Upload
cade
View
34
Download
1
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
DESCRIPTION
CS 208: Computing Theory. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Brahim Hnich Faculty of Computer Sciences Izmir University of Economics. Computability Theory. Decidability. Motivation. Turing machines: a general purpose computer; Formalizes the notion of an algorithm (Church-Turing thesis) - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
Citation preview
CS 208: Computing Theory
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Brahim HnichFaculty of Computer SciencesIzmir University of Economics
Computability Theory
Decidability
Motivation
Turing machines: a general purpose computer; Formalizes the notion of an algorithm (Church-Turing
thesis)
We now turn our attention into the power of algorithms (i.e. Turing machines) to solve problems Try to understand the limitation of computers
Is studying decidability useful?
An example of a decidable problem: Is a string a member of a context-free language?
This problem is at the heart of the problem of recognizing and compiling programs in a programming language
Preliminaries
Acceptance problem: Does DFA B accept input string w? For convenience we use languages to represent
various computational problems So, the acceptance problem can be expressed as a
language
ADFA = {<B,w>| B is a DFA that accepts input string w}
Preliminaries
ADFA = {<B,w>| B is a DFA that accepts input string w} The problem of testing whether a DFA B accepts a
string w is the same as testing whether <B,w> is a member of the language ADFA
Thus, showing that the language is decidable is the same as showing that the computational problem is decidable!
Examples of Decidable Languages
ADFA = {<B,w>| B is a DFA that accepts input string w}
Theorem: ADFA is a decidable language
Proof idea: Design a TM M that decides ADFA
How? On input <B,w>
Simulate B on input w If simulation ends in accepting state, accept, otherwise reject
Examples of Decidable Languages
ANFA = {<B,w>| B is a NFA that accepts input string w}
Theorem: ANFA is a decidable language
Proof idea: Design a TM M that decides ANFA
How? On input <B,w>
Convert NFA B into equivalent DFA C Run previous TM on input <C,w> If that TM accepts, accept, otherwise reject
Examples of Decidable Languages
AREX = {<R,w>| R is a regular expression that generates string w}
Theorem: AREX is a decidable language
Proof idea: Design a TM M that decides AREX
How? On input <R,w>
Convert R into equivalent NFA C Run previous TM on input <C,w> If that TM accepts, accept, otherwise reject
Examples of Decidable Languages
ACFG = {<G,w>| G is a CFG that generates string w}
Theorem: ACFG is a decidable language
Proof idea: Design a TM M that decides ACFG
How? (Interested students can read the book p. 156)
Examples of Decidable Languages
Theorem: Every CFG is a decidable
Relationships among classes of languages
regular
Context-free
decidable
enumerable
The Haling Problem
One of the most philosophically important theorems of the theory of computation
Computers (and computation) are limited ina very fundamental way
Common, every-day problem are unsolvable Does a program sort an array of integers?
Both program and specification are precise But, automating the verification is undecidable
No computer program can perform the task of checking the program against the specification!
Halting Problem
Halting problem: Does a Turing machine accept a string?
ATM = {<M,w>| M is a Turing machine that accepts string w}
Theorem: ATM is undecidable
Halting Problem
Before proving that ATM is undecidable, note that ATM is enumerable
How? Design a Turing Machine U that recongnizes ATM
On input <M,w> Simulate M on w If M ever enters its accept state, accept, and if M ever
enters its reject state reject
U is called a universal Turing machine
Diagonalization
Diagonalization: a very crucial technique that is useful to prove undecidability ATM
Question: what does it mean to say that two infinite sets are the same size?
Answered by Georg cantor in 1873 How? Pair them off!
Correspondence
Recall a correspondence f: A B is a bijection: Injective Surjective
Question: what does it mean to say that two infinite sets are the same size?
Answer: A and B are the same size if there is a correspondence from A to B
Correspondence
Question: in a crowded room, how can we tell if there are more people than chairs, or more chairs than people?
Correspondence
Question: in a crowded room, how can we tell if there are more people than chairs, or more chairs than people?
Answer: Establish a correspondence: ask everyone to sit down!
Correspondence
Claim: The set of Natural numbers has the same size as the set of even numbers!
Correspondence
Claim: The set of Natural numbers has the same size as the set of even numbers!
Proof: Establish a correspondence Let f(i)=2i
Remark: a proper subset of A can be the same size as A!!!!
Countable
Definition: A set A is countable iff Either it is finite, or It has the same size as N, the set of natural numbers
We have just seen that the set of even numbers is countable
Claim: The set Z of integers is countable Proof: Define f:NZ by
f(i)=i/2 If i is even f(i)=-(ceil(i/2) +1) if i is odd
Challenge
In Heaven, there is a hotel with a countable number of rooms
One day, the society of Prophets, Oracles, and AI researchers hold a convention that books every room in the hotel
Then one more guest arrives, angrily demanding a room
You are the manager. What to do?
Challenge
Then one more guest arrives, angrily demanding a room
You are the manager. What to do? Answer: Ask the guest in room i to move to room
i+1, and put the new comer in room 1!
Challenge
Then a countable number of guests arrive, all angrily demanding a room
Now What to do?
Challenge
Then a countable number of guests arrive, all angrily demanding a room
Now What to do? Answer: Ask the guest in room i to move to room
2i, and put the new comers in odd numbered rooms !!!!
(Infinity is such an amazing thing!!)
Rational Numbers
Let Q ={m/n | m and n are natural numbers} Theorem: Q is countable What is the correspondence between N and Q?
Rational Numbers
1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 ……..
2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 2/5 2/6 2/7 2/8 ……..
3/1 3/2 3/3 3/4 3/5 3/6 3/7 3/8 ……..
4/1 4/2 4/3 4/4 4/5 4/6 4/7 4/8 ……..
.
...
.
...
.
...
.
...
.
.
Rational Numbers
1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 ……..
2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 2/5 2/6 2/7 2/8 ……..
3/1 3/2 3/3 3/4 3/5 3/6 3/7 3/8 ……..
4/1 4/2 4/3 4/4 4/5 4/6 4/7 4/8 ……..
Enumerate numbers along Northeast and Southwest diagonals, and skip duplicates
Rational Numbers
1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 ……..
2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 2/5 2/6 2/7 2/8 ……..
3/1 3/2 3/3 3/4 3/5 3/6 3/7 3/8 ……..
4/1 4/2 4/3 4/4 4/5 4/6 4/7 4/8 ……..
Does this mean that every infinite set is countable?
The Real Numbers
Theorem: R, the set of reals is uncountable
Cantor introduced the diagonalization method to prove this theorem!
The Real Numbers
Theorem: R, the set of reals is uncountable Proof: By contradiction
Assume there is a correspondence between N and R Write it down
We show now that there a number x not in the list!
n f(n)1 3.143……2 55.435….3 3456.75…4 456.655…
Diagonalization
Proof: By contradiction Pick x between 0 and 1, so non-zero digits follow decimal point First fractional digit of f(1) is 1 Pick first fractional digit of x to be different, say 2 Second fractional digit of f(2) is 4 Pick second fractional digit of x to be different, say 6 And so on ….
X=0.2487…. Thus x is not the image of any natural which is a contradiction So, R is uncountable!
n f(n)1 3.143……2 55.435….3 3456.75…4 456.655…
Important implications
Previous theorem has an important application to the theory of computation It shows that some languages are not decidable! Or even Turing machine recognizable
There are languages that are not enumerable The set of Turing machines is countable The set of languages is uncountable
Important implications
Theorem: The halting problem is undecidable Proof uses diagonalization technique (see bok those
interested)
Theorem: A language is decidable if and only if it is both Turing-recognizable and co-Turing recognizable
In other words, a language is decidable if and only if it and its compliment are Turing-recognizable (enumerable)
enumerable
A non-enumerable language
Corollory: if L is not decidable, then either L or its compliment is not enumerable
Co-enumerable
decidable
????
Conclusions
Decidable languages
Halting problem
diagonalization method
undecidable example