Cross-National Coverage of GMOs Final copy

Comparing Coverage of Genetically Modified Organisms:

A Cross-national Community Structure Approach

Krysti Peitz

Elizabeth Watson

John C. Pollock

Cara Esposito

Phil Nichilo

James Etheridge

Department of Communication Studies

Undergraduate

The College of New Jersey

2000 Pennington Road, Ewing, New Jersey 08618

Key words: genetically modified organisms, cross-national coverage, newspapers, Media Vector,

vulnerability

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Abstract

Using a community structure approach to compare cross-national coverage of genetically modified organisms with variations in national-level demographics, all relevant articles of 250+ words were collected from an approximately ten-year period – January 1, 2004 through November 1, 2014 – in nineteen newspapers worldwide, one per nation, including leading or database accessible papers in Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, China, Egypt, Germany, India, Japan, Kenya, Malaysia, Namibia, Nigeria, Pakistan, South Africa, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States, and Uganda.

The resulting 274 articles were coded for editorial “prominence” and “direction” (“favorable,” “unfavorable,” or “balanced/neutral”) and then combined to yield a composite “Media Vector” score for each newspaper ranging from .7382 to -.3994 (range = 1.1376). A majority of eleven of 19 (58%) of Media Vectors reflected unfavorable coverage of genetically modified organisms, with the minority (eight of 19, or 42%) registering favorable coverage.

Hypotheses were clustered in three major umbrella categories:

Violated Buffer Hypothesis. The “buffer hypothesis” expects that the greater the proportion of privileged residents in a country, the more likely major media will report favorably on several human rights claims (Pollock, 2007, p. 52). By contrast, the “violated buffer hypothesis” suggests that “issues viewed as imperiling either privileged groups or a relatively stable, secure way of life will be regarded as threatening by privileged sectors and will be associated with relatively ‘resistant, unfavorable reporting” (Pollock, 2007, p. 53). Privilege as mentioned in this context can be measured cross-nationally through various indicators, including gross domestic product (GDP), literacy rate, life expectancy, and healthcare access. It can be assumed that among populations of more privileged countries, GMO usage in foods will be seen as a threat to “a cherished way of life”, consistent with the violated buffer hypothesis.

Vulnerability Hypothesis. The vulnerability hypothesis proposes that, contrary to assumptions that media often reinforce the interests of political and economic elites (the “guard dog” hypothesis), newspapers can reflect the interests of vulnerable populations including the poor, the unemployed (Pollock, 2007, p. 137), the undernourished, and areas with high fertility rates, high population proportions under 14, limited access to uncontaminated water, and high levels of agricultural dependency. It can be assumed that countries with high vulnerability characteristics will manifest more favorable media coverage towards GMO usage in foods, as genetically modified foods contain fundamental vitamins and minerals at more affordable prices and year round availability. These benefits of GMOs are valuable in countries that have difficulty producing or obtaining enough food to feed their populations.

Stakeholder Hypothesis. The higher the percentage of issue stakeholders in a community, the more likely newspaper coverage will report favorably on their interests (Pollock, 2007, p. 172). For example, an examination of sub-Saharan Anglophone African newspaper coverage of AIDS found that the higher the prevalence of AIDs victims within a nation paralleled greater media support for government intervention to fight the crisis (Pollock, D’Angelo, et al., 2010).

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Regarding GMO stakeholders, indicators of female empowerment, energy production/consumption and infrastructure, and media access and penetration were tested.

Pearson correlations revealed the strength of four significant indicators, all associated with favorable coverage of GMOs, all linked to measures of national “vulnerability”: “poverty level,” (r = .492, p = .019) “percentage of population without access to improved water sources,” (r = .466, p = .022) “percent of agricultural land,” (r = .441, p = .029) and “fertility rate,” (r = .404, p = .043). All four indicators are linked to favorable coverage of GMOs. A regression analysis revealed the strong impact of a nation’s poverty level on the coverage of genetically modified foods (24.2% of variance). A nation’s percentage of agricultural land followed, accounting for 4.7% of the variance, also connected to a favorable coverage by newspapers, collectively accounting for 28.9% of the variance. Findings demonstrated that vulnerability indicators are prominent demographics associated with favorable media coverage of GMOs. The significance of vulnerability indicators is consistent with previous research on multi-city US coverage of GMOs by Pollock, Maltese-Nehrbass, Corbin and Fascanella (2010). Contrary to conventional assumptions that media typically act as “guard dogs” reinforcing the interests of political and economic elites, systematic research on national demographics linked to cross-national variations in GMO coverage reveals that media can “mirror” the interests of a society’s most “vulnerable” inhabitants.

References Pollock, J.C., (2007). Titled Mirrors: Media alignment with political and social change- A

community structure approach. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Pollock, J.C., D’Angelo, P., Kiernicki, K., Burd, A., & Raudenbush, J. (2010, June). African newspaper coverage of AIDS: Comparing new models of press-state relations and structural factors in sub-Saharan Anglophone Africa. Paper presented at the annual conference of the International Communication Association, Singapore.

Pollock, J.C., Maltese-Nehrbass, M., Corbin, P., & Fascanella, P.B. (2010, octubre). Nationwide

newspaper coverage of genetically-modified food in the United States: A community structure approach. Ecos de la Comunicación, 3(3), 51-75.

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Introduction

With the world population increasing exponentially every year, an equally growing

concern has emerged regarding the ability to produce a sustainable food supply. Consequentially,

scientists have developed genetically modified organisms (GMOs), or crops engineered to

contain superior characteristics in an effort to improve yield. The agricultural world initially

embraced the new seeds, which were designed with resistance to insects, disease, cold, and even

droughts. By 1999, over 100 million acres worldwide were planted with genetically engineered

seeds, and biotechnological companies such as Monsanto have expanded into worldwide

monopolies (Woosley, 2012).

Yet, not all are in agreement regarding the benefits of GMOs, as many have speculated

about the health-risks involved. A study in 2011 found that toxins implanted in GM food crops

were found in the bloodstreams of pregnant women, as well as in 93% of the women’s fetuses

(Poulter, 2011). Still, there is limited evidence of long-term health implications of GMO foods.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO) noted,

“very little is known about the potential long-term effects of any foods, and identification of such

effects may be very difficult, if not impossible” (Kuiper, Kleter, Noteborn & Kok, 2001, p. 505).

Though some gray area remains regarding the effects of GMOs, a stark contrast is

apparent in ways journalists have “framed” this global debate using newspaper media. The first

frame favors the production of GMOs as part of the effort to end world hunger by producing

larger quantities of food, which can be modified to contain vital nutrients to promote health.

These crops can also be grown and maintained with easier farming practices, rendering planting

and growing such organisms and foods in developing countries more practical. The contrary

side of this debate is a frame arguing that the production of genetically modified foods is

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unacceptable as major health risks may be involved in the consumption of the chemicals found

within these foods. Not only do GMOs pose a potential health threat to those who consume

them, they are extremely expensive to produce. Nearly 15 billion dollars are put into the

production of GMO crops each year (Turow, 2014).

As this debate has risen to the forefront of international controversy, newspapers continue

to play a vital role in the coverage of GMOs for multiple reasons. Primarily, newspapers are

read by the well educated and by political and economic leaders who seek insight and

information on current global events. These papers are also known to be inter-media agenda

setters for other media channels such as television, radio, and the Internet. In addition,

newspapers serve as community forums to facilitate discussion on critical issues on a regional,

nationwide, and global scale.

Typically, scholars have theorized that media are a vehicle for shaping public opinion

based on the perspective in which the news content is portrayed. Conversely, this study analyses

how society affects media coverage through use of the community structure approach, in which

variations in media prominence and framing reflect different cross-national demographics and

characteristics (Pollock, 2007). The community structure model was initiated in 1922 by Robert

Park, who urged scholars to study a “reverse” perspective of society’s own influence on media.

This approach prompted Tichener, Donohue and Olien (1973, 1980) to expand upon Park’s

previous findings through “structured pluralism,” a research viewpoint finding that newspapers

in large, culturally diverse metropolitan areas are more receptive to radical ideas for development

compared to papers in smaller, homogeneous communities. These communication theorists later

developed the guard dog hypothesis, in which local media often function less as watchdogs and

more as guard dogs protecting the interest of elites (Olien, Donohue & Tichenor, 1995).

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However, Hindman (1999) continued to build upon the ongoing relationship between

mass media variations and structural characteristics through his research, which found that larger

proportions of ethnic groups in a community were linked to coverage favoring their interests.

Furthermore, McLeod and Hertog (1999) found that the size of protest groups was directly

proportional to favorable coverage of their concerns. Demers and Viswanath (1999) enhanced

these previous findings by exploring the role of the media as agent of both social control and

social change. The current accessibility of information through use of Internet databases has

further solidified the foundation of the community structure model by expanding the scope of

research, and consequentially providing the gateway to study systematic news reports of critical

events in communities across the nation (Pollock and colleagues, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1994-2002,

2005, 2007, 2008).

Recognizing newspapers’ prominence in discussing critical cross-national issues, Pollock

et. al. utilized this powerful communication channel in the first nationwide studies across various

cities. These studies not only included article content, but also incorporated editorial evaluation

of article prominence within their respective publications by combining both into a cohesive,

single score. The conclusions sometimes challenge the “guard dog” hypothesis by reflecting the

interests of marginal and vulnerable stakeholders (Pollock, 2007, p. 24). Through use of the

community structure approach, this study will examine cross-national media framing of the

usage of GMOs in newspaper coverage. This theory will be used to address two main research

questions to investigate connections between international characteristics and newspaper

coverage of GMO usage.

RQ1: How much variation exists in cross-national coverage of GMO usage?

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RQ2: How closely linked is that coverage variation to differences in national

characteristics?

Various community characteristics, such as wealth and infant mortality, can affect the

media coverage of GMO usage. For example, it is expected that in countries with a higher GDP,

coverage of GMO usage will be more unfavorable. This prediction can be made, as wealthy

countries will be more concerned with the health risks associated with the foods they eat than is

the case in developing countries. Wealthier countries are also more likely to contain more well

educated populations and to have a better understanding of GMOs and its potential

risks. Conversely, the higher the infant mortality rate in a country, the more favorable the

expected coverage of GMOs. The populations of developing countries do not have access to a

reliable food supply, resulting in less concern with the chemicals that may be in the food.

Newspaper coverage of GMO usage may be linked to other cross-national demographic

characteristics as well. This study will analyze the relationship between cross-national

demographic characteristics and GMO coverage in newspapers.

Literature Review

GMO usage has become a prevalent debate topic over the past two decades and is a

growing topic of interest in many fields of study. While media coverage of GMO usage would

appear relevant for communication studies research, the field has essentially neglected to

investigate this topic. Conversely, many other fields, including political science, biology,

business, and physical sciences have examined the controversy of GMOs and have given it

considerable attention. This study is intended to fill the gap in the communication field with an

understanding of the GMO controversy and its coverage throughout various countries.

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Searches of multiple terms in the Communication and Mass Media Complete database

included “genetically modified organism AND media coverage” and “genetically modified

organism AND newspapers”. “Genetically modified organism AND media coverage” yielded

122 hits through EBSCO, however, very little relevant information was found. Most of the

articles found focused more on the labeling and potential health risk of GMO foods rather than

on media coverage of GMO usage.

One relevant article was found using the search term “genetically modified organism

AND media coverage”, which was “Words of Mass Destruction: British Newspaper Coverage of

the Genetically Modified Food Debate, Expert and Non-expert Reactions.” This article reported

the results of a study conducted in 2003 regarding press coverage of the GMO debate in Great

Britain, as well as expert and non-expert reaction to these findings (Cook, Robbins & Pieri,

2006). While this study was specifically relevant to the current study, it was one of only two

articles on this subject in the communication field. “Nationwide Newspaper Coverage of

Genetically Modified Foods: A Community Structure Approach” was the second relevant article

found under this search term. Researchers in this study examined the US national coverage of

GMO usage in 20 major U.S. newspapers by using a “community structure approach,” finding

that higher levels of poverty and unemployment corresponded with more favorable coverage of

GMOs (Pollock, Maltese-Nehrbass, Corbin, & Fascanella, 2010).

Unlike the paucity of coverage of communication studies, the field of political science

showed advances in the debate of GMO usage cross-nationally. Research completed within the

PAIS International database yielded 185+ hits of the issue, a significantly higher number than

that of communication databases averaging 20 hits. The focal point of these political science

articles for GMO coverage centered on the legitimization of governance and the effect on policy

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of international organizations for GMOs. “Labeling of Genetically Modified Products: Strategic

Trade Policy Considerations for Canada” discussed in detail World Trade Organization rules

relevant to labeling (Chaitoo & Hart, 2000). In addition, “Policing Purity: Testing, Traceability,

and the Governance of Genetically Modified Organisms” studied a multitude of points for debate

putting emphasis on the need for a new authority to handle the distinctions between non-GMO

and GMO products through labeling while ensuring the stability of cross-national agriculture

production (Lezuan, 2004). Evidently, media coverage of GMO conflicts was staggeringly

higher within the area of political science than in communication studies.

Like political science, the field of biology yielded far more articles than communication

studies. The biology database EBSCO Biological & Agricultural Index Plus (H. W. Wilson)

yielded 440 results using the search term “GMO OR genetically modified organism.” Strikingly,

many of the articles for GMO coverage in the biology and agricultural field focused on ethical

issues associated with the production of GMOs. “Legal and Ethical Apprehensions Regarding

Relational Object: The Case of Genetically Modified Fish” outlined legal and ethical

considerations, specifically environmental ethics, prompted by the production of genetically

modified fish (Coutellec & Doussan, 2012). Additionally, “Genetically Modified Organisms: An

Indian Ethical Dilemma” discussed actions taken against the production of GMOs in India and

societies that condone such measures. The article emphasized the ethical argument against

production of GMOs (Kaur, Kohli, & Jaswal, 2012).

Even more than the disciplines of political science and biology, the field of business has

done more than communication studies to investigate the prevalence of GMOs in the worldwide

economy. Using the search engine Business Source Premier and the search term “GMO,” 1,477

results were yielded regarding genetically modified foods. The article “GMO Products Lower

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Prices, Raise Yields and Concerns” (GMO products lower prices…, 2014) explored the balance

of producing an affordable product that did not contain genetically modified crops. Though

many consumers prefer safe, quality foods that are GMO-free, the biotechnology responsible for

these foods has helped keep the prices of staple crops from 15% to 30% lower. Additionally, an

article by Gasparro (2014) discussed challenges corporations face when working to

accommodate customers in removing GM crops from food chains. Companies such as Ben &

Jerry’s, Cheerios, and Chipotle Mexican Grill have been gravitating towards the fast-growing

“Non-GMO” labeling trend to appease their customers. Though 64 countries have already

adopted GMO labeling, the transition is especially difficult for these corporations because

biotech companies are deeply ingrained in the American food chain (Gasparro, 2014). This

collection of research confirms that the fate of GMO foods has large implications for business

profitability.

Perhaps the research field yielding the most information is that of the physical

sciences. Using the Science Direct database, the search term “genetically modified organisms”

yielded over 20,000 results. To narrow this search the term “global” was added and the search

results decreased to just over 9,000. This yield strongly surpassed any research done in the

communication field pertaining to GMOs. Much of the information from these results focused

on production of these organisms as well as their regulation and distribution. “Detecting Un-

Authorized Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and Derived Materials” discussed different

actions jurisdictions take regarding GMOs. The European Union, specifically, has a legal

distinction between authorized (legal) and unauthorized (non-legal) GMOs (Holst-Jensen, et. al.,

2012). Similarly, “International Trade in Genetically Modified Product” examined the sales of

two types of organisms, traditional organisms and those genetically modified. The article found

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that import bans would benefit only those landowners growing GMO-free products (Choi,

2010). Coverage by scientific journals on genetically modified organisms was much stronger

than in communication studies.

It is evident that the communication studies field, unlike political science, biology,

business, and physical science, has not devoted significant scholarly attention to genetically

modified foods, particularly its media coverage. As a result, this study attempts to help bridge

this gap in the communication studies literature.

Hypotheses

A review of a variety of literature and previous findings in the community structure

approach yielded several hypotheses. These hypotheses were assembled into three umbrella

categories: violated buffer, vulnerability, and stakeholder.

Violated Buffer Hypothesis

Privilege. The buffer hypothesis indicates that with a greater proportion of privileged city

residents, it becomes more likely that a city’s major newspaper will report favorably on several

human rights claims (Pollock, 2007, p. 52). By contrast, the violated buffer hypothesis suggests

that “issues viewed as imperiling either privileged groups or a relatively stable, secure way of

life will be regarded as threatening by privileged sectors and will be associated with relatively

‘resistant, unfavorable reporting” (Pollock, 2007, p. 53). Privilege as mentioned in this context

can be measured cross-nationally through various indicators, including but not limited to gross

domestic product (GDP), literacy rate, and life expectancy. It can be assumed that GMO usage in

foods will be seen as a threat to “a cherished way of life” among populations of more privileged

countries, therefore complying with the violated buffer hypothesis.

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Previous community structure studies have confirmed the validity of the violated buffer

hypothesis. For example, Pollock, O’Grady, Hiller, Pannia, and Lutkenhouse found in a 2004

study that the violated buffer hypothesis was confirmed in relation to newspaper coverage of the

usage of GMOs in foods. Pearson correlations and regression analysis found that the “greater the

proportion of privileged groups ‘buffered’ from economic uncertainty, the less favorable the

coverage of GM foods (Pollock, O’Grady, Hiller, Pannia, & Lutkenhouse, 2004). In further

support, Pollock (2007) validated the significance of the violated buffer hypothesis, finding that

the higher the level of privilege in a city, the more unfavorable the newspaper coverage of

drilling in the arctic national wildlife refuge (p. 184-194).

Additionally, Pollock and Kohn found in a 2014 study that a country’s GDP per capita

attributed to a variance in media coverage of child labor, finding that the higher a country’s GDP

per capita, the less media emphasis on government responsibility in regards to eliminating child

labor. Also, a study discovered that the higher a nation’s literacy rate, the more newspaper

favored societal responsibility in regards to water handling (Wissel et. al., 2014). In accordance

with these previous findings, is likely that the coverage of GMO usage will align with the

violated buffer hypothesis, as privileged and well-educated individuals will be less trusting and

more concerned with the long term health effects of GMO consumption. Therefore, the

following hypotheses apply to coverage of GMO usage in foods:

H1: The higher a nation’s GDP, the less favorable the coverage of genetically modified foods

(Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2011).

H2: The higher a nation’s GDP per capita, the less favorable the coverage of genetically

modified foods (CIA, 2011).

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H3: The higher the literacy rate in a country, the less favorable the coverage of genetically


H4: The higher a nation’s male life expectancy at birth, the less favorable the coverage of

genetically modified foods (CIA, 2011).

H5: The higher a nation’s female life expectancy at birth, the less favorable the coverage of


Healthcare access. Healthcare access can be measured by calculating the number of

hospital beds per 10,000 citizens and the number of physicians per 100,000 citizens. Individuals

living in communities with greater health care access will likely be more supportive of the use of

GMOs in food production as it does have health benefits, specifically by eliminating the need for

pesticides. A past study utilizing the community structure approach confirmed that health care

access had a definitive correlation with the coverage of GMO usage in newspapers, concluding

that the greater the amount of healthcare access in a city, the more favorable the coverage toward

GMO usage (Pollock, Maltese-Nehrbass, Corbin & Fascanella, 2010). As a result, it is

reasonable to assume that coverage of GM foods will be more favorable in countries with higher

health care access.

H6: The larger the number of physicians per 100,000, the more favorable the coverage of

genetically modified foods (United Nations Development Programme, 2011).

H7: The larger the number of hospital beds per 10,000, the more favorable the coverage of

genetically modified foods (United Nations Development Programme, 2011).

The Vulnerability Hypothesis

Though newspapers have the tendency to echo the opinions of privileged groups, the

vulnerability hypothesis foresees “media coverage that might reflect the interests of a wide range

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of groups and concerns, including the least economically advantaged” (Pollock, 2007, p.

54). The vulnerability hypothesis proposes that newspapers reflect the interests of vulnerable

populations including the poor, the unemployed, those that live in high-crime areas, and minority

communities (Pollock, 2007, p. 137). It can be assumed that countries with high vulnerability

characteristics will be more accepting and will have more favorable media coverage towards

GMO usage in foods, as genetically modified foods contain fundamental vitamins and minerals

at a more affordable price with the added benefit of year round availability. These benefits of

GMOs provide a large benefit to countries that have a difficult time producing or obtaining

enough food to feed the country’s population.

Countries with a higher poverty level and unemployment rate may seek food that is

affordable and easily accessible. Research conducted after the Roe v. Wade decision confirms

the expectation of wide-ranging media coverage. The Roe v. Wade decision found that coverage

favored legalization of abortion in cities with higher poverty levels (Pollock & Robinson, 1977;

Pollock, Robinson, & Murray, 1978). Likewise, a study on the national coverage of the Patients’

Bill of Rights found higher poverty levels corresponding to more favorable coverage (Pollock,

2007, p. 146–156). An additional study found higher unemployment levels associated with more

favorable media support for genetically modified food (Pollock, Maltese-Nehrbass, Corbin, &

Fascanella, 2010).

Nations with larger populations and higher fertility rates require a greater production of

food. GMOs allow nations to meet these needs by providing an abundance of food, both

affordable and accessible all year. A study by Mayer (2007) examined deficiency-related

diseases and mortality in children. These deficiencies lead to malnutrition, poverty, and

economic dependency (Mayer, 2007). “Golden rice” was synthetically made to address these

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problems. This type of rice is modified to contain a higher amount of vitamin A to help combat

the vitamin A deficiency in developing countries. An additional study regarding child labor

found that the higher the percentage of a nation’s population younger than 14, the greater the

media emphasis on government responsibility to reduce child labor (Kohn & Pollock,

2014). Therefore, the following can be expected:

H8: The higher a nation’s poverty level, the more favorable the coverage of genetically

modified foods (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).

H9: The higher the unemployment level in a country, the more favorable the coverage of

genetically modified foods (County and City Extra, 2004).

H10: The greater the percentage of undernourished, the more favorable the coverage of

genetically modified foods (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).

H11: The higher a nation’s fertility rate, the more favorable the coverage of genetically

modified foods (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).

H12: The higher the percentage of a nation’s population younger than 14, the more favorable

the coverage of genetically modified foods (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).

H13: The higher a nation’s happiness score, the less favorable the coverage of genetically


Access to health resources. Areas throughout the world lack access to clean and healthy

resources, particularly water, which is essential in living a healthy life. It has been found that

with higher percentages of lower income groups, there is greater media support for the

production of genetically modified organisms (Pollock et. al., 2010). An additional study found

that the percent of a country’s population that is satisfied with the water services attributed to a

variance in media coverage regarding responsibility for child labor, validating the significance of

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these variables (Kohn & Pollock, 2014). Because there is a strong correlation between the

income of groups and the access to clean resources, the following can be hypothesized:

H14: The greater percentage of a nation’s population without access to improved water

services, the more favorable the coverage of genetically modified foods (CIA, 2011).

H15: The higher the percentage satisfied with water services, the less favorable the coverage

of genetically modified foods (CIA, 2011).

Agricultural dependence. Agricultural dependence refers to the amount of a country’s

land and other resources that are used for agricultural purposes. It can be assumed that the more a

country focuses on agriculture, the less developed and industrialized the country will be, leading

to increased vulnerability. By contrast, it can also be assumed that the countries that depend

heavily on agriculture will view agricultural advancements, such as GMOs, positively.

Therefore, the following apply:

H16: The higher a nation’s percentage of agricultural land, the more favorable the media

coverage of genetically modified foods (World Bank, 2011).

H17: The greater the value added to a nation’s GDP from agriculture, the more favorable the

media coverage of genetically modified foods (World Bank, 2011).

H18: The greater the crop production index score in a nation, the more favorable the media


H19: The greater the food production index in a nation, the more favorable the media coverage

of genetically modified foods (World Bank, 2011).

H20: The higher a nation’s percentage of permanent cropland, the more favorable the media


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H21: The higher a nation’s percentage of rural population, the more favorable the media


H22: The higher a nation’s percentage of total deforestation, the more favorable the media

coverage of genetically modified foods (Mongabay, 2013).

H23: The greater the deforestation due to insect disturbances in a nation, the more favorable

the media coverage of genetically modified foods (Mongabay, 2013).

Stakeholder Hypothesis

A great number of stakeholders can be linked to favorable content regarding issues of

their concern within media. Previous research tells us that the higher the percentage of these

stakeholders in a community, the more likely newspaper coverage will report favorably on their

interests (McLeod & Hertog, 1999; Pollock, 2007, p. 172). For example, an examination of sub-

Saharan Anglophone African newspaper coverage of AIDS found that the higher the level of

AIDs victims within a nation paralleled a greater media support for government intervention to

fight the crisis (Pollock, D’Angelo, et. al., 2010).

Female empowerment. As women’s rights have become a larger point of focus on the

global scale, populations with higher levels of gender equality have become more outspoken and

involved in controversial issues. In this respect, research by Wissel et. al. (2014) noted that

women are critical stakeholders in the success of water sanitation improvements; when a nation’s

female population was empowered, media coverage demonstrated less emphasis on government

responsibility for water handling. In addition, another cross-national study found that the higher

the percent of females in the workforce, the media emphasis on government responsibility for the

fight against HIV/AIDS (Etheridge, et. al., 2014). These studies validate the importance of

female empowerment variables, and it can be assumed that these will prove significant in the

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case of GMO coverage as well. When discussing the significance of media coverage regarding

GMOs in a country, the following are offered:

H24: The higher a nation’s female literacy rate, the less favorable the coverage of genetically


H25: The greater the female school life expectancy, the less favorable the coverage of


H26: The higher a nation’s percentage of women in the workforce, the less favorable the

coverage of genetically modified foods (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).

H27: The higher a nation’s percentage of females who are satisfied with their freedom of

choice, the less favorable the coverage of genetically modified foods (United Nations

Development Programme, 2008).

Energy production/consumption and infrastructure. The amount of energy that countries

expend tends to be highly correlated with their status as a world power. In such studies English,

O’Conner, Smith, and Pollock (2012) found that the higher the rate of coal production in a

country, the greater the cross-national newspaper support for intervention in Libya. Furthermore

in a case study on climate change Pollock, Reda et. al. (2010), concluded that the greater oil

production, natural gas production, and natural gas consumption in a nation, the greater the

media support for government responsibility to address climate change. Additionally, Wright et.

al. (2008), in a cross-national study, established that the greater terawatt hours of electricity

production in a country, the less favorable the coverage of Muslim immigration. Lastly, Kohn

and Pollock found in their 2014 study a correlation between a country’s industrial growth rate

and the variance of media coverage regarding child labor. With the aforementioned findings, the

following assumptions are sensible:

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H28: The higher a nation’s natural gas consumption, the less favorable the coverage of


H29: The higher a nation’s natural gas production, the less favorable the coverage of


H30: The higher a nation’s electricity consumption, the less favorable the coverage of


H31: The higher a nation’s electricity production, the less favorable the coverage of


H32: The higher a nation’s coal consumption, the less favorable the coverage of genetically


H33: The higher a nation’s coal production, the less favorable the coverage of genetically


H34: The higher a nation’s oil consumption, the less favorable the coverage of genetically


H35: The higher a nation’s oil production, the less favorable the coverage of genetically


H36: The higher the total length of a nation’s road network, the less favorable the coverage of


H37: The higher a nation’s industrial production growth rate, the less favorable the coverage

of genetically modified foods (CIA, 2011).

H38: The higher a nation’s biofuel consumption, the less favorable the coverage of genetically

modified foods (U.S. Energy Information Association, 2012).

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Media access and penetration. Media access is also a prominent stakeholder when

discussing core societal issues. Research by Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien (1980) confirmed that

cities and towns with larger populations, and therefore a larger variety of social groups, tend to

have a greater range of interests and perspective than small communities, which have less

demographic diversity. Furthermore, Kohn and Pollock (2014) found that the greater the number

of broadband subscriptions per 100 citizens in a nation, the greater the media emphasis on

government responsibility to reduce child labor. Wissel (2014) additionally found that the more

freedom of the press and the higher percentage of population covered by a mobile phone

network, the more media emphasis on government responsibility for clean water access. These

correlations between media access and the variance in media coverage of these topics should

have a similar correlation in regards to GMO coverage in media. Accordingly, the following are

hypothesized:

H39: The higher the Freedom of the Press Report score, the less favorable the coverage of

genetically modified foods (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development,

2011).

H40: The higher the number of daily newspapers per 1,000 citizens, the less favorable the

coverage of genetically modified foods (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and

Development, 2011).

H41: The higher the percent of population covered by a mobile phone network, the less

favorable the coverage of genetically modified foods (Organisation for Economic

Cooperation and Development, 2011).

21

H42: The higher the number of broadband subscriptions per 100 citizens in a nation, the less

favorable the coverage of genetically modified foods (Organisation for Economic

Cooperation and Development, 2011).

Stock of foreign investment at home. Stock of direct foreign investment at home is the

monetary contributions of all ventures in the home country, made by nonresidents. This is

especially relevant to countries that depend on foreign aid for resources, especially through

companies in other countries. Previous research has validated foreign investment’s influence on

media coverage, finding that the greater a nation’s stock of direct foreign investment at home,

the more coverage emphasized government responsibility to end human trafficking (Alexandre

et. al., 2014). Therefore, the following can be hypothesized:

H43: The greater a nation’s stock of direct investment at home, the more favorable the

coverage of genetically modified foods (CIA, 2011).

Methodology

To investigate the topic of GMO coverage, a cross-national sample of 19 major

newspapers was selected from the NewsBank and All Africa databases, including all topic-

relevant articles with 250 words or more in the same established time frame, yielding a total of

274 articles. The compilation of publications included articles from the following: China Daily,

Daily Nation, Daily News Egypt, Die Welt, El Mercurio, The Japan Times, La Nación, The

Namibian, The Nation (Pakistan), The Nation (Thailand), New Strait Times, New Vision, The

New York Times, The Star, The Sydney Morning Herald, This Day, The Times (UK), The Times

of India, and The Toronto Star.

The sample period ranged from January 1st, 2004 to November 1st, 2014, a period of

almost 11 years. In 2004 the Food and Drug Administration issued press releases dealing with

22

food safety evaluation and information regarding genetically engineered foods, which raised

public awareness about the potential risks of GMOs, including unexpected allergies and

unknown long-term health effects. The sample end date of November 1st, 2014 is significant for

GMOs as Monsanto’s patent on its Roundup Ready products, some of the most significant GMO

products in the market including soy and animal feed, will expire late within the year 2014. This

patent’s expiration will increase genetically modified soybean seeds exposure in the

market: “Because farmers and seed companies would no longer have to pay royalties to

Monsanto on the gene after 2014, Roundup Ready soybeans would become agricultural

biotechnology’s equivalent of a generic drug” (Pollack, A., 2009, p. B3).

Article Prominence

Articles were assessed by two scores. The first determined “prominence,” portraying editors’

judgments on the importance of each article. A score ranging from 3 to 16 was assigned based

on four factors: placement (front page, first section, etc.), headline size (number of words),

article length (number of words), and any accompanying photographs and/or graphics. Articles

that received a higher number of points were thought to obtain a higher attention score. The

prominence score is detailed below in Table 1.

Table 1. Prominence Score for Coding Database

Dimension 4 3 2 1

Placement Front page of first section

Front page of inside section

Inside of first section

Other

Headline Size (# of words)

10+ 8-9 6-7 5 or fewer

Article Length (# of words)

1000+ 750-999 500-749 250-499

Photos/Graphics 2 or more 1

*Prominence table copyright John C. Pollock (2000–2014)

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Article Direction

Upon receiving a prominence score, an article was assigned a “direction” category based

on the content of the frames it used. “Direction” indicated whether an article was primarily

“favorable” towards GMOs, “unfavorable” towards GMOs, or “balanced/neutral.” The articles

were coded for these directions based on the following criteria:

Favorable coverage. Articles that portrayed the use of GMOs as beneficial to their

respective country were coded as “favorable.” Coverage that was “favorable” included articles

suggesting that GMO usage helped increase agricultural yield in countries struggling to meet the

food demands of growing populations. An article in Argentina’s La Nación stated that The Food

and Agriculture Organization (FAO) announced the National Advisory Commission on

Agricultural Biotechnology as “Reference Center” for the Biosafety of GMOs, creating a space

for Argentina "to strengthen [the] actions and international cooperation in biotechnology, a key

sector in the fight against food insecurity” (“Reconoció la FAO el trabajo de la biotecnología en

la Argentina,” 2014, para. 1). An additional article from China Daily stated that Huang Dafang,

a member of the Biosafety Committee at the Ministry of Agriculture, said that they would turn to

genetically modified organism technology to ensure grain security for the increasing population

(“GM rice set for shelves,” 2010, para. 2).

Unfavorable coverage. Articles that portrayed the usage of GMOs as detrimental to the

well being of their country were coded as “unfavorable.” Coverage that was “unfavorable”

included articles that suggested that consumption of GM foods could result in unknown long-

term health effects including allergies, toxins, antibiotic resistant diseases, and nutritional

problems (Smith, 2004). An article in Daily News Egypt by Luiz Sanchez stated that Egyptians

took part in a global protest against Monsanto, raising awareness about Monsanto and the

24

concerns associated with the potential side effects GM crops have on humans (2013, para.

2). Additionally, a consumer backlash against genetically modified food has prompted the three

largest Australian poultry companies, which produced 80% of the chicken sold in the country, to

stop using genetically modified feed as stated in an article by Kirsty Needham in The Sydney

Morning Herald (2005, para. 1).

Balanced/neutral. Articles perceived to be unbiased towards GMO usage, or covered

both sides of this issue in approximately equal measure, were classified as

“balanced/neutral.” Additionally, any article that tried to provide the reader with current events

regarding the controversy was coded in this category. An article in Die Welt outlined an

experiment conducted on rats utilizing untreated GM corn, GM Roundup corn, and conventional

corn as well as the results (“Prüfern fehlen Belege in Studie zu giftigem Genmais,” 2012, para.

4). In addition, an article in Malaysia’s New Strait Times discussed labeling GM foods and

products, allowing the consumer to choose whether to consume these foods and products

(Mohamed Idris, 2007, para. 4).

One hundred fifty of 274 articles collected were double-coded for content direction,

yielding a Scott’s Pi coefficient of intercoder reliability of 0.772. Researchers applied the

prominence and direction scores for each coded article to calculate a Media Vector for each

newspaper. Pearson correlations and regression analyses were performed to evaluate the

correlations between national characteristics and the Media Vectors. When utilizing both

Pearson correlations and regression analyses, significant associations were found between certain

national characteristics and the coverage of genetically modified foods.

25

Calculating a Media Vector

After analyzing 19 newspapers from cities nationwide, the Janis-Fadner Coefficient of

Imbalance was applied to calculate a “Media Vector.” For newspaper articles within this study,

the combined impact of the strength or “prominence” of an article and its “direction” formed a

composite Media Vector measure of media “projection” (Pollock, 2007, p. 49). Media Vector

scores range from +1.00 and -1.00. Coverage that emphasized favorable coverage of genetically

modified organisms had scores between +1.00 and 0. In contrast, that emphasized unfavorable

coverage of genetically modified organisms had scores between 0 and -1.00. The Media Vector

formula is depicted in Table 2.

Table 2. Calculating a Media Vector (Favorable/Unfavorable)

f= sum of the prominence scores coded “favorable” u= sum of the prominence scores coded “unfavorable” n = sum of the prominence scores coded “balanced/neutral” r = f + u + n If f > u (the sum of the favorable prominence scores is greater than the sum of the unfavorable prominence scores), the following formula is used: Favorable Media Vector: (Answer lies between 0 and +1.00) FMV = (f2 - fu) r2 If f < u (the sum of the unfavorable prominence scores is greater than the sum of the favorable prominence scores), the following formula is used: Unfavorable Media Vector: (Answer lies between 0 and -1.00) UMV = (fu - u2) r2 * Media Vector copyright John C. Pollock (2000–2014)

Procedures

In order to examine connections between cross-national characteristics and Media

Vectors, Pearson correlations and regression analysis were used. Pearson correlations

determined which country characteristics were most strongly linked with variation in coverage in

GMOs. Regression analysis compared the strength and significance of each independent

26

variable. When these two statistical procedures were applied, connections were discovered

between national characteristics and newspaper coverage of GMOs.

Results

This study examined cross-national newspaper coverage of GMO usage in 19 newspapers

from January 1, 2004, through November 1, 2014. La Nacion from Argentina had the highest

Media Vector, at .7382. Conversely, The Japan Times had the lowest Media Vector at -.3994.

The range of Media Vector results was 1.1376, which represents significant variation in coverage

of GMO usage. Of the 19 newspapers, less than half, 8 (42%) reflected positive Media Vectors

(demonstrating favorable coverage of GMOs), and the other 11 showed negative Media Vectors

(demonstrating unfavorable coverage of GMOs). Table 3 provides a complete list of the

newspapers used and their Media Vectors.

Table 3. Media Vector by Country

Country Newspaper Media Vector

Argentina La Nacion 0.7382

Nigeria This Day 0.5715

United Kingdom The Times 0.4409

Kenya Daily Nation 0.4297

Chile El Mercurio 0.3265

Uganda New Vision 0.216

China China Daily 0.1371

Australia The Sydney Morning Herald 0.0234

India The Times of India -0.0114

Namibia The Namibian -0.1162

Thailand The Nation -0.2006

Egypt Daily News Egypt -0.201

27

Malaysia New Strait Times -0.248

Canada The Toronto Star -0.2504

Germany Die Welt -0.2567

United States The New York Times -0.2906

Pakistan The Nation -0.332

South Africa The Star -0.3825

Japan The Japan Times -0.3994

Discussion of Significant Findings

Vulnerability Significant

Poverty Level (confirmed). Under the vulnerability hypotheses, it was expected that

vulnerability would be associated with favorable coverage toward GMO usage. Therefore, it

was predicted that the higher the poverty level of a nation, the more favorable the coverage

towards GMO usage would be. This hypothesis was confirmed (r = .492, p = .019). It was

expected that when a higher percentage of a nation’s population live in poverty, they would be

more accepting towards GMO foods regardless of the potential health risks and negative

assumptions because of the strict need for affordable, available food.

Fertility Rate (confirmed). It was predicted that the higher the fertility rate of a nation,

the more favorable the coverage toward GMO usage. This hypothesis was confirmed (r = .404, p

= .043). It was expected that when more children born into a single family, the need for

affordable, available food would increase, leading to more favorable coverage of GMO foods.

Little Access to Improved Water Services (confirmed). It was predicted that the greater

the percentage of a nation’s population without access to improved water services, the more

favorable the coverage of GMO usage. This hypothesis was confirmed (r = .466, p = .022). It

was expected that when a greater percentage of the public has issues with accessing clean water,

28

they will be more accepting of healthy, inexpensive foods, regardless of the methods used to

produce them.

Percentage of Agricultural Land (confirmed). It was predicted that the greater the

percentage of agricultural land in a country, the more favorable the coverage of GMO usage.

This hypothesis was confirmed (r = .441, p = .029). It was expected that the higher the

percentage of a nation’s land used for agricultural purposes, the more favorable the opinion

toward agricultural advancements such as GMOs.

Table 4. Pearson Correlation Results

National Characteristics Pearson Correlation Significance

Poverty Level 0.492 0.019*

Percent w/o Improved Water 0.466 0.022*

Percent Agricultural Land 0.441 0.029*

Fertility Rate 0.404 0.043*

DD Incidence 0.369 0.066

Pop Covered by Phone Network -0.337 0.079

Phone Network -0.337 0.079

Percent population <14 0.336 0.08

Value Added to GDP from Agric. 0.295 0.11

Hospital Beds per 1000 -0.291 0.114

Natural Gas Consumption -0.267 0.135

Females Satisfied with Freedom -0.264 0.138

GDP per capita -0.25 0.151

Coal Production 0.339 0.154

Females in Workforce 0.24 0.162

% Satisfied with Water -0.234 0.175

Natural Gas Production -0.223 0.179

GDP -0.222 0.18

Biofuel Consumption -0.204 0.208

29

Length Road Network -0.19 0.218

Newspapers per 1000 -0.226 0.219

Infant Mortality Rate 0.174 0.238

Freedom Press 0.172 0.24

Crop Production Index 0.167 0.247

Industrial Production 0.166 0.248

Percent Undernourished 0.146 0.276

Broadband Subscriptions -0.144 0.278

Oil Production -0.143 0.285

Oil Consumption -0.154 0.292

Stock FDI at Home -0.14 0.295

Electricity Production -0.126 0.304

Male Life Expectancy -0.119 0.314

Electricity Consumption -0.119 0.314

Direct Investment at Home -0.116 0.324

Total Deforestation 0.1 0.341

Female Life Expectancy -0.088 0.36

Coal Consumption 0.094 0.369

Female School Expectancy 0.074 0.388

DD Prevalence -0.119 0.389

Happiness Score -0.065 0.399

Literacy Rate -0.057 0.409

Female Literacy Rate -0.054 0.413

Food Production Index 0.051 0.417

Rural Population 0.048 0.423

Citizens Satisfied w/ Freedom 0.037 0.44

Permanent Crop Land -0.022 0.465

Physicians Per 1000 0.016 0.473

Gini Score 0.003 0.496

30

Regression Analysis: Vulnerability Significant

A regression analysis identified specific variables influencing Media Vector scores,

indicating that Poverty Level accounted for 24.2% of the variance and “Percentage of

Agricultural Land” accounted for 4.7% of the variance, for a combined total of 28.9%. This

analysis strongly confirmed the vulnerability hypothesis, as poverty level is an important

indicator of vulnerability and contributed to the greatest variance in the results.

In addition, the “Agricultural Vulnerability” hypotheses, a set of hypotheses introduced

for this particular study, was confirmed as well, as “Percent of Agricultural Land” was the

second leading contributing variable to the variance of the results. In broad terms, percent of

agricultural land is linked to less industrialization and less access to a full range of options in a

global economy. Therefore, on a global level, “Percent of Agricultural Land” leads to

international vulnerability, further confirming the vulnerability hypotheses in the case of GMOs.

Table 5 below illustrates the findings of the regression analysis.

Table 5. Regression Analysis

Model R (equation)

R² (cumulative)

R² Change

F Change

Significance of F Change

Poverty Level 0.492 0.242 0.242 5.119 0.038

Poverty Level, Percent Agricultural Land

0.538 0.289 0.047 0.992 0.335

Conclusions and Implications for Further Research

The use of GMOs in agriculture is growing exponentially into a critical international

debate with the advent of technology and growth of the global population. Accordingly, the topic

has warranted substantial cross-national discussion, reflected in variations in cross-national

media coverage. Several important correlations were discovered, all related to “vulnerability.”

31

Four contextual variables were confirmed significant: poverty level, percent of a population

without access to improved water services, fertility rate, and percent of agricultural land.

One of the most interesting aspects of our findings was the confirmation of the

Agricultural Dependence hypotheses. Since this was the first time that this section was utilized in

a community structure approach study, the significance of these findings sets a precedent for

future studies within the communication studies field. In this regard, percent of agricultural land

was validated through a significant Pearson correlation of (r = .441, p = .029). Additionally, this

variable also accounted for 4.7% of the regression variance in coverage. A higher percentage of

agricultural land in a given country, therefore, is one indicator of more favorable media coverage

toward GMO usage.

Furthermore, the statistical significance of these findings confirms that media coverage is

relevant to vulnerability, which is contrary to the guard dog hypothesis. The positive correlation

of poverty level, percent of a population without access to improved water services, and fertility

rate with favorable coverage of GMOs cross-nationally is consistent with similar connections of

“vulnerability” and favorable coverage of GMOs throughout the United States (Pollock, Maltese-

Nehrbass, Corbin and Fascanella, 2010). Related research found links between vulnerability

indicators and cross-national coverage of water handling and child labor, in both cases

emphasizing government responsibility in addressing each issue (Wissel, et. al., 2014; Kohn &

Pollock, 2014).

In regard to future research, studies can specifically examine whether leading media

favor or oppose regulation of GMOs by government or society. Since 11 of the 19 country

newspapers demonstrated unfavorable coverage of GMO usage, it can be expected that

significant media may support regulation of GMO foods. It would be beneficial to examine

32

cross-national newspaper coverage of these nations to examine responsibility assignment, and to

uncover which variables contribute to a potential variance in these results. In addition, there is

potential for the Agricultural Dependence hypotheses to be expanded and included in future

studies utilizing the community structure approach. Therefore, using agricultural characteristic

hypotheses in future studies will provide more depth in the results and will potentially create

additional findings, as these variables can contribute to the variance of future GMO studies as

well as other topics.

33

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Cross-National Coverage of GMOs Final copy