Cross Cultural Psychology: Introduction Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos 14 May 2009

Cross Cultural Psychology:Introduction

Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos

14 May 2009

Course Outline

• Introduction• Cross-Cultural research methods• Culture and:– Development– Cognition– Perception– Language– Social Interactions, Gender, and Emotions

• Intercultural Relations


Overview

• Psychology• Culture• Cross-Cultural Psychology


Psychology

• Psychology: Scientific study of human behavior and mental functions– Scientific Study: Systematic, objective methods of

observing behavior and mental functioning– Behavior: Activity that can be observed, recorded,

and measured– Mental Functions: Infer from observable behavior

• Areas of Study: Perception, Cognition, Development, Emotion, Personality, Motivation, Interpersonal relationships


Psychology• Psychology: Study of behavior and mental processes

– Assumption: People are similar across cultures• Hypothesize factors within cultures that influence mental processes

• Anthropology: Study of human beings in all places and at all times– Cultural Anthropology: Systematic comparison of different

cultures– Assumption: People are different across cultures

• Needs Assessment: Studies that determine and address gaps between current conditions and desired conditions– Assess local opinions about development and aid projects


Psychology

• Purpose of Psychology: Understand, explain, predict, and control behavior– Observe human behavior• Response time• Frequency of behaviors• Performance on cognitive tasks• Self-report on questionnaires

– Develop hypothetical constructs that explain patterns of performance in human behavior


Research Studies• Psychological Construct: Hypothetical concept created to

explain common patterns of behavior across participants– Unobservable– Independent and dependent variables in psychological studies– Researcher has to develop ways of manipulating and measuring

the variables• Participants: Those who participate in the study

– Population vs. Sample– In most psychological studies, participants are not variables in

studies– In cross-cultural psychology studies, the culture of a participant

may be an independent variable


Research Studies

• When reporting the method of a research study, address three questions:– What? What are the independent and dependent

variables in the study?• These variables are not directly observable

– How? How were the independent and dependent variables measured?• Since the key variables are not observable, how did the

researcher measure or manipulate them?– Who? Who were the people that participated in the

study?


Psychology

• Deterministic: One variable completely determines another– Guarantee

• Probabilistic: One variable increases the probability of another– Substantial number of variables that influence

each outcome– Free will– Psychology is probabilistic


Culture

• Culture: Shared way of life of a group of people• Culture: Shared patterns of behaviors and interactions,

cognitive constructs, and affective understanding learned through the process of socialization– Culture is NOT: Artifacts, tools, or other tangible cultural

elements– Culture IS: How members of the cultural group interpret,

use, and perceive the objects• Culture consists of: Values, beliefs, attitudes,

interpretations, and perspectives that distinguish one group of people from another


Culture

• Culture is manifested by:– Symbols: Communication or object that carries a

particular meaning within a group– Heros: People who possess characteristics highly

prized in a culture– Rituals: Social activities that are socially essential– Values: Preferences of a specific state of affairs to

others (e.g., good-bad)


Characteristics of Culture• Culture is:– An adaptive mechanism– Learned

• Cultures change– Rate of cultural change differs by culture– Cultural diffusion: Cultural practices pass to a different

culture• People tend to be unaware of their cultural practices– Ethnocentrism: Judging another culture in terms o one’s

own culture• Culture defines acceptable behavior patterns• Cultures do not currently exist in isolation


Dimensions of Culture:Hofstede Model (Hofstede, 2001)

• Power Distance: Extent to which less powerful members accept that power is unequally distributed

• Uncertainty Avoidance: Tolerance for ambiguity• Individualism vs. Collectivism: Degree to which

people are integrated into groups• Masculinity vs. Femininity: Distribution of values

between the genders• Long-term vs. Short-term orientation: Choice of

focus for people’s efforts to the future, present, or past

http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~culture/hoftstede.htmDr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos

Power Distance

Small Power Distance• Parents and children are

equals• Older people not respected

or feared• Student-centered education• Subordinates expect to be

consulted

Large Power Distance• Parents teach children

obedience• Older people are respected

and feared• Teacher-centered

education• Subordinates expect to be

told what to do


Uncertainty Avoidance

Weak Uncertainty Avoidance• Uncertainty in life is

accepted• Lower stress• Higher scores on well-being• Comfortable with ambiguity

and chaos

Strong Uncertainty Avoidance• Uncertainty is felt as a

threat to be fought• High stress• Lower scores on well-being• Need for clarity and

structure


Individualism and Collectivism

Individualism• Everyone is expected to only

take care of themselves and immediate family

• Right of privacy• Speaking one’s mind is healthy• Others classified as individuals• Purpose of education is to

learn how to learn• Task prevails over relationship

Collectivism• Everyone is expected to

protect extended families• Stress on belonging• Harmony is always

maintained• Others classified as in-group

or out-group• Purpose of education is

learning how to do• Relationship prevails over

task


Feminine and Masculine

Femininity• Minimum emotional and

social role differentiation between genders

• Men and women should be modest and caring

• Balance between family and work

• Sympathy for the weak• Both mothers and fathers deal

with facts and feelings• Both boys and girls may cry

but neither should fight• Mothers decide on family size

Masculinity• Maximum emotional and

social role differentiation between genders

• Men should be assertive and ambitious

• Work prevails over family• Admiration for the strong• Fathers deal with facts,

mothers deal with feelings• Girls cry, boys fight back• Fathers decide on family size


Short and Long-Term Orientation

Short-Term Orientation• Most important events in

life occurred in past or take place now

• Immediate need gratification expected

• Children should learn tolerance and respect

• Social spending and consumption

• Stres on short-term profits

Long-Term Orientation• Most important events in

life will occur in the future• Need gratification deferred

until later• Children should learn to be

thrifty• Saving, investing• Stress on future market

position


Cross-Cultural Psychology

• Cross-Cultural Psychology: Systematic comparison of psychological variables under different cultural conditions in order to:– Identify universal aspects of human thought and

behavior– Identify how culture influences human thought

and behavior

• Key Question: How does culture influence human behavior and mental processes?


Cross-Cultural Psychology (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 2002)

• Cross-cultural psychology is the study of:– Similarities and differences in individual

psychological functioning in various cultural and ethnocultural groups

– The relationships between psychological variables and socio-cultural, ecological, and biological variables

– The ongoing changes in psychological, socio-cultural, ecological, and biological variables


Goals of Cross-Cultural Psychology

• Test the generality of psychological knowledge and theories

• Discover cultural and psychological variations in non-Western cultures

• Integrate results of general and specific psychological findings to a universal psychology that is valid for a broad range of cultures


Perspectives in Cross-Cultural Psychology

• Absolutism: All psychological variables are the same in all cultures– Assess constructs using the same methods and instruments

across cultures• Relativism: All psychological constructs are culturally

influenced– No comparisons can be made between cultures

• Universalism: All psychological variables are common between cultures but culture influences the development and manifestation of psychological characteristics– Comparisons can be made cautiously, but with modifications to

methods and instruments to make them culturally meaningful.


Perspectives in Cross-Cultural Psychology (Berry et al., 2002)

Absolutist Universalist Relativist

Context-free definition of concepts

Almost always Difficult to achieve

Usually impossible

Context-free measurement of constructs

Usually possible Often impossible Impossible

Assessment of constructs

Standardized instruments

Adapted instruments

Local instruments

Comparisons between culture

Straight-forward, Evaluative

Controlled, Non-evaluative

Usually avoided, Non-evaluative


Ecological Context

Biological AdaptationAnd

Cultural Adaptation

Socio-Political Context

Ecological Influences

Genetic Transmission

Cultural Transmission

Acculturation

Observable BehaviorsAnd

Psychological Constructs


Contributions of Cross-Cultural Research to Psychology

• Knowledge: Findings of similarities and differences of behavior and mental functioning have added to the body of psychological knowledge

• Critical Thinking: Psychological findings are now analyzed to determine whether similar results will be found in different cultures



• Because of cross-cultural research, the following assumptions now must be made:– All behavior is learned and occurs in a cultural

context– Culture must be accounted for in psychological

theories– More understanding of cultural influences on

behavior is necessary, which may change the way behavior is studied



Modern Psychology• Mental processes and

behavior are independent from the context

• Purpose of psychology is to isolate mental processes from the context through controlled experiments

Cultural-Historical Psychology• Context influences mental

processes and behavior• Purpose of psychology is to

understand how the mind and culture mutually influence each other


Progression of Cross-Cultural Research

• Beginning: Document differences between cultures

• Currently: Determine the cultural variables that produce the differences– Culture is replaced with specific, measurable

psychological variables hypothesized to account for cultural differences

• Future: Universal theories of psychological processes


Psychology in Nigeria

• What psychological variables are not relevant to the Nigerian context?

• What psychological variables should be studied that are unique to the Nigerian context?

• What are practical problems in Nigerian society that culturally-relevant psychological research can address?


Revision

• What is psychology?• What is culture? What are the five key ways

that cultures can vary?• What is the purpose of cross-cultural

research?• What are the different perspectives that are

taken in cross-cultural psychology?• What contributions have cross-cultural

research made to the field of psychology?


Documents

Cross Cultural Psychology: Introduction Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos 14 May 2009