Qualification: Bachelor’s Degree ☐ Master’s Degree☐ Doctorate ☐ Other ☐

B. Teacher-Educators’ Instructional Communication Strategies

Below is a list of statements that can apply to teacher educators’ instructional communication strategies in English medium classes. There are no right or wrong answers. What counts is your honest assessment of how often you use them in the classroom. Using the scale below rate how often you use each strategy in classroom interaction.


1 2 3 4 1. I ask follow up questions to encourage students to speak. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 2. I rephrase the question when students are not able to give a quick

response. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

3. I rephrase students’ answers or opinions and ask them if that is what they meant.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

4. I ask students for their viewpoint or opinion. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 5. I ask students to elaborate their answers by asking probing questions. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 6. I call students by their first name or nickname. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 7. I engage in informal conversation with students in the classroom

before and after class. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

8. I share my experiences with difficulty in communicating in English with my students.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

9. I discuss topics students bring to class even if they are not related to the lesson.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

10. I look for the good points in students’ work, papers, and performance, and verbally praise them.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

11. I smile at individual students and at the whole class. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 12. I use positive gestures to encourage students to speak. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 13. I position myself close to students while teaching. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 14. I look at students with encouragement, such as nodding my head. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 15. I tap students’ shoulders or backs encouragingly. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 16. I use my authority to force students to speak. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Appendices

239

17. I punish or sanction students for not speaking or answering. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 18. I immediately identify students’ faults in speaking. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 19. I give rewards (praise, high grade, or material objects things) to

students for speaking. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

20. I tell students it is their duty to participate in class discussion. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

B. Pre-Service Teachers’ Oral Communication Strategies Below is a list of statements that can apply to pre-service teachers’ oral

communication strategies in English medium classes. There are no right or wrong answers. What counts is your honest assessment. Using the scale below rate how often you observe pre-service teachers use each strategy in classroom interaction.


1 2 3 4 1. Students describe something in English when they do not know its

English equivalent (e.g. the kind of bag worn on the back for backpack)

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

2. Students use words closest in meaning to what they mean (e.g. glass for cup or goblet, car for all types of vehicle)

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

3. Students use all-purpose-words (e.g. those sort of things or stuff and the like, etcetera, you know what I mean, do you get it, how do you call it) when they cannot think of the specific word.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

4. Students coin or create words following the rules of English (e.g. gooder for better, picturer for photographer).

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

5. Students use gestures, facial expressions or sound imitation to help them express their thoughts in English.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

6. Students use non-verbal behaviour to show they have difficulty with speaking (e.g. frowning, looking helpless, looking at the floor or the ceiling, embarrassed smile).

7. Students translate Tagalog words, or words from their mother tongue, to English word for word.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

8. Students add English affixes to Tagalog words to make them sound like English (e.g. putolize, i-Tagalize, tingination)

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

9. Students say in Tagalog or their mother tongue words that they do not know how to say in English.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

10. Students ask for help from classmates and teachers when they cannot find the words to express what they want to say.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

11. Students speak slowly to give themselves time to think about what to say next.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

12. Students use filling words such as well, let me see, actually, as a matter of fact, in my own opinion to gain time to think.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

13. Students rephrase a question to clarify that they understood it correctly while at the same time giving them time to think about what to say.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

14. Students leave a sentence unfinished when they experience a language ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Appendices

240

difficulty. 15. Students reduce what they want to say and use simple expressions. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 16. Students give up speaking when they cannot express what they want

to say. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

17. Students avoid discussing topics that pose language difficulties. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 18. Students replace their original idea with another idea when they

cannot express their original intent. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

19. Students keep quiet and say nothing at all when they cannot find the words to express themselves.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

20. Students ‘swallow’ what they want to say when they feel that it can be risky and embarrassing to speak up.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

21. Students withhold what they want to say when they sense that their idea will be rejected.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

22. Students hide their reaction when they disagree with what teachers or classmates have to say and they do not want them to get offended.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

23. Students keep quiet even when asked to answer a question to convey that they do not know what to say.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

24. Students use polite expressions (e.g. po, opo, thank you, please) when they speak to teachers and classmates in the classroom.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

25. Students say what they think their teachers and classmates expect and will be pleased to hear.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

26. Students focus more on how to say their ideas than the meaning of their message.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

27. Students use formal titles when addressing their teachers (doctor, professor, ma’am, sir) and classmates (e.g. president, governor, mayor, mister, miss).

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

28. Students speak to their classmates and teachers with a soft voice tone to appear respectful and non-threatening.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

29 Students wait until the class ends before they ask clarification questions to their teachers or classmates on topics they have difficulty with.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

30. Students interrupt the teacher and ask for clarification when they encounter a difficulty in communication.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

31. Students ask question on topics they have difficulty with the moment the question pops up in their mind.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

32. Students keep asking follow up questions when the first answer to their question does not help them in their difficulty.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Appendices

241

C. Helpfulness of Pre-Service Teachers’ Oral Communication Strategies Below is a list of statements that can apply to pre-service teachers’ oral communication strategies in English medium classes. There are no right or wrong answers. What counts is your honest assessment. Using the scale below rate how helpful you find each strategy in classroom interaction.

1 = Never Helpful 2= Not so Helpful 3= Helpful 4= Very Helpful

1 2 3 4 1. Students describing something in English when they do not know its

English equivalent (e.g. the kind of bag worn on the back for backpack).

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

2. Students using words closest in meaning to what they mean (e.g. glass for cup or goblet, car for all types of vehicle).

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

3. Students using all-purpose-words (e.g. those sort of things or stuff and the like, etcetera, you know what I mean, do you get it, how do you call it) when they cannot think of the specific word.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

4. Students coining or creating words following the rules of English (e.g. gooder for better, picturer for photographer).

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

5. Students using gestures, facial expressions or sound imitation to help them express their thoughts in English.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

6. Students using non-verbal behaviour to express speaking difficulty (e.g. frowning, looking helpless, looking at the floor or the ceiling, embarrassed smile).

7. Students translating Tagalog words, or words from their mother tongue, to English word for word.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

8. Students adding English affixes to Tagalog words to make them sound like English (e.g. putolize, i-Tagalize, tingination).

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

9. Students saying in Tagalog or their mother tongue words that they do not know how to say in English.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

10. Students asking for help from classmates and teachers when they cannot find the words to express what they want to say.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

11. Students speaking slowly to give themselves time to think about what to say next.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

12. Students using filling words such as well, let me see, actually, as a matter of fact, in my own opinion to gain time to think.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

13. Students rephrasing the question to clarify that they understood it correctly while at the same time giving them time to think about what to say.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

14. Students leaving a message unfinished when they experience a language difficulty.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

15. Students reducing what they want to say by using simple expressions. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 16. Students giving up speaking when they cannot express what they

want to say. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

17. Students avoiding the discussion of topics that pose language ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Appendices

242

difficulties. 18. Students replacing their original idea with another idea when they

cannot express their original intent. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

19. Students keeping quiet and saying nothing at all when they cannot find the words to express themselves.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

20. Students ‘swallowing’ what they want to say when they feel that it is risky or embarrassing to speak up.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

21. Students withholding what they want to say when they sense that their idea will be rejected.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

22. Students hiding their reaction when they disagree with what teachers or classmates have to say because they do not want them to get offended.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

23. Students keeping quiet even when asked to answer a question to convey that they do not know what to say.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

24. Students using polite expressions (e.g. po, opo, thank you, please, kindly) when they speak to teachers and classmates in the classroom.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

25. Students saying what they think their teachers and classmates expect and will be pleased to hear.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

26. Students focusing more on how to say their ideas than the meaning of their message.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

27. Students using formal titles when addressing their teachers (doctor, professor, ma’am, sir) and classmates (e.g. president, governor, mayor, mister, miss).

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

28. Students speaking to their classmates and teachers with a soft voice tone to appear respectful and non-threatening.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

29 Students waiting until the class ends before asking clarification questions to their teachers or classmates on topics they have difficulty with.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

30. Students interrupting the teacher and asking for clarification when they encounter communication difficulty.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

31. Students asking question on topics they have difficulty with the moment the question pops up in their mind.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

32. Students asking follow up questions when the first answer to their question does not help them in their difficulty.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Appendices

243

II. High-Context Culture How much you agree or disagree with each statement below. Using the given scale, tick the box that corresponds to the number that best describes your opinion. 1= Strongly Disagree 2=Disagree 3=Agree 4=Strongly Agree In my experience: 1 2 3 4 1. Listeners can sense and understand what a speaker is expressing even

when the speaker does not say in words everything he or she intends to communicate.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

2. A listener understands the feeling, intention, or motive of the speaker from the way the person talks, moves, and behaves.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

3. There are instances when it is better not to say everything than to be ashamed or embarrassed.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

4. Even if not obviously stated, a speaker’s intention will mostly be understood.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

5. Generally, people find how the message is communicated more important than the intended meaning of the message.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

6. People can understand the meaning of a statement by reading between the lines.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

7. Intentions not obviously stated by speakers can often be guessed from the context (e.g. social and economic status of the speakers, relationship between speaker and listener).

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

8. A speaker can assume that listeners will know what they really mean. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

9. People perceive and presume many things that are left unsaid. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 10. Speakers and listeners have a common understanding of how each is

expected to act or behave in a conversation. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

III. High Power Distance Using the given scale tick the box that corresponds to how you feel about teachers’ and students’ relationship in general. There are no right or answers, just rate based on your experience.

1= Strongly Disagree 2=Disagree 3=Agree 4=Strongly Agree In my experience: 1 2 3 4

1. Teachers make decisions on issues that affect the students without consulting them.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

2. Teachers avoid or refrain from discussing ideas that they do not agree with, or dislike, in the classroom.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

3. Teachers have higher status than students in the classroom. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 4. Teachers evaluate students’ performance based on whatever they deem

appropriate. ☐

☐

☐

☐

5. Teachers decide on and design standards of performance expected of students.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

6. Students are discouraged from challenging ideas teachers present in class. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 7. Students who question teachers’ authority are perceived negatively. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ 8. Students can risk exclusion when they question teachers’ decisions. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

9. Students can face negative consequences when they publicly express disagreement with their teachers.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

10. Students can face negative consequences when they privately tell a teacher that he or he is wrong.

☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Appendices

244

Appendix 6: Ethics Committee Notification of Expedited Approval

HUMAN RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE

Notification of Expedited Approval

To Chief Investigator or Project Supervisor: Doctor Jennifer Archer Cc Co-investigators / Research Students:

Associate Professor Shen Chen Ms Delma Yuarata

Re Protocol: Cultural influences on the oral communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and teacher educators: An investigation of English medium classrooms in Central Mindanao, the Philippines

Date: 26-Sep-2013 Reference No: H-2013-0241 Date of Initial Approval: 25-Sep-2013

Thank you for your Response to Conditional Approval submission to the Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) seeking approval in relation to the above protocol. Your submission was considered under Expedited review by the Chair/Deputy Chair. I am pleased to advise that the decision on your submission is Approved effective 25-Sep-2013. In approving this protocol, the Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) is of the opinion that the project complies with the provisions contained in the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research, 2007, and the requirements within this University relating to human research. Approval will remain valid subject to the submission, and satisfactory assessment, of annual progress reports. If the approval of an External HREC has been "noted" the approval period is as determined by that HREC. The full Committee will be asked to ratify this decision at its next scheduled meeting. A formal Certificate of Approval will be available upon request. Your approval number is H-2013-0241. If the research requires the use of an Information Statement, ensure this number is inserted at the relevant point in the Complaints paragraph prior to distribution to potential participants You may then proceed with the research.

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For Noting: Participant Information Statement (All) Please ensure the contact details of the local contact are added to the Complaints section prior to distribution. Conditions of Approval This approval has been granted subject to you complying with the requirements for Monitoring of Progress, Reporting of Adverse Events, and Variations to the Approved Protocol as detailed below. PLEASE NOTE: In the case where the HREC has "noted" the approval of an External HREC, progress reports and reports of adverse events are to be submitted to the External HREC only. In the case of Variations to the approved protocol, or a Renewal of approval, you will apply to the External HREC for approval in the first instance and then Register that approval with the University's HREC.

• Monitoring of Progress

Other than above, the University is obliged to monitor the progress of research projects involving human participants to ensure that they are conducted according to the protocol as approved by the HREC. A progress report is required on an annual basis. Continuation of your HREC approval for this project is conditional upon receipt, and satisfactory assessment, of annual progress reports. You will be advised when a report is due.

• Reporting of Adverse Events

1. It is the responsibility of the person first named on this Approval Advice to report adverse events. 2. Adverse events, however minor, must be recorded by the investigator as observed by the investigator or as volunteered by a participant in the research. Full details are to be documented, whether or not the investigator, or his/her deputies, consider the event to be related to the research substance or procedure. 3. Serious or unforeseen adverse events that occur during the research or within six (6) months of completion of the research, must be reported by the person first named on the Approval Advice to the (HREC) by way of the Adverse Event Report form (via RIMS at https://rims.newcastle.edu.au/login.asp) within 72 hours of the occurrence of the event or the investigator receiving advice of the event. 4. Serious adverse events are defined as:

o Causing death, life threatening or serious disability. o Causing or prolonging hospitalisation. o Overdoses, cancers, congenital abnormalities, tissue damage, whether or not they are judged to be caused by the investigational agent or procedure. o Causing psycho-social and/or financial harm. This covers everything from perceived invasion of privacy, breach of confidentiality, or the diminution of social reputation, to the creation of psychological fears and trauma. o Any other event which might affect the continued ethical acceptability of the project.

5. Reports of adverse events must include: o Participant's study identification number; o date of birth; o date of entry into the study; o treatment arm (if applicable); o date of event; o details of event;

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o the investigator's opinion as to whether the event is related to the research procedures; and o action taken in response to the event.

6. Adverse events which do not fall within the definition of serious or unexpected, including those reported from other sites involved in the research, are to be reported in detail at the time of the annual progress report to the HREC.

• Variations to approved protocol

If you wish to change, or deviate from, the approved protocol, you will need to submit an Application for Variation to Approved Human Research (via RIMS at https://rims.newcastle.edu.au/login.asp). Variations may include, but are not limited to, changes or additions to investigators, study design, study population, number of participants, methods of recruitment, or participant information/consent documentation. Variations must be approved by the (HREC) before they are implemented except when Registering an approval of a variation from an external HREC which has been designated the lead HREC, in which case you may proceed as soon as you receive an acknowledgement of your Registration. Linkage of ethics approval to a new Grant HREC approvals cannot be assigned to a new grant or award (ie those that were not identified on the application for ethics approval) without confirmation of the approval from the Human Research Ethics Officer on behalf of the HREC. Best wishes for a successful project.

Professor Allyson Holbrook Chair, Human Research Ethics Committee For communications and enquiries: Human Research Ethics Administration Research Services Research Integrity Unit The Chancellery The University of Newcastle Callaghan NSW 2308 T +61 2 492 17894 F +61 2 492 17164 [email protected] RIMS website - https://RIMS.newcastle.edu.au/login.asp

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Appendix 7: Letter of Request and Research Information Statement to Vice President for Academic Affairs

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND ARTS Associate Professor Shen Chen School of Education Faculty of Education and Arts The University of Newcastle University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia Phone: (+61) 2 4921 6705 [email protected]

Letter of Request and Research Information Statement to Vice President for Academic

Affairs Document Version [2] Dated 10/9//2013

Cultural influences on the oral communication strategies used by pre-service teachers and teacher educators: An investigation of English medium classrooms in Central Mindanao,

the Philippines

Dr XXXXXXXX Vice President for Academic Affairs University City Dear Dr XXXXXXXX: Thank you for considering this request. Faculty members and pre-service teachers in the College of Education are invited to participate in the research project identified above which is being conducted by Ms Delma Yuarata from the School of Education at the University of Newcastle. Ms Yuarata is conducting the research as part of her PhD degree under the supervision of Dr Jennifer Archer and Associate Professor Shen Chen. We are seeking your permission for Ms Yuarata to gather data at your University. Why is the research being done? The purpose of the research is to identify classroom oral communication strategies of pre-service teachers and teacher educators in English medium classrooms in a setting with high social hierarchy and a style of communication that is highly dependent on context and makes use of many non-verbal cues.

Who can participate in the research?

Teacher-educators and pre-service teachers in your College of Education are invited to participate in this research.

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What choice do participants have?

Your University’s participation in the study is entirely voluntary. The same is true for teacher educators and pre-service teachers. What would participants be asked to do? This research project consists of three phases: classroom observation, focus group interviews, and administration of questionnaires. With the permission of the Dean of the College of Education, the teacher-educators and pre-service teachers, Ms Yuarata would like to take observation notes, on two occasions, of four classes, one at each year level. She will focus on the communications strategies teachers and students use in an English medium classroom. Teacher-educators on your staff also will be invited to participate in focus group interviews and complete an anonymous questionnaire. Pre-service teachers in the classes being observed will be invited to participate in focus group interviews and complete an anonymous questionnaire. Ms Yuarata also hopes to conduct interviews with teacher educators and interviews with pre-service teachers within a school meeting room. The interviews will be conducted at a time that suits the volunteers with some snacks provided by Ms Yuarata. Teacher educators and pre-service teachers will be asked about their classroom communication experiences. In the final phase of the research, teacher educators and pre-service teachers will be invited to complete an anonymous questionnaire. Returning a completed questionnaire will be taken as consent to participate. A box where pre-service teachers can drop consent forms and questionnaires will be placed in a secure but discreet area of the College of Education. Similarly, a secure box for teacher-educators to place consent forms and questionnaires will be placed in a discreet part of the College. How much time will it take? The classroom observations would be two teaching periods of approximately one hour each. The focus group interview should last approximately one hour. The questionnaire should take approximately 15 minutes to complete. What are the risks and benefits of participating? There are no obvious risks or benefits to participants in this research. It is anticipated that the research will produce findings that will be of significance to the enhancement of classroom communication in English medium classrooms in Mindanao. How will privacy of participants be protected?

It will be possible to identify teacher educators and pre-service teachers in the classroom observations but all observation notes will be kept confidential and will not be disclosed to others. In undertaking the analyses of the classroom observations, teacher educators’ names will be replaced with a numerical code. Teacher educators will have an opportunity to review, edit or erase the observation notes if they wish to do so. It will be possible to identify participants from the audio recording of the interviews but all information will be kept confidential and will not be disclosed to others. Ms Yuarata, the

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student researcher, will transcribe all the interviews. In the transcriptions of the audiotapes, participants’ names, groups and schools will be replaced with numerical codes. References to people or schools will be removed. Participants will have an opportunity to review, edit or erase their contribution if they wish to do so before data will be coded. The audiotape will then be wiped and the list of codes destroyed. Participants in the group interviews are requested to maintain the confidentiality of the group discussion and not divulge the specific contents to outside parties. The questionnaire is anonymous. It will not be possible to identify participants from their answers. Any information collected by the researchers that might identify the participants will be stored securely and only accessed by the researchers (Dr Jennifer Archer, Associate Professor Shen Chen, Ms Delma Yuarata) for research purposes as required by law. Data will be de-identified and retained for five years at the Callaghan Campus of the University of Newcastle. After which hard copies will be disposed through paper shredding and soft copies will be deleted from files including the recycle bins. How will the information collected be used? Information will be used in a thesis to be submitted for Ms Yuarata’s degree, in papers published in academic journals, and presentations at conferences. A report will also be provided to the three participating Schools of Education. A summary of the results of the research will be provided to you upon request at the end of the project. We would be grateful if you would complete the attached form giving us permission to contact the Dean of the College of Education. You can contact Ms Yuarata via email [email protected] or mobile phone number +639055770140 to collect the consent form from your office. Further information

If you would like further information before you make a decision, please contact Associate professor Shen Chen on +61 2 4921 6705 or email [email protected]. Thank you for considering this request.

Associate Professor Shen Chen Ms Delma Yuarata Project Supervisor Research Student Complaints about this research

This project has been approved by the University’s Human Research Ethics Committee, Approval No.H- 2013-0241.

Should you have concerns about your rights as a participant in this research, or you have a complaint about the manner in which the research is conducted, it may be given to the researcher, or, if an independent person is preferred, to the Human Research Ethics Officer, Research Office, The Chancellery, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan NSW 2308, Australia, telephone (02) 49216333, email [email protected].

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Consent Form for Vice President for Academic Affairs



the Philippines

Associate Professor Shen Chen Ms Delma Yuarata Project Supervisor Research Student I understand that the project will be conducted as described in the Information Statement, a copy of which I have retained. I understand that I will have no access to, nor be provided with, records of the research data. I understand that I can request a summary of findings when the study is completed. I understand that all information will remain confidential to the researchers. I have had the opportunity to have questions answered to my satisfaction. I consent to the conduct of the research project in our University. (please tick): oYES oNO School: ___________________________Contact Number: _____________________ Signature:_________________________ Date: ______________________________

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Appendix 8: Letter of Information to Deans of Colleges of Education FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND ARTS Associate Professor Shen Chen School of Education Faculty of Education and Arts The University of Newcastle University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia Phone: (+61) 2 4921 6705 [email protected]

Letter of Information to Deans of Colleges of Education



the Philippines

Dr XXXX Dean, College of Education University Dear Dr XXXX: Faculty members and pre-service teachers in the College of Education are invited to participate in the research project identified above which is being conducted by Ms Delma Yuarata from the School of Education at the University of Newcastle. Ms Yuarata is conducting the research as part of her PhD degree under the supervision of Dr Jennifer Archer and Associate Professor Shen Chen. We are seeking your permission for Ms Yuarata to gather data at your College. The Vice president of the University has given us permission to approach you with this request. Why is the research being done? The purpose of the research is to identify classroom oral communication strategies of pre-service teachers and teacher educators in English medium classrooms in a setting with high social hierarchy and a style of communication that is highly dependent on context and makes use of many non-verbal cues.

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Who can participate in the research? Teacher-educators and pre-service teachers in your College are invited to participate in this research. What choice do participants have? Your College’s participation in the study is entirely voluntary. The same is true for teacher-educators and pre-service teachers. What would participants be asked to do? This research project consists of three phases: classroom observation, focus group interviews, and administration of questionnaires. With your permission, and the permission of four teacher educators and pre-service teachers, Ms Yuarata would like to take observation notes, on two occasions, of four classes, one at each year level. She will focus on the communications strategies teachers and students use in an English medium classroom. In addition to the teacher educators who agree to let Ms Yuarata observe their classes, the other teacher educators on your staff will be invited to participate in focus group interviews and complete an anonymous questionnaire. Pre-service teachers in the classes being observed will be invited to participate in focus group interviews and complete an anonymous questionnaire. Ms Yuarata also hopes to conduct interviews with teacher-educators and interviews with pre-service teachers within a school meeting room. The interviews will be conducted at a time that suits the volunteers with some snacks provided by Ms Yuarata. Teacher-educators and pre-service teachers will be asked questions about their classroom communication experiences. In the final phase of the research, teacher educators and pre-service teachers will be invited to complete an anonymous questionnaire. Returning a completed questionnaire will be taken as consent to participate. A secure but discreetly located box where pre-service teachers can drop questionnaires and consent forms will be placed within the College of Education. A similar secure but discreetly located box where teacher-educators can drop consent forms and questionnaires also will be located within the College of Education. How much time will it take? The classroom observations would be two teaching periods of approximately one hour each. The focus group interview should last approximately one hour. The questionnaire should take approximately 15 minutes to complete. What are the risks and benefits of participating? There are no obvious risks or benefits to participants in this research. It is anticipated that the research will produce findings that will be of significance to the enhancement of classroom communication in English medium classrooms in Mindanao.

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How will privacy of participants be protected? We are requesting that you give us permission to contact all teacher-educators within the College, inviting them to participate in the study. You will not know which teacher-educators have agreed to participate. It will be possible for the researchers to identify teacher-educators and pre-service teachers in the classroom observations but all observation notes will be kept confidential and will not be disclosed to others. In undertaking the analyses of the classroom observations, teacher-educators’ names will be replaced with a numerical code. Teacher-educators will have an opportunity to review, edit or erase the observation notes if they wish to do so. It will be possible to identify participants from the audio recording of the interviews but all information will be kept confidential and will not be disclosed to others. Ms Yuarata, the student researcher, will transcribe all the interviews. In the transcriptions of the audiotapes, participants’ names, groups, and schools will be replaced with numerical codes. References to people or schools will be removed. Participants will have an opportunity to review, edit or erase their contribution if they wish to do so before data will be coded. The audiotape will then be wiped and the list of codes destroyed. Participants in the group interviews are requested to maintain the confidentiality of the group discussion and not divulge the specific contents to outside parties. The questionnaire is anonymous. It will not be possible to identify participants from their answers. Any information collected by the researchers that might identify the participants will be stored securely and only accessed by the researchers (Dr Jennifer Archer, Associate Professor Shen Chen, Ms Delma Yuarata) for research purposes, except as required by law. Data will be de-identified and retained for five years at the Callaghan Campus of the University of Newcastle. After that, hard copies will be disposed through paper shredding and soft copies will be deleted from files including the recycle bins. How will the information collected be used? Information will be used in a thesis to be submitted for Ms Yuarata’s degree, in papers published in academic journals, and presentations at conferences. A report will also be provided to the three participating Schools of Education. A summary of the results of the research will be provided to you at the end of the project. If you are happy for the research to proceed in your College, we would be grateful if you would sign attached consent form. You can contact Ms Yuarata via email [email protected] or mobile phone number +639055770140 to collect the consent form from your office. Further information If you would like further information before you make a decision, please contact Professor Shen Chen on +61 2 4921 6705 or email [email protected]. Thank you for considering this request.

Associate Professor Shen Chen Ms Delma Yuarata

Project Supervisor Research Student

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Complaints about this research This project has been approved by the University’s Human Research Ethics Committee, Approval No. H- 2013-0241.


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Consent Form for Deans



the Philippines

Associate Professor Shen Chen Ms Delma Yuarata Project Supervisor Research Student

I understand that the project will be conducted as described in the Information Statement, a copy of which I have retained. I understand that I will have no access to data that can identify individual teacher-educators or individual teacher-trainees. I understand that I can request a summary of findings when the study is completed. I understand that all information will remain confidential to the researchers. I have had the opportunity to have questions answered to my satisfaction. I consent to the conduct of the research project in my college. (please tick): o YES o NO School: ___________________________Contact Number: _____________________ Signature:_________________________ Date: ______________________________

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Appendix 9: Letter of Invitation for Teacher Educators FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND ARTS Associate Professor Shen Chen School of Education Faculty of Education and Arts The University of Newcastle University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia Phone: (+61) 2 4921 6705 [email protected]

Letter of Invitation for Teacher Educators



the Philippines


Dear Teacher Educator:

You are invited to participate in the research project identified above which is being conducted by Ms Delma Yuarata as part of her studies for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education at the University of Newcastle, supervised by Associate Professor Shen Chen and Dr Jennifer Archer.

Why is the research being done?

The purpose of the research is to identify classroom oral communication strategies of pre-service teachers and teacher educators in English medium classrooms in Mindanao. As you know, the Philippines is a country with a strong social hierarchy and a style of communication in the native language that is highly dependent on context and makes use of many non-verbal cues.


We are seeking the participation of teacher-educators and pre-service teachers of three Notre Dame Universities in Mindanao. We have asked the Dean of the College of Education to forward this information to all teacher-educators in the College. We do not have your contact details.

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What choice do you have?

Participation in this research project is voluntary. Only teacher-educators who give their informed consent will be included in the project. Whether or not you decide to participate, your decision will not disadvantage you in any way and will not affect your course assessment or relationship with the University of Newcastle or its staff.

If you do decide to participate, you may withdraw from the project until such time as the completed survey is returned and the data from the focus group interviews and the classroom observations have been transcribed without giving a reason. You have the option of withdrawing any data that identify you.

What would you be asked to do?

This research project consists of three components: classroom observation, focus group interviews, and questionnaires to pre-service teachers and teacher-educators.

We hope that one teacher-educator from each of the four year levels will agree to be observed in his or her classroom on two occasions. We hope to conduct two focus groups with teacher-educators at each university (with five to eight participants in each group). We hope all teacher-educators will complete a questionnaire.

For teacher-educators who agree to be observed, we ask that they distribute information letters, consent forms (to be observed and to participate in an interview), and questionnaires to pre-service teachers in their classes. These are attached to this letter. We ask that the observed teacher-educators distribute the questionnaire to pre-service teachers. If more teacher-educators volunteer to be observed that can be accommodated, we will select whom to observe, with the intention of observing a teacher-educator at each of the four levels of the program. The Dean of the College will not know which classes are being observed.

For teacher-educators who agree to be a member of a group interview, they will be audio-recorded with approximately five to eight other teacher-educators. Ms Yuarata will conduct the interview in a conference room at the university. The interview will be conducted at a time that suits everyone, with some snacks provided. If more than five teachers volunteer for the interview, we will select teacher-educators to participate. During the interview, teacher-educators will be asked about their classroom communication experiences in English medium classes. The Dean of the College will not know who is being interviewed.

We also ask that all teacher-educators complete an anonymous questionnaire.

How much time will it take?

The classroom observations would be two teaching periods for one class of approximately one hour each. The focus group interview should last approximately one hour. The questionnaire should take approximately 15 minutes to complete.

What are the risks and benefits of participating?

There are no obvious risks or benefits to participants in this research. We hope the findings of the research will be of benefit to the preparation of English teachers in Mindanao.

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How will your privacy be protected?

It will be possible to identify teacher-educators and pre-service teachers in the classroom observations but all observation notes will be kept confidential and will not be disclosed to others. In undertaking the analyses of the classroom observations, teacher-educators’ names will be replaced with a numerical code. You will have an opportunity to review, edit, or erase the observation notes if you wish to do so.

It will be possible to identify participants from the audio recording of the interviews but all information will be kept confidential and will not be disclosed to others. Ms Yuarata, the student researcher, will transcribe all the interviews. In the transcriptions of the audiotapes, participants’ names, groups, and schools will be replaced with numerical codes. References to people or schools will be removed. Participants will have an opportunity to review, edit or erase their contribution if they wish to do so before data are coded. The audiotape will then be wiped and the list of codes destroyed.

Participants in the group interviews are requested to maintain the confidentiality of the group discussion and not divulge the specific contents to outside parties.

The questionnaire is anonymous. It will not be possible to identify participants from their answers.

Any information collected by the researchers that might identify the participants will be stored securely and only accessed by the researchers (Dr Jennifer Archer, Associate Professor Shen Chen, Ms Delma Yuarata) for research purposes, except as required by law. Data will be de-identified and retained for five years at the Callaghan Campus of the University of Newcastle. After this, hard copies will be disposed of through paper shredding and soft copies will be deleted from files.

How will the information collected be used?

Information will be used in a thesis to be submitted for Ms Yuarata’s degree, in papers published in academic journals, and presentations at conferences. A report will also be provided to participating institutions. A summary of the results of the research will be provided to your School at the end of the project. You may request a copy of the summary yourself by contacting Ms Yuarata at the email address below. You will not be identified in any reports arising from the project. Schools will not be identified.

What do you need to do to participate?

Please read this Information Statement and be sure you understand its contents before you consent to participate. If there is anything you do not understand, or if you have questions, please contact the researcher.

Participating in the focus group or/and classroom observation

If you are happy to participate in the classroom observation and/or the focus group, please complete and return the attached consent form to the secure collection box located in …. (a secure but not public area). The box will be removed by the researchers on ……. If you give your consent, you will be contacted to arrange times suitable to you for interviews and/or classroom observation.

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Participating in the questionnaire component of the study

We would be grateful if you would complete the questionnaire and put it in the secure collection box located in … (a secure but not public area). Returning the completed questionnaire will be taken as consent to participate. The box will be removed by the researchers on (date).

Further information

If you would like further information before you make a decision, please contact Associate Professor Shen Chen on +61 2 4921 6705 or email [email protected].

Thank you for considering this invitation.

Associate Professor Shen Chen Ms Delma Yuarata Supervisor [email protected]

Complaints about this research

This project has been approved by the University’s Human Research Ethics Committee, Approval No. H- 2013-0241.


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Consent Form for Teacher Educators



the Philippines


I agree to participate in the above research project and give my consent freely.

I understand that the project will be conducted as described in the Information Statement, a copy of which I have retained.

I understand I can withdraw from the project at any time and do not have to give any reason for withdrawing.

Please circle the levels at which you teach: Year 1; Year 2; Year 3; Year 4

I consent:

To have one class observed twice o YES o NO

To participate in a focus group interview o YES o NO

I understand that my personal information will remain confidential to the researchers.

I have had the opportunity to have questions answered to my satisfaction.

Date: _________________________

If you consent to participate, please provide your contact details below for the arrangement of observations and/or interviews.

Name: _________________________

Phone number: _______________________ Email address: ________________________

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Appendix 10: Invitation Letter to Pre-Service Teachers FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND ARTS Associate Professor Shen Chen School of Education Faculty of Education and Arts The University of Newcastle University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia Phone: (+61) 2 4921 6705 [email protected]

Invitation Letter to Pre-Service Teachers

Document Version [2] Dated 10/9//2013


the Philippines

Associate professor Shen Chen Ms Delma Yuarata Project Supervisor Research Student

Dear Pre-Service Teacher:

You are invited to participate in the research project identified above which is being conducted by Ms Delma Yuarata as part of her studies for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education at the University of Newcastle, supervised by Dr Jennifer Archer and Associate Professor Shen Chen.

Why is the research being done?

The purpose of the research is to identify classroom oral communication strategies of pre-service teachers and teacher educators in English medium classrooms in a setting with high social hierarchy and a style of communication that is highly dependent on context and makes use of many non-verbal cues.


We are seeking the participation of teacher educators and pre-service teachers of Notre Dame Universities in Mindanao. Your teacher-educator has agreed to give you this letter and consent form.

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What choice do you have?

Participation in this research project is voluntary. Only pre-service teachers who give their informed consent will be included in the project. Whether or not you decide to participate, your decision will not disadvantage you in any way and will not affect your course assessment or relationship with the University of Newcastle or its staff.

If you do decide to participate, you may withdraw from the project until such time as the completed survey is returned or the data from the focus group interviews/observations have been transcribed without giving a reason and have the option of withdrawing any data that identify you.

What would you be asked to do?

This research project consists of three components: classroom observation, a focus group interview, and a questionnaire. We would like your consent to be a part of a class to be observed and to join a focus group interview. We are also asking you to complete a questionnaire.

If you agree to be a part of the class to be observed, Ms Yuarata will take observational notes during two sessions of the class. She will focus on the communications strategies that teachers and students use in an English medium classroom.

If you agree to be a member of the focus group interview, you will take part in an audio-recorded group interview of approximately eight to ten pre-service teachers. Ms Yuarata will conduct the interview in a conference room at the university. The interview will be conducted at a time that suits participants, with some snacks provided by Ms Yuarata. If more than ten pre-service teachers volunteer, we will randomly select pre-service teachers to participate. During the interview, you will be asked about your communication experiences in English medium classes.

When you receive the questionnaire after the classroom observation and the interviews, we invite you to complete it and drop it in the identified box in the office of the College of Education.

How much time will it take?

The classroom observations would be two teaching periods for one class of approximately one hour each. The focus group interview should last approximately one hour. The questionnaire should take approximately 15 minutes to complete.

What are the risks and benefits of participating?

There are no obvious risks or benefits to participants in this research. It is anticipated that the research will produce findings that will be of significance to the enhancement of classroom communication in English medium classrooms in Mindanao.

How will your privacy be protected?

It will be possible to identify teacher-educators and pre-service teachers in the classroom observations but all observation notes will be kept confidential and will not be disclosed to

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others. In undertaking the analyses of the classroom observations, teacher educators’ names will be replaced with a numerical code. Teacher-educators will have an opportunity to review, edit or erase the observation notes if they wish to do so.

It will be possible to identify participants from the audio recording of the interviews but all information will be kept confidential and will not be disclosed to others. Ms Yuarata, the student researcher will transcribe all the interviews. In the transcriptions of the audiotapes, participants’ names, groups and schools will be replaced with numerical codes. References to people or schools will be removed. Participants will have an opportunity to review, edit or erase their contribution if they wish to do so before data will be coded. The audiotape will then be wiped and the list of codes destroyed. Participants in the group interviews are requested to maintain the confidentiality of the group discussion and not divulge the specific contents to outside parties.

The questionnaire is anonymous. It will not be possible to identify participants from their answers.

Any information collected by the researchers that might identify the participants will be stored securely and only accessed by the researchers (Dr Jennifer Archer, Associate Professor Shen Chen, Ms Delma Yuarata) for research purposes, except as required by law. Data will be de-identified and retained for five years at the Callaghan Campus of the University of Newcastle. After which hard copies will be disposed through paper shredding and soft copies will be deleted from files including the recycle bins.

How will the information collected be used?

Information will be used in a thesis to be submitted for Ms Yuarata’s degree, in papers published in academic journals, and presentations at conferences. A report will also be provided to participating institutions. A summary of the results of the research will be provided to your School at the end of the project. You may request a copy of the summary yourself using Ms Yuarata’s email address below. You will not be identified in any reports arising from the project. Schools will not be identified.

What do you need to do to participate?

Please read this Information Statement and be sure you understand its contents before you consent to participate. If there is anything you do not understand, or if you have questions, please contact the researcher.

Participating in the focus group or/and classroom observation

If you are happy to participate in the classroom observation and/or the interview, please complete and return the attached consent form personally to Ms Yuarata or to the secure collection box located in (a secure but discreet part of the College). The box will be removed by the researchers on (date)_______. If you give your consent to be interviewed, you will be contacted to arrange times suitable to you for interviews.

Participating in the questionnaire component of the study

If you agree to participate in the survey, please complete the questionnaire that will be provided in class and put it in the secure collection box located in the College of Education Office.

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Returning the completed questionnaire will be taken as consent to participate. The box will be removed by the researchers on (date) ________.

Further information

If you would like further information before you make a decision, please contact Associate Professor Shen Chen on +61 2 4921 6705 or email [email protected].

Thank you for considering this invitation.

Associate Professor Shen Chen Ms Delma Yuarata Project Supervisor Research Student [email protected]

Complaints about this research

This project has been approved by the University’s Human Research Ethics Committee, Approval No.H- 2013-0241.


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Associate professor Shen Chen School of Education Faculty of Education and Arts The University of Newcastle University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia Phone: (+61) 2 4921 6705 [email protected]

Consent Form for Pre-Service Teachers



the Philippines


I agree to participate in the above research project and give my consent freely.

I understand that the project will be conducted as described in the Information Statement, a

copy of which I have retained.

I understand I can withdraw from the project at any time and do not have to give any reason for

withdrawing.

I understand that I can request a summary of findings when the study is completed.

I consent to (please tick):

participate in the observed class o YES o NO participate in a focus group interview o YES o NO

I understand that my personal information will remain confidential to the researchers.

I have had the opportunity to have questions answered to my satisfaction.

Date: _________________________

If you consent to be observed in class, please print your name.

Name: _____________________________

If you consent to an interview, please print your name and provide contact details so a suitable time for the interview can be arranged. Name: ______________________________ Phone number: _______________________ Email address: ________________________

Appendices

266

Appendix 11: Item Means and Standard Deviations of Pre-service Teachers’ Survey Responses

A. On Their Use of Oral Communication Strategies

Silent Strategies (n-428) Mean SD 16 I give up speaking when I cannot express what I want to say. 2.01 0.84 17 I avoid discussing topics that pose language difficulties. 2.16 0.76 19 I keep quiet and say nothing at all when I cannot find the words to express

myself. 2.15 0.86

20 “I swallow” what I want to say when I feel that it can be risky and embarrassing to speak up. 2.28 0.89

21 I withhold what I want to say when I sense that my idea will be rejected. 2.41 0.82 22 I hide my reaction specially when I disagree with what my teachers or

classmates have to say and I do not want them to get offended. 2.54 0.85

23 I keep quiet even when asked to answer a question to convey that I do not know what to say. 1.92 0.79

Informal Strategies 6 I use non-verbal language to express speaking difficulty (e.g. frowning,

looking helpless, looking at the floor or the ceiling, embarrassed smile) 2.56 0.80

9 I say in Tagalog or my mother tongue words that I do not know how to say in English. 2.71 0.80

10 I ask for help from my classmates and teachers when I could not find the words to express what I want to say. 2.79 0.76

11 I speak slowly to give myself time to think on what to say next. 2.65 0.73 12 I use filling words such as well, let me see, actually, as a matter of fact, in

my own opinion to gain time to think. 2.84 0.72

Formal Strategies 1 I describe something in English when I do not know its English equivalent

(e.g. the kind of bag worn on the back for backpack) 2.44 0.72

2 I use words closest in meaning to what I mean (e.g. glass for cup or goblet, car for all types of vehicle) 2.76 0.79

3 I use all-purpose-words (e.g. those sort of things or stuff and the like, etcetera, you know what I mean, do you get it, how do you call) when I cannot think of the specific word.

2.77 0.76

5 I use gestures, facial expressions or sound imitation to help me express my thoughts in English. 3.05 0.76

Polite Strategies 24 I use polite expressions (e.g. po, opo, thank you, please, kindly) when I

speak to my teachers and classmates in the classroom. 3.38 0.75

25 I say what I think my teachers and classmates expect and will be pleased to hear. 2.72 0.74

27 I use formal titles when addressing my teachers (doctor, professor, ma’am, sir) and classmates (e.g. president, governor, mayor, mister, miss). 3.36 0.75

28 I speak to my classmates and teachers with a softer voice tone to appear respectful and non-threatening. 3.27 0.76

Assertive Strategies 30 I interrupt the teacher and ask clarification when I encounter

communication difficulty. 1.95 0.77

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267

31 I ask question on topics I have difficulty with, the moment the question pops up in my mind. 2.29 0.74

32 I keep asking follow up questions when the given answer to my initial question does not help me in my difficulty. 2.36 0.77

B. On Teacher Educators’ Use of Instructional Communication Strategies

Questioning strategies (n-428) Mean SD 1 Teachers ask follow up questions to encourage students to speak. 3.45 0.61 2 Teachers rephrase the question when students are not able to give a quick

response. 3.42 0.62

3 Teachers rephrase students’ answers or opinions and ask them if it is what they meant. 3.22 0.67

4 Teachers ask students for their viewpoints or opinions. 3.52 0.61 5 Teachers ask students to elaborate their answers by asking probing questions. 3.15 0.66

Non-Verbal Immediacy Strategies 11 Teachers smile at individual students and at the whole class. 3.09 0.79 12 Teachers use positive gestures to encourage students to speak. 3.36 0.62 13 Teachers position themselves close to students while teaching. 2.84 0.74 14 Teachers look at students with encouragement, such as nodding their head. 3.18 0.73

Authoritarian strategies 16 Teachers use their authority to force students to speak. 2.14 0.84 17 Teachers punish or sanction students for not speaking or answering. 1.45 0.69 18 Teachers immediately pinpoint the faults with students’ speaking. 1.72 0.73

Verbal immediacy strategies scale 7 Teachers engage into informal conversation with students in the classroom

before and after class. 2.38 0.85

8 Teachers share their own experiences of difficulty in communication with students. 2.50 0.86

9 Teachers discuss topics students bring to class even when the topic is not related to the lesson. 2.17 0.77

C. On the Helpfulness of Teacher Educators’ Use of Instructional Communication Strategies

Helpfulness of questioning strategies (n-428) Mean SD 1 Teachers asking follow up questions to encourage students to speak. 3.39 0.60 2 Teachers rephrasing the question when students are not able to give a

quick response. 3.46 0.61

3 Teachers rephrasing students’ answers or opinions and ask them if it is what they meant. 3.33 0.64

4 Teachers asking students for their viewpoints or opinions. 3.38 0.64 5 Teachers asking students to elaborate their answers by asking probing

questions. 3.19 0.65

Helpfulness of non-verbal Immediacy strategies 11 Teachers smiling at individual students and at the whole class. 3.29 0.80 12 Teachers using positive gestures to encourage students to speak. 3.46 0.65 13 Teachers positioning themselves close to students while teaching. 2.87 0.80

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14 Teachers looking at students with encouragement, such as nodding their head. 3.34 0.72

Helpfulness of Authoritarian strategies 16 Teachers using their authority to force students to speak. 2.07 0.90 17 Teachers punishing or sanctioning students for not speaking or

answering. 1.55 0.78

18 Teachers immediately pinpointing the faults with students’ speech. 1.82 0.90 Helpfulness of verbal immediacy strategies 7 Teachers engaging into informal conversation with students in the

classroom before and after class. 2.63 0.88

8 Teachers sharing their own experiences of difficulty in communication with students. 2.98 0.82

9 Teachers discussing topics students bring to class even when the topic is not related to the lesson. 2.29 0.83

Appendices

269

Appendix: 12 Item Means and Standard Deviations of Teacher Educators’ Survey Responses

A. Teacher Educators’ Use of Instructional Communication Strategies

Questioning Strategies (n-59) Mean SD 1 I ask follow up questions to encourage students to speak. 3.42 0.56 2 I rephrase the question when students are not able to give a quick

response. 3.46 0.62

3 I rephrase students’ answers or opinions and ask them if it is what they meant. 3.17 0.70

4 I ask students for their viewpoints or opinions. 3.56 0.57 5 I ask students to elaborate their answers by asking probing questions. 3.24 0.68

Non-Verbal Immediacy Strategies 11 I smile at individual students and at the whole class. 3.29 0.72 12 I use positive gestures to encourage students to speak. 3.41 0.53 13 I position myself close to students while teaching. 3.25 0.68 14 I look at students with encouragement, such as nodding my head. 3.54 0.60

Authoritarian Strategies 16 I use my authority to force students to speak. 2.15 0.69 17 I punish or sanction students for not speaking or answering. 1.20 0.55 18 I immediately pinpoint the faults with students’ speaking. 1.54 0.68

Verbal Immediacy Strategies 7 I engage into informal conversation with students in the classroom

before and after class. 2.88 0.81

8 I share my own experiences of difficulty in communication with students. 2.25 0.76

9 I discuss topics students bring to class even when the topic is not related to the lesson. 2.00 0.62

B. Teacher Educators’ Report on Pre-service Teachers’ Use of Oral Communication Strategies Silent Strategies (n-59) Mean SD 16 Students give up speaking when they cannot express what they want to say. 2.31 0.75 17 Students avoid discussing topics that pose language difficulties. 2.44 0.75 19 Students keep quiet and say nothing at all when they cannot find the words to

express themselves. 2.47 0.80

20 Students “swallow” what they want to say when they feel that it can be risky and embarrassing to speak up. 2.41 0.72

21 Students withhold what they want to say when they sense that their idea will be rejected. 2.41 0.67

22 Students hide their reaction specially when they disagree with what their teachers or classmates have to say and they do not want them to get offended.

2.41 0.72

23 Students keep quiet even when asked to answer a question to convey that they do not know what to say. 2.51 0.73

Informal Strategies 6 Students use non-verbal language to express speaking difficulty (e.g.

frowning, looking helpless, looking at the floor or the ceiling, embarrassed smile)

2.86 0.66

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270

9 Students say in Tagalog or their mother tongue words that they do not know how to say in English. 2.76 0.82

10 Students ask for help from my classmates and teachers when they could not find the words to express what they want to say. 2.69 0.62

11 Students speak slowly to give themselves time to think on what to say next. 2.81 0.63 12 Students use filling words such as well, let me see, actually, as a matter of

fact, in my own opinion to gain time to think. 2.69 0.65

Formal Strategies 1 Students describe something in English when they do not know its English

equivalent (e.g. the kind of bag worn on the back for backpack) 2.51 0.60

2 Students use words closest in meaning to what they mean (e.g. glass for cup or goblet, car for all types of vehicle) 2.86 0.63

3 Students use all-purpose-words (e.g. those sort of things or stuff and the like, etcetera, you know what I mean, do you get it, how do you call) when they cannot think of the specific word.

2.78 0.65

5 Students use gestures, facial expressions or sound imitation to help them express their thoughts in English. 3.10 0.74

Polite Strategies 24 Students use polite expressions (e.g. po, opo, thank you, please, kindly) when

they speak to their teachers and classmates in the classroom. 2.88 0.77

25 Students say what they think their teachers and classmates expect and will be pleased to hear. 2.64 0.55

27 Students use formal titles when addressing their teachers (doctor, professor, ma’am, sir) and classmates (e.g. president, governor, mayor, mister, miss). 3.27 0.78

28 Students speak to their classmates and teachers with a softer voice tone to appear respectful and non-threatening. 3.00 0.53

Assertive Strategies 30 Students interrupt the teacher and ask clarification when they encounter

communication difficulty. 2.27 0.58

31 Students ask question on topics they have difficulty with, the moment the question pops up in their mind. 2.39 0.56

32 Students keep asking follow up questions when the given answer to their initial question does not help them in their difficulty. 2.32 0.60

C. Helpfulness of pre-service teachers’ oral communication strategies

Silent Strategies (n-59) Mean SD 16 Students giving up speaking when they cannot express what they

want to say. 1.98 0.82

17 Students avoiding discussing topics that pose language difficulties. 1.97 0.87 19 Students keeping quiet and saying nothing at all when they cannot

find the words to express themselves. 1.92 0.84

20 Students “swallowing” what they want to say when they feel that it can be risky and embarrassing to speak up. 1.93 0.81

21 Students withholding what they want to say when they sense that their idea will be rejected. 1.97 0.76

22 Students hiding their reaction especially when they disagree with what their teachers or classmates have to say and they do not want them to get offended.

2.02 0.71

23 Students keeping quiet even when asked to answer a question to convey that they do not know what to say.

1.83 0.77

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271

Informal Strategies 6 Students using non-verbal language to express speaking difficulty

(e.g. frowning, looking helpless, looking at the floor or the ceiling, embarrassed smile)

2.90 0.69

9 Students saying in Tagalog or their mother tongue words that they do not know how to say in English. 2.85 0.69

10 Students asking for help from my classmates and teachers when they could not find the words to express what they want to say. 3.00 0.67

11 Students speaking slowly to give themselves time to think on what to say next. 3.02 0.54

12 Students using filling words such as well, let me see, actually, as a matter of fact, in my own opinion to gain time to think. 2.80 0.58

Formal Strategies 1 Students describing something in English when they do not know its

English equivalent (e.g. the kind of bag worn on the back for backpack)

2.78 0.59

2 Students using words closest in meaning to what they mean (e.g. glass for cup or goblet, car for all types of vehicle) 3.00 0.53

3 Students using all-purpose-words (e.g. those sort of things or stuff and the like, etcetera, you know what I mean, do you get it, how do you call) when they cannot think of the specific word.

2.75 0.54

5 Students using gestures, facial expressions or sound imitation to help them express their thoughts in English. 3.19 0.66

Polite Strategies 24 Students using polite expressions (e.g. po, opo, thank you, please,

kindly) when they speak to their teachers and classmates in the classroom.

3.29 0.62

25 Students saying what they think their teachers and classmates expect and will be pleased to hear. 2.58 0.67

27 Students using formal titles when addressing their teachers (doctor, professor, ma’am, sir) and classmates (e.g. president, governor, mayor, mister, miss).

2.97 0.79

28 Students speaking to their classmates and teachers with a softer voice tone to appear respectful and non-threatening. 3.14 0.57

Assertive Strategies 30 Students interrupting the teacher and ask clarification when they

encounter communication difficulty. 2.61 0.74

31 Students asking question on topics they have difficulty with, the moment the question pops up in their mind. 2.81 0.71

32 Students keeping on asking follow up questions when the given answer to their initial question does not help them in their difficulty. 3.08 0.62

Appendices

272

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CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON THE ORAL COMMUNICATION …