several schools in which his thought was held as
fundamentaltruth. Socrates influence upon modern thought is
manifestedprincipally through his disciples who came after him
establishinggreat schools of thought, particularly Plato and
Aristotle. Hisinfluence upon the Stoics was also marked, Epictetus
frequentlyreferring to him as authority.The term Socratic
Philosophy, is generally used in the broadsense of indicating the
developing Greek philosophy from thetime of Socrates to the rise of
the school of Neo-Platonism,because, with the exception of the
Epicureans, the principalphilosophical schools of that period were
in the habit of basingtheir respective and varying systems upon the
fundamentalauthority of Socrates. It is quite a difficult matter to
pin Socratesdown to any particular system or school of thought,
becausehis range of thought was so wide, and his tastes so
catholic,that he seemed to embrace all systems of philosophy within
hisgeneral field of discussion. In fact, we know Socrates
principallythrough the medium of his followers and their several
schoolsof philosophychiefly through the writings of Xenophon,
Platoand Aristotle. Socrates was rather an inspirer of
philosophicalthought than the founder of a school of philosophy.As
an authority says: It was the custom of Socrates to carryon his
investigations from propositions generally received astrue, and to
place the particular statement to be examined in avariety of
combinations, thus implying that each thought must,if true,
maintain its validity under every possible combination.This method
was employed by its author in the form ofdialogue, from which arose
the term, the Socratic Method.Allprevious philosophers had been
occupied with the universe asa whole; the chief business of
Socrates was with man as a moralbeing. Bishop Bloomfield says:
Socrates taught that the divineattributes might be inferred from
the works of creation. Hemaintained the omniscience, ubiquity, and
providence of theDeity; and from the existence of conscience in the
human breasthe inferred that man is a moral agent, the object of
reward andThe Crucible of Modern Thought56punishment; and that the
great distinction of virtue and vicewas ordained by
Deity.PlatoPlato, by many considered the greatest philosopher
ofancient Greece, lived from 429 to 348 b.c. He was the founder
ofthe famous Academic school of philosophy. His influence overthe
thought of his time was very great, and it extended longafter his
time, influencing the great Neo-Platonic school, andhaving much to
do with the formation of many conceptions inthe early Christian
Church. His influence, through the channelof Neo-Platonism, reached
Emerson and the TranscendentalMovement, hundreds of years later, as
we saw in a recentchapter, and many of his ideas are now in
evidence in theadvanced thought of the twentieth century.Lewes, in
his History of Philosophy, says of Plato: I cometo the conclusion
that he never systemized his thoughts,but allowed free play to
skepticism, taking opposite sides inevery debate, because he had no
steady conviction to guidehim, unsaying to-day what he said
yesterday, satisfied toshow the weakness of an opponent. But other
authoritiessee in this apparent shifting attitude of Plato rather a
desireto consider all sides and phases of each and every
questionunder discussion, in order to arrive at the whole truth.
Therewere certain fundamental theoretical views held and taught
byPlato which appear in his writings, and which are likened tothe
golden thread upon which the varied beads of his generalthought are
strung. These fundamental theories are as follows:(1) The existence
of Ideas; (2) the doctrine of Pre-existence andImmortality of the
Soul; and (3) the subjection of the populardivinities to the one
Supreme Being.The Platonic Doctrine of Ideas embodies the
fundamentalconception of idealism which has since played an
importantpart in the shifting conceptions of the various schools
ofphilosophical thought. Platos idealism was the first WesternThe
Fount of Ancient Greece.57presentation of the underlying principle
of that school ofthought. Idealism is the term applied in
metaphysics toany theory which holds that the universe, as a whole,
andthroughout, is the embodiment of mindthat reality is to befound
only in mind, and that the only reality in the externalworld
consists in its perceptibility. Larousse says: Idealism isthe name
given to certain systems which deny the individualexistence of
object apart from subject, or of both apart fromGod or the
Absolute. Another authority says: Idealism deniesthe existence of
bodies, holding that their appearances aremerely ideas of the
subject cognized. Subjective idealism holdsthat these ideas are
produced by the mind; while objectiveidealism holds that they exist
only in God or the Absolute.Zeno, or Elea, in classic times,
anticipated modern idealism. Histeachings were subject to many
changes, finally appearing inthe refined conception of Plato, which
in turn was modified bymodern schools of idealistic thought.Plato
held that reality inhered in the general idea of a thing,and not in
the individual; that there was no reality in theindividual, tree,
stone or man, but that reality was to be foundin the general idea
of tree, stone or man, which existed on theideal plane alone. The
essence or ideal form of things was heldto be the only real thing;
the objects of phenomenal appearancebeing merely fleeting,
perishable copies of the real form oridea, the latter existing and
being in a state of changeless unityeternally. These real ideas,
forms or essences, existed on a planeof their own, and could be
described only by metaphors. PlatosIdeal World was a realm of pure
mind possessing substanceand power. Reality could not be discovered
by the ordinarymental process, but The soul discovers the universal
of thingsby herself. The true home of the soul was in the world of
theuniversalsof the changeless ideasseparate and apart
fromsensations and individual mind.Plato held that the world of
phenomena lacked reality, as allreality is vested in the Noumenon,
which is reality itselftheThe Crucible of Modern Thought58Noumenon
is the cause and mover of all things, ever behind theveil of the
senses and mortal mind. This Noumenon is that whichall philosophies
that acknowledge an Absolute are compelledto postulate as being. It
was to be known only through purethought, or intuition, rather than
by the ordinary intellectualfaculties. It had as its essence the
Nous, an immaterial principleof pure mind, the reason and cause of
the universe. The Nous isalso considered as the Supreme Good, the
source of all end andaims, and the supreme principle of all the
ideas. The Nous washeld to be transcendent, moving the world only
as a rationalimmanent causer. It was Being, itselfthe
Absolute.Plato also held that all true knowledge arises from
therecollection or reminiscences of the soul, which has
livedbefore, and has dwelt awhile on the transcendental plane ofthe
ideas. The soul has perceived these ideas on that plane,and
remembers them faintly in its subsequent earth life. AsWordsworth
said: Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting.True knowledge and
wisdom, Plato held, are but more or lessdim recollections of the
previously known Ideas, awakened bythe associations, suggestions
and experiences of earth lifebythe imperfect copies of the Idea
seen therein. He held that someIdeas, firmly implanted in the soul
in the form of transcendentmemories, can not be fully perceived in
earth life, put alwaysremain as idealistic dreams, toward the
realization of whichthe soul intuitively yearns. Among these
unexpressed ideaswere the Good, the Beautiful, and the True, all of
which areincapable of expression, but which are recognized by the
soulas real, and which awaken ecstatic thrills when
contemplated.The earth-bound souls experience the ecstasy of
transcendentalmemoriesthe recollection of the beatific visions of
the pastworld of Ideas. The plane or world of ideas represent
absolutewisdom, absolute being, absolute bliss.Plato did not
attempt to define his conception ofTranscendent Beingwisdomblisshis
absolute Nous.Like Spinoza, centuries afterward, he felt that to
define GodThe Fount of Ancient Greece.59is to deny Him, and he
confined himself to metaphors andabstract terms. He regarded the
phenomenal universe as butan appearance, mode, aspect, limitation,
or aspect, of the OneAbsolute Being which was above human thought
or mortalmind; and this universe, being what it was, had no
separate orreal existence apart from that One Being. An authority
speaksof Platos conception of the Nous, or One Absolute Being,
fromwhom emanated as radiations all the phenomenal universe,which
was made apparent only through the medium of anelement of negation,
or non-being, which men called matter.AristotleAristotle (384322
b.c.) is generally thought of as opposingPlatos philosophy, because
of his substitution of his ownterms, and because of his difference
of interpretation ofcertain doctrines. While he did not agree with
Plato uponsome points, yet the two channels of Socratic thought
wereclosely allied. Aristotle was a man of marvelous intellect,
andhe exerted a tremendous influence upon both ancient andmodern
philosophical and scientific thought. He joined Platosschool, and
dwelt in Athens for twenty years. He was the tutorof Alexander the
Great; a distinguished scholar; a great teacher.As an authority
says: Aristotle was the author of treatises onnearly every subject
of human thought, and the founder of thePeripatetic philosophy, his
writings on that theme and on Logicbeing venerated during the
Middle Ages as no other book wasbut the Bible. Through Aristotle,
Platos fundamental thoughtconcerning the Nous strongly influenced
the Stoic schools, andfrom them descended through various channels
to the presentday.Plato reaches the present day through various
channels,many of which are now meeting for the first time since
theiroriginal separation. The twentieth century crucible of
thoughthas many ingredients coming direct from Platos brain,
thoughreaching the melting pot from several sources apparentlyThe
Crucible of Modern Thought60opposed to each other. His pantheism
comes to us throughone channel; his idealism through another. And
lo! meeting inthe Western world, in the twentieth century, they
assert theiroriginal unity by flying toward each other, in complete
harmonyand unity, just as two separated atoms of an element seek
eachothers embrace. It is common among students of idealism
andtranscendentalism, when considering the origin of a
leadingthought, to close the discussion by saying: You will find it
allsaid by Plato; or Plato includes all original thought on
thesubject. Such is the influence of Plato on modern thought.61
