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CS 271 Neural Networks Cluster

Introduction• http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/research/complete_inac

tive/larry/larry.php

Walt Whitman “I Sing the Body Electric” (1900)

2

I SING the Body electric; The armies of those I love engirth me, and I

engirth them; They will not let me off till I go with them,

respond to them, And discorrupt them, and charge them full

with the charge of the Soul. Was it doubted that those who corrupt their

own bodies conceal themselves; And if those who defile the living are as bad

as they who defile the dead? And if the body does not do as much as the

Soul? And if the body were not the Soul, what is

the Soul?

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Brain• Brain: an apparatus with which

we think we think. – Ambrose Bierce (1842 -

1914), The Devil's Dictionary

• If the brain were so simple we could understand it, we would be so simple we couldn't. – Lyall Watson

• People who don't Think probably don't have Brains; rather, they have grey fluff that's blown into their heads by mistake. – Pooh's Little Instruction

Book, inspired by A. A. Milne

Human-Computer Interaction

• From interacting with ATMs to playing video games to neural implants…

• What makes humans differ than computers?– Human (1533): a bipedal primate mammal

(Homo sapiens)– Computer (1646) - one that computes;

specifically : a programmable usually electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process data

• How do we interact with computers?

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04/20/23 Neural Networks 5

Human Brains

Advantages : • Enormous size.• Uses parallel processing &

biological preprocessing.• Uses memory instead of

processing power.• Efficient when performing

small # of useful operations.• Good at : pattern

recognition, motor control, perception, flexible inference, intuition & guessing.

Disadvantages : • Slow.• Imprecise, make

erroneous generalizations,

• Prejudiced.• Often incapable of

explaining their actions.

Questions for this course

• How can we model human brains in order to better understand them?

• How can we create machines that can do the same things humans (or dogs or cats) do?– In the same way humans do these tasks– In any way

• How can we build machines that aid humans?• When does computer-aided cross the line into no

longer human?

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Materials

• Human brains – Dr. Gittis + some intro readings assigned by Dr. Lenox (e.g., Brain Facts)

• Neural networks – readings assigned by Dr. Lenox• Neural networks software

– Membrain http://www.membrain-nn.de/english/details_en.htm

– Tlearn – ftp://ftp.crl.ucsd.edu/pub/ neuralnets/tlearn

• Andy Clark – Natural Born Cyborg• Cory Doctorow – Down & Out in the Magic

Kingdom– http://craphound.com/down/?page_id=162504/20/23 7

Some Terms:Artificial Intelligence (AI), Cyborg

• Artificial intelligence (1956): a branch of computer science dealing with the simulation of intelligent behavior in computers; the capability of a machine to imitate intelligent human behavior (onelook.com)

• Cyborg (cybernetic organism) -- “A cyborg is a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine and organism, a creature of social reality as well as a creature of fiction.” Donna Haraway (1991).– E.g., Kevin Warwick & Steve Mann

vs. Terminator, Borg

Some Cyborgs

Andy Clark Steve Mann

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Kevin Warwick Borg

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Andy Clark: Natural Born Cyborgs : Introduction

My body is an electronic virgin. I incorporate no silicon chips, no retinal or cochlear implants, no pacemaker. I don't even wear glasses (though I do wear clothes). But I am slowly becoming more and more a Cyborg. So are you. Pretty soon, and still without the need for wires, surgery or bodily alterations, we shall be kin to the Terminator, to Eve 8, to Cable...just fill in your favorite fictional Cyborg. Perhaps we already are. For we shall be Cyborgs not in the merely superficial sense of combining flesh and wires, but in the more profound sense of being human-technology symbionts: thinking and reasoning systems whose minds and selves are spread across biological brain and nonbiological circuitry. This book is the story of that transition and of its roots in some of the most basic and characteristics facts about human nature. For human beings, I want to convince you, are natural-born cyborgs.

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Terminator, Eve VIII, Cable, Santa Claus Meets the Martians?

Introduce Ourselves

• Are you a cyborg?• Assignment #1

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Steve Mann

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This is a computer

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Von Neumann’s Definition of Computer

Computer: Electronic device operating under control of instructions stored in its own memory that accepts input, processes data according to specified rules, stores data, & produces output.Input : Info or data put into computer system.Process: systematic series of actions that computer uses to manipulate data. Processing is done by Central Processing Unit (CPU).Storage: Area where data can be left on a permanent basis while it is not needed for processing (auxiliary storage, peripheral storage).Output: Results produced by computer.

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04/20/23 CS103 Ch 419

Things that shouldn’t be inside your computer ….

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Components Inside System Unit

• Motherboard – circuit board that integrates processor, memory, modems & network cards.

• Processor – interprets & carries out basic instructions that operate a computer.

• Memory – holds data waiting to be processed & instructions waiting to be executed.

• Adapter cards (sound, video) – circuit boards that provide connections & functions not built into the motherboard.

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Components Inside System Unit

• Ports – means of connecting devices outside of the system unit to components inside the computer. E.g., keyboard, mouse, microphone, monitor, printer, scanner, digital camera, video camera & speakers.

• Drive bays – holds 1+ disk drives.• Power supply – allows electricity to travel

through a power cord from wall outlet into computer.

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Motherboard (System Board)

– RAM chips.– ROM chips.– Microprocessor chips.– Ports.– Bus.– Expansion slot for adapter

cards.

– Chip – small piece of semi-conducting material usually silicon, on which integrated circuits are etched.

04/20/23 CS103 Ch 424

Integrated Circuits – Microchip, Chip

• Integrated circuit (IC) -- thin slice of silicon crystal packed with microscopic circuit elements (wires, transistors, capacitors & resistors).

• Semi-conducting materials – silicon & germanium used to conduct electricity when enhanced.04/20/23 CS103 Ch 4

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Central Processing Unit (CPU) or Processor

• CPU interprets & carries out basic instructions that operate a computer.

• Manages most of computer’s operations.

• On PC, processor functions are on one chip (microproessor).

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Machine Cycle

• For every instruction, processor repeats set of 4 basic operations called machine cycle.

1. Fetching2. Decoding3. Executing4. Storing

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Microprocessor Gets Instructions From Programs Via Instruction Set

• Computer accomplishes complex task by performing series of very simple steps (instructions).

– Tells computer to perform a specific arithmetic, logical or control operation.

• Op code (operation code) -- command word for operation such as add, compare, jump.

• Operands -- specify data or address of data for operation. JMP M1

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OP CODE OPERAND

Digital Vs. Analog Data

• Analog device -- works with continuous varying data.– E.g., Dimmer switch.

• Digital device -- works with discrete (discontinuous) numbers or digits.– E.g., Traditional light

switch.– Most computers are

digital & need 2 states (on/off).

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Data Representation

• Most computers are digital.• Recognize only 2 discrete

states (on & off).• Use 1 & 0 to represent

states.• Binary system – number

system with just 2 unique digits (0, 1).

• Bit (binary digit) – smallest unit of data that computer can process.

• Byte – 7 or 8 bits that form a character.– Number, letters,

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Storing Bits and BytesMagnetic or Optical Technologies

bit (binary digit) -- a 1 or 0.0 = 0 3 = 11 6 = 110 9 = 10011 = 1 4 = 100 7 = 111 10 = 10102 = 10 5 = 101 8 = 1000

byte (character) - represents a character with 7 or 8 bits. using coding schemes such as EBCDIC or ASCII.

A = 1000001 a = 1100001Z = 1011010 z = 11110101 = 0110001 2 = 0110010

ASCII

Data Representation Codes Binary Number System (Base 2)

16 8 4 2 1

0 0

1 1

2 1 0

3 1 1

4 1 0 0

5 1 0 1

6 1 1 0

7 1 1 1

8 1 0 0 0

9 1 0 0 1

10 1 0 1 0

…

22 1 0 1 1 0

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Coding Schemes (ASCII & EBCDIC)

• Character data (letters, symbols, numerals) & numbers are represented by:– ASCII (American Standard Code for

Information Interchange) – 7 bits.• Extended ASCII – 8 bits.

– EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code).

– Unicode –16 bits; represents 65,000 characters • Computer digitizes other types of data (e.g.,

sounds, pictures, video).• File header indicates code used to represent

data contained in it.04/20/23 CS103 Ch 4

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Binary Number Exercises

• Convert the following decimal numbers into binary numbers.

• 100• 1,000• 256• 27• 48• 112• 96• 1,024

16 8 4 2 1

0 0

1 1

2 1 0

3 1 1

4 1 0 0

5 1 0 1

6 1 1 0

7 1 1 1

8 1 0 0 0

9 1 0 0 1

10 1 0 1 0

…

22 1 0 1 1 0

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When computer works with series of 1s & 0s, how does it know which code

to use?

• Most computer files contain file header

• A file header contains info on code that was used to represent file data.

• It is read by computer but never appears on screen.

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Quantifying Bits & Bytes

• KILOBYTE (K, KB): 210 bytes... 1024 bytes

• MEGABYTE (MB): 210 KB... “million” bytes

• GIGABYTE (G, GB): 210 MB... “billion” bytes

• TERABYTE (TB): 210 GB... “trillion” bytes

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Memory

• Memory holds data & program instructions.– Memory is circuitry with direct link to

processor.– Storage is media that are outside processor

(disk).

Types of memory:(1) Random access memory (RAM).(2) Read only memory (ROM).

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Random Access Memory (RAM)

• RAM -- temporarily holds data before & after it is processed.– Volatile.

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RAM Uses Capacitors• Capacitors hold electronic signals.

– Charged capacitor “on.”– Discharged capacity “off.”– Figure 2-10.

• Each bank of capacitors holds 8 bits (1 byte).– RAM address on each bank helps computer locate

data contained in that bank.– Similar to chalkboard - write, erase, write again.

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RAM Function, Capacity, Speed & Configuration

• RAM is “waiting room” for computer’s processor.– Holds raw data, program instructions & processed data

before stored permanently.– Holds operating system instructions.

• Storage capacity is measured in megabytes.– 64 to 256 MB of RAM is common in PCs.– Amount you need depends on the software you use.– Can increase amount of RAM to some limit (set by

manufacturer).

• Speed of RAM is important.– 75 MHz +.

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Memory Access Times

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Millisecond .001 second thousand 15min 40 sec

Microsecond .001 millisecond million 11.6 days

Nanosecond .001microsecond billion 31.7 years

Picosecond .001 nanosecond trillion 31,700 years

NAME LENGTH SECOND TO 1 SECONDNAME LENGTH SECOND TO 1 SECOND

# PER COMPARED# PER COMPARED

Computer Types: Classical vs. Non-classical

• http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/nature_of_computers/computer_types.php?modGUI=196&compGUI=1747&itemGUI=3016

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Boolean Logic

• Mathematician George Boole (1815-1864)

• Expression – statement that is true or false.

• AND, OR, NOT

OR AND

(strawberry or vanilla) not chocolate NOT

• Creates negation of expression

• NOT P ¬• If P is true, NOT P is

false• If P is false, NOT P is

true

TRUTH TABLES

P Q P ^ Q (P and Q)

P V Q(P or Q)INCLUSIVE

P XOR QEXCLUSIVE

T T T T F

T F F T T

F T F T T

F F F F F

TRUTH TABLES WITH 3 EXPRESSIONS (P, Q, R)

• How do you evaluate P ^ Q ^ R ?– Combine P & Q & then R?– Combine Q & R & then P?

• Three requirements for President of USA:1. At least 35 years old (P)2. Natural-born U.S. citizen and (Q)3. Must have lived in US for at least 14 years

(R)

2 different interpretations?

• (P ^ Q) ^ R : must be at least 35 years old & natural born US citizen & also must have lived in US for at least 14 years

• P ^ (Q ^ R) : must be at least 35 years old & also natural born US citizen & who has lived in US for at least 14 years

• Same meaning – order of operations doesn’t matter for all ANDs & all Ors (associative property)

Combination of AND & OR Problems with Ambiguity

• P ^ Q V R• (P ^ Q) V R : at least 35 years old & natural born

US citizen or must have lived in US for at least 14 years

• P ^ (Q V R) : must be at least 35 years old & be a natural-born US citizen or have lived in the US at least 14 years

Arnold Schwarzenegger

TRUTH TABLE FOR (P ^ Q) V R

P Q R P ^ Q (P and

Q)

(P ^Q) V R

T T T T T

T T F T T

T F T F T

T F F F F

F T T F T

F T F F F

F F T F T

F F F F F

TRUTH TABLE FOR P ^ (Q V R)

P Q R Q V R) (Q and

R)

P ^(Q V R)

T T T T T

T T F T T

T F T T T

T F F F F

F T T T F

F T F T F

F F T T F

F F F F F

2 TRUTH TABLES : LASTROW VARIES FOR SOME VALUES OF P, Q, & R

2 EXPRESSIONS ARENOT EQUAL!

ORDER OF OPERATIONS FOR AND, OR, NOT

1. NOT2. AND ^3. OR V

• P ^ Q V R (P ^ Q) V R

TRUTH TABLES (True = 1, False = 0)

P Q P ^ Q (P and Q)

P V Q(P or Q)INCLUSIVE

P XOR QEXCLUSIVE

1 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 1

0 0 0 0 0

Algorithm

• a step-by-step mechanical process which, if followed faithfully, is guaranteed to produce the correct output (the "answer") for any input.

• The rules that a calculator follows when it performs arithmetic are all algorithms.

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