Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 1

Literature Review: Cultural & Technological Barriers

Abe Arispe, Makeda Billingsley, Brittany Coursey, Aaron Hurd, & Marcus Jordan

Liberty University

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Abstract

There are many trends and issues in educational technology today. One of the

most significant issues in educational technology is cultural barriers. Cultural barriers are

important factors to consider when planning and implementing effective education,

because they affect instructional methods, learning goals, and student success. Culture

relates to how a person identifies themselves as a member of society, and educational

planners must acknowledge that culture goes beyond race, gender and ethnicity. Today,

people consider socioeconomic status, religion, virtual identity, age, personal and

professional goals, and educational background as a part of their culture. As classroom

communities become more diverse, educators have to start considering culture as a factor

during educational planning so that courses and programs are both culturally relevant and

effective. This literature review investigates cultural barriers in educational technology

by investigating significant cultural barriers such as: differentiated instruction,

multifaceted learning environments, and classroom demographics.

Keywords: culture, technology, barriers, education

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What is Culture?

In order to overcome cultural barriers in education, it is important to first

understand culture. Culture is a complex concept and can be defined many different

ways. One definition of culture revolves around personal morals. Basically, this idea of

culture depends on how a person sees themself as a member of society. Traditionally,

race, ethnicity, gender, and family background are what people used to define their

personal culture, but as our world changes, we find that these factors are not the only

components that make up our culture. Culture cannot be summed up with one statement

like, “I am African American.” Instead culture includes a combination of many different

things such as language, age, social habits, music preferences, and so much more.

Palmaru (2012) suggests that culture is defined by individuals, and therefore the

definition of culture itself is constantly changing.

Some sociologists present the idea that culture can only be defined when

different factors come into play. For example, Marghescu (2012) suggests that culture is

something that is produced, distributed, and consumed by individuals. This means that

people consider images and ideas that their families, peers, and even the media present to

them in order to build and define their culture. They also consider their beliefs, morals,

knowledge, and experience when they think of culture. Some things that people use to

help them define their culture are reality television, social networking, peer and family

relationships, religion, and education. From these factors, people create and/or join

cultures that fit their interests and meet their needs. Culture is different based on the

population. The definition of culture is whatever we decide our culture is at the time.

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Culture not just an individual’s identity. Culture can also describe our society and

surroundings. Markus (2013) believes that culture is simply described as our way of life.

For example, some people may describe Americans as a “Fast Food Culture”, meaning

that a large percentage of Americans rely on fast food chains for meals, and in some

cases employment and social settings. The idea of culture in this case is a snapshot or a

hashtag of a behavior or a preference. Dev (2013) also believes that culture is shaped and

defined by our routines, rules, norms. Culture is a complicated concept to define, but all

definitions revolve around individuals’ behavior, knowledge, interactions, and beliefs.

Culture plays a role in how we identify ourselves, and in how others describe and react to

us.

Culture’s Role in Educational Planning

Once an educator understands culture, they can successfully use it to plan

teaching and learning activities that will prepare students for life in the 21st century. One

of the biggest obstacles in education today is planning and implementing culturally

relevant teaching and learning in heterogeneous classrooms made up of student

populations that include a variety of learning styles, abilities, and interests. Considering

culture in educational planning helps customize curriculum so that the learning is more

meaningful and so that students are more engaged. If culture is taken into consideration

during educational planning, teachers and school administrators will see positive results,

because students’ needs, interests, and abilities will be considered and satisfied in the

educational setting.

Since culture encompasses our behavior, knowledge, interactions, and beliefs

educators must consider common factors that play a key role in all four of these areas

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when planning culturally relevant curriculum. One of these common factors is

technology. Today, technology effects how we behave, learn, and interact. We are so

knowledgeable of and reliant on technology, that many people suggest that we live in a

“Tech Savvy” or “Technological” culture. So how do culture, technology, and education

come together?

Some educational philosophies suggest that technology is the key to overcome

cultural barriers in education. In other words, we can prepare students to be responsible

citizens in multicultural communities by teaching with technology, teaching students how

to use technology responsibly, and by using technology to close cultural gaps. “Outside

of school, students and teachers confront the double challenges of the digital divide--

relating to access to technology--and the participation gap--relating to access to core

skills, competencies, and experiences needed to become a meaningful participant in the

emerging culture” (Losh & Jenkins, 2012). Culture, technology, and education and

permanent structures in our society, so it is important that we bring them together in order

to improve how we learn, communicate, and function as a society. Feitosa et al. (2012)

suggests that globalization requires different cultures to work together, and what better

place to learn about cooperative learning than in an educational setting?

Educational planners encourage teachers and students to use technology to create

educational experiences that will help break down cultural barriers. Levin & Schrum

(2013) suggest that technology planning and support plays a critical role in educational

planning and when implemented correctly has positive impacts on a school culture.

Teachers should not just start using technology, for the sake of using technology.

Kinchin (2012) recommends that educational technology is only successful when

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thoughtfully planned and implemented properly. There is no magic formula or easy

solution for overcoming cultural barriers in education, but trends in education and

cultural research certainly suggest, that technology and educational planning are two

strategies that will help solve many of the cultural issues that we face in the classroom

daily. While it is not an easy task to consider every different aspect of a student’s culture

in educational planning, it is certainly not impossible, especially when we use technology

to help us.

Culture’s Impact on Instruction

Pedagogies of Technology Integration

By looking at instructional technology with a wide view we are able to understand

the pedagogical issues that need to be considered when technology is incorporated into a

teacher’s lesson plans. As schools, and teachers on their own, incorporate technology into

their classrooms it is important that they have the proper understanding of how to use that

technology to its fullest. If instructors are not educated on the multiple uses of devices in

a classroom setting the likelihood of integrated learning on part of the students decreases

at a dramatic rate. At the same time infusing technology into the curriculum makes less of

an impact of the learning of the students if it is not considered a vital component from the

standpoint of the teacher (Anderson & McGreal, 2012).

Many instructors do not realize that technology should be considered as a separate

object from their regular instructional procedures during the planning process. But this

does not mean that it should be looked at as any less of integral part of the instructional

delivery in any lesson. It is up to the instructor to make assessments of the

appropriateness of any technology that will be used in the classroom based upon the

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specific needs and understanding of the students that the lesson is being crafted for.

Should students be from poorer families or more diverse backgrounds where technology

has not been readily available to them in their private lives the instructor may be faced

with teaching the use of a device? This training, although it may be a valuable skill for

students to learn, takes away from instructional time concerning the original lessons

planned (Anderson & McGreal, 2012).

In today’s world of instant answers and always being connected to others in ways

that people of the past have never experienced, it is important to understand the threats

present in using technology, as well as the possibility of students not understanding the

multiple uses of devices in the classroom and at home. In the case of online learning,

instructors are afraid to move in this direction many times due the lack of pedagogical

training that they have received (Peerani, 2013). The culture that assumes that the use of

educational technology can be used and removed at anytime in any lesson is a wrong

assumption on the observer’s part. Technology integration should be applied to sound

teaching and learning principals by an instructor who is aware of the proper uses and

applications of the lessons being conveyed as well as the appropriate use of technologies

in the learning model.

Differentiated Instruction

The diversity of today’s classroom breeds cultural norms that are different than

those that students and teachers have ever faced before. Not only are students of different

races and religions learning together at a higher rate, but also students with different

learning styles and learning disabilities are present like never before. Teachers face

students from different culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds on a daily bases.

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Many institutions, such as those in rural and lower-income areas, are unable to finance

the cost associated with staffing or tools for differentiated instruction. These needs can be

meet offsite by distance and online education, but in many cases these options are also

limited by funding (Irvin, Hannum, De La Varre, & Farner, 2010).

Through the practice of differentiating instruction educators are able to add rigor

while enhancing cultural reverent information in the lessons. Differentiation helps

educators to provide students with multiple ways of learning and technology helps to

make this differentiation possible. Problems evolve when the students or instructor do not

fully understand the technology that they are attempting to intergrade in the lesson.

Peerani (2013) states that “change (in education) is something that people can adjust to, if

there is a willingness to do so”. In many cases technology can make a classroom

specialized to the students that are in that class. But at the same time if a program is not

available in a student's spoken and written language it can cause more confusion than act

as an agent of help. In many cases educators do not feel prepared to address students that

have different needs from those that are being met by the general lessons.

Technology provides many ways that obstacles in instruction can be overcome,

but educators themselves must be knowledgeable in the many uses a device can provide

in the classroom. Proper training for instructors in the use of technology must be made a

priority by their employers and available to them during professional development as

well as ongoing session all throughout the year as understanding increases. The barriers

of technology being placed in the classroom do not simply start with the course instructor

but with the administration of the institution. If proper training, funding, and guidance are

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not in place then the odd of successful technological integration are very low (Irvin,

Hannum, De La Varre, & Farner, 2010).

Cultural Barriers between General Education and Special Education Teachers

General education and special education classes function in differently in many,

especially as special education classes seek to specialize the lessons to each particular

student’s needs and development. Inclusion classes have sought to bring special needs

students into the general classroom in order to provide them with interaction that general

education students receive. These environments must be accessible to all learners and

thus make the use of technology a great bridge should the programs and hardware be

easily understood and easy to use (Smith & Cap, 2008).

Even though each special needs student has different needs they are grouped into

one category. This process does not allow for the personalization of assistive technology

in a group setting. Each students Section 504 report lays out the individual needs of that

particular student. Funding for large purchases of technology at the district, regional, or

local level do not often account for the personalized needs of those students that have a

Section 504. The usual technology purchases are done for the general use of schools or

classrooms, the difference in these accommodations sets a barrier between the general

classrooms use of technological devices and those used by the special education

department and the students that it serves (Collins & Halverson, 2009).

Years ago special needs students were placed in classroom solely on their own,

and while this made planning and integration easier for general education teachers, it did

not suit equality. As schools prepare students for the real world challenges that they will

face, contained classrooms do not serve as a realistic model for the world to come. So in

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order for inclusion to work students with special needs can possibly benefit the most from

technology integration into the classrooms. This requires that input and output features

need to be made available to the students, educators need the proper training on the use as

well as the understanding of such devices, and general education students need to

understand the use of these technologies when interacting with inclusion students. As

technology becomes more and more integrated we move from as Collins & Halverson

(2009) called “an apprenticeship model of education to the universal schooling era”.

Cultural and Technological Barriers in 21st Century Education Models

The implications of technology have greatly affected the way education is

approached. The far-reaching impact of technology has affected the culture of, and in

some instances created barriers within, online and distance education, blended learning

environments, and the established traditional classroom. Technologies now have

embedded infrastructures in the institutions that have forced dialog to become part of the

process. This is due in part to independent access to knowledge. Devolution of resources

as well as the sharing of knowledge has increased student autonomy and increased the

dialogue between students and instructors as well as students and their classmates (Poley

et al., 2013). As a result, there are three contexts within the educational models that have

been created and need to be dealt with.

Firstly, there has been an unbundling of the faculty role. The instructor has moved

from the master of the classroom to part of a course team. The focus has been moved

from research to teaching. This is in part due to the emergence of formal instructional

design and its pedagogy as well as the abundance of open resources.

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Secondly, there has been an unbundling of the degree. Transfer policies requiring

that courses be accepted from other institutions leave the universities with no control over

the students’ courses and degrees. This has increased the issuance of interdisciplinary

studies and decreased consistency between content.

Thirdly, there has been an unbundling of the institution itself. This is a result of

the rise in distance degrees and movement toward satellite centers. Students are no longer

bound to the confines of a traditional classroom and are able to find multiple institutions

to meet their needs. This is also caused by internal changes such as the creation of the

offices of distance education and the erosion of traditional departmental structure (Poley

et al., 2013).

Impacts on Online and Distance Education Models

As the demand for online and distance education has increased, the tculture

revolving around it has been modified as well. In fact, digital culture has changed the

way humans communicate, as well as the way humans perceive reality, relate, learn, and

think. When thinking changes, individuals interact differently with others within

relationships. When relationships change, so do the very institutions upon which society

is found (Flynn, 2013).

The impact on such institutions can be seen with the Massive Open Online

Courses (MOOCs) offered by companies such as Khan Academy, Udacity, EdX, and

Coursera. There are variations of how each is executed, but the common theme is that

information is made readily available for students to digest at no cost. Some include

adapted release of material while others have no restriction to what the student can view

when. Additionally, many offer opportunities for the student to interact with peers and

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glean information from an expert in the subject matter. No matter the execution, one

thing is clear—there is potential for MOOCs to become an educational game changer.

There is a chance that employers will look to MOOCs as alternative credentials to

the traditional college degree. They may consider a certificate of completion from a

world-class institution affiliated with the MOOCs as a better assessment tool for the skills

needed for a particular job instead of a degree from a second- or third-tier educational

facility. International students may think staying at home and enrolling in a MOOC is a

better alternative than obtaining debt to attend an international school. Though the future

utilization on MOOCs is unknown, they bring with them a decided shift toward non-

institutional higher education (Dennis, 2012).

In addition, some of the technological advances associated with MOOCs could

impact the facilitation of online and distance education settings. For example, courses

within the libraries of such companies can utilize programming that can monitor thought

processes to grade essays and mathematical equations in the same nature that a traditional

instructor would. Not only that, some MOOCs utilize technologies that are able to

register typing patterns to secure login and minimize academic dishonesty.

These examples exhibit another culture altering phenomenon, artificial

intelligence. In his article, Schmidt goes as far as to say “that man’s simulating himself

has become a culture” (2011). With so many advances in technology and our reliance on

it, it could be argued that it is only a matter of time before man and machine are

intertwined. The concept of “man” may need redefining as humans look to technology to

create, modify, and perfect the working version of it.

Impacts in Traditional Classroom Settings

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The traditional classroom has undertaken a redefining as a result of technology as

well. While the defining factor is still the face-to-face delivery, many other aspects have

changed. No more are the days of lecture-based lessons in which the professor shares

material and the students listens stagnantly. Technology allows for individual

personalization and interaction. The culture of the traditional classroom is still one well

adept to the use of technology (Bahhouth, J. & Bahhouth).

Teachers often utilize web resources to enhance learning. There is a shift toward

set ups in which student bring their own digital devices to interact with learning materials

as well. This opens the door to gamification and a learning-centered environment that

appears more like the student’s everyday life—one that is enhanced with computers,

mobile devices, tablets, and more.

While this shift from lecture-based learning can be seen greatly at the higher

institutional level, it is certainly beyond those limitations. In fact, due to technology the

classroom is not bound by the four walls made available by brick and mortar. The options

for schooling have greatly expanded. There are far more programs available for

homeschoolers and co-ops have become more popular as well (Hoover-Dempsey & Ice,

2011).

Impacts on Blended Learning Models

Blended learning has provided several benefits compared to using a single system

of delivery. Many institutions are looking to blended learning environments to obtain the

benefits of both e-learning and face-to-face environments. According to Gedik, Kiraz, &

Yaşar Özden, the affordances of blended learning environments include: “the usage of

different environments to present all of the course, content, motivation, opportunity to

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voice opinions and see others’ opinions more, time efficiency, reinforcement of learning,

instructor monitoring, instructor support, access to resources, continuity within the

course, and areas for discussion” (2012, 106).

As with most forums, blended learning settings are not without fault. There are

associated barriers as well. The data analysis from the Gedik, Kiraz, & Yaşar Özden

study revealed that the obstacles in the learning environment included: “workload, course

design, cultural aspects, technical support, and the inter-dependence of the two

environments” (2012, 110).

This emphasizes that both organizational and cultural factors must be addressed

within blended learning environments. Instructors must support and guide the students to

ensure that there is balance between the students’ workload and time. There must be great

attention to the course design to ensure that the course direction is clear and the student

expectations are defined.

Culture and Learning Environment Demographics

General Education Learners

General education learners are the students that do not need any help to be able to

communicate. They are able to let people know their feelings on any subject they are

presented. Students with disabilities should not be placed in classrooms that are strictly

for general education students.

Through the years educators have practiced including all students in a classroom that

provides educational intervention to students with and without disabilities providing the

proper instruction and support to each group.

Special Education Learners

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For purposes of education special education learners or exceptional learners are

those who require special education and related services if they are to realize their full

human potential (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005). They require special education because

they differ markedly from most students in one or more of the following ways: they may

have intellectual disabilities, learning or attention disabilities, emotional or behavioral

disorders, physical disabilities, disorders of communication, autism, traumatic brain

injury, impaired hearing, impaired sight, or special gifts or talents.

Special Education learners sometimes require reassurance from their parents and teachers

to encourage them to communicate their wants and needs. To accomplish this, the

parents and teachers have work together to devise a plan to get the child to communicate

better in class by finding out what the child’s likes and dislikes are thereby opening the

channels to communication.

It is extremely crucial that children with an intellectual disability are able to

correctly communicate their wants and needs. This type of communication gives students

greater independence in their environments and reduces challenging behavior, such as

anger, self-injury, and temper outbursts, which might occur for lack of more effective or

conventional means of communication (Sigafoos, Arthur-Kelly, & Butterfield, 2006).

Student perceptions of Educational Technology

Technology is being used in the classroom to be able to enhance the training

given to our students. The question that comes up is, “what are the student’s perceptions

of how the education is being presented?”

Education is constantly changing in the world of distance learning. One thing that is

certain is students are now able to use technology to attend school without having to

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show up in a classroom. Through the years education has been changing making it easier

to attend school without having to attend a brick and mortar structure. How are the

teachers gathering information on the technology being used to teach? Is this technology

leaving some students behind?

When checking student perceptions on education three areas that have to be

observed to get an understanding of how the different educational technology tools affect

student learning.

These are overall learning; ability to get the job, and expected job performance

and the only way to tell if the correct information is being taught is by having the student

take a survey after they have completed the course.

Another method of gauging what the students are learning through technology is

by surveying their employers on the students’ knowledge.

The new technology being used in mobile learning or m-learning has taken root in

education and continues to improve allowing the new students to have access to more

information instantly. We have to keep track of how technology is helping our students

meet their goals and be part of the improvement team to improve technology for future

classes.

In the past there had been fears and fantasies about how the technology would

become part of the regular learning in schools in the near future. Technology continues

to change the way students receive their training in school. Students are going to be able

to complete their research a lot quicker because of this technology. Technology is now

and will continue to make learning easier. By being able to communicate with your

teacher in a distance learning course face to face by using one of the new devices that are

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available. Schools have received an infusion of technology. By this, I mean that learning

has become easier by using the technology available in the classroom and at home.

Going on virtual trip, is now used instead of having to leave the schools for a day and

having to get permission slips signed.

All the advances in technology that have taken place in the last five years show

that technology changing on a daily basis. One thing about using these devices is if you

purchase one of these devices today by tomorrow it will be obsolete.

Solutions for Overcoming Cultural Barrier in Educational Technology Solutions

With cultural barriers being such important factors to consider when planning and

implementing effective education, and because of the effect on instructional methods,

learning goals, and student success, ways to overcome these barriers has to be created.

We stated that culture relates to how a person identifies themselves as members of

society, and educational planners must acknowledge that culture goes beyond race,

gender and ethnicity so steps have to be taken to have positive solutions.

School officials should be concerned with cultural barriers to avoid creating

barriers in educational technology. Professional development is a great way to help

overcome these barriers. Taking the time to train teachers and professionals’ proper use

of technology being used in classrooms is extremely important. In using professional

development, it should raise the percent of knowledge base in the teacher to student

relationship in distant learning. Teachers can be better at sharing information and

curriculum to their students with the advantages of the amount of technology available

today.

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I think collaborating with other institutions and educators can be professional

development that will help to overcome these barriers of distance learning. Institutions

should do research and follow up with other institutions that use certain methods to make

their organization successful. Of course, not all methods are good for everyone, but you

can sort through ways that are beneficial to you and modify them. Model their teaching

styles and modify them to the type of students you serve online and see if it best fits your

curriculum.

Also there are other factors that will affect overcoming cultural barriers in

distance education. There are some provisions of the listed points will improve E-

learning effectively such as the availability of hardware for students (particularly

computers). If a student can afford good equipment with faster Internet

connectivity/improved bandwidth, improved software, appropriate policies favoring e-

learning from an institution it will help them be successful. In addition to these things,

provisions of good technical support for e-learning to the student so that they can learn

online comfortably will help.

Cost is definitely a major factor to add into the equation of overcoming cultural

barriers. It may even be the number one factor in causing barriers, because with the

financial burdens people face today, school cost is not the first priority that people want

to pay for. Return on investment of education is at the thought of every individual

student, whether or not they will receive a job to compensate their years of studying. The

way things are going in today’s world of careers; many people complete a degree field

and cannot find work, so it’s in question of how important completing a degree is.

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Opinions from learners in distance education classes suggests that learners

attribute a much broader scope of barriers to the instructor compared to what they would

in a traditional setting. For instance, the organization's infrastructure is generally not

under the direct control of the instructor. Yet, such operability issues as access,

infrastructure, and technical support are an inseparable part of e-learning.

More important, in overcoming barriers, no matter what culture or background

you have, you can achieve the same goal as any other in distance learning. With

everything being online, it opens up the world to the student versus having a classroom

where resources may only be confined to the room. It allows the student to envision

things worldwide by reaching out and communicating to others from all over. It broadens

the decisions to be made when faced with a dilemma, because you can get a wide view of

solutions from different cultures and locations. 

Everything has its benefits and drawbacks, and I think this does also. As the

instructor, you may not be able to adjust to students without knowing them hands on and

vice versa for the student. And students may or may not understand and relate to all of

their classmates and the different perspectives given. Overall, I think as long as the

instructor and the students know that the goal is to meet and achieve what they are

seeking, to learn and educate to the best of our ability. There are many different walks of

life in this world, but we are all seeking and serving the same God, we share the common

goal. Education can be the same way. 

Don’t forget people learn in different ways, different learning styles. Always try

to be creative in the design and structure for the student. Keep it interesting, and give the

student a feeling of involvement. In my opinion, I think you shouldn’t make assignments

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so difficult. Not saying make the course an easy walk-thru, but realize that this is a

distance learning class and some students may not understand the material well as others

and you can’t physically fix that.

You should also communicate regularly to let the students know you are there,

and not just throwing out assignments. And give lots of feedback because you’re not

physically meeting with the students. Be considerate in that we want the student to

succeed and not struggle. Make them work for it, but not make them feel they shouldn’t

belong in the class. Always look at “best practice” for each that makes up the all. Take

special care to be clear and concise as possible. Always use secure and confidential

methods to stay within rules, regulations, and guidelines of the education department.

This will help break all barriers to be successful!

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