11

Cross-Border Higher Education

(CBHE) for Labor Market Needs:

Mobility of Public-Funded Malaysian

Students to Japan over Years

Paper presented for the 14th UNESCO-APEID Conference on

October 23, 2010 (Session 5.B.2 Cross-border Higher

Education for Regional Integration and Labor Market in East

Asia: Case of Malaysian-Japanese Cooperation for Human

Japan International Cooperation Agency

Research Institute (JICA-RI)

Yoshiko Koda (Koda-Yoshiko@jica.go.jp)

Takako Yuki (Yuki.Takako@jica.go.jp)

Yeeyoung Hong

2

Outline

1. Introduction(1) Motivation

(2) Research question

(3) Definition, methods, and data

2. Contextual background(1) Changing Malaysian Economy

(2) Human Resource Development (HRD) • HRD policies

• Domestic Higher Education Institution (HEI) Development

• Cross-Border Higher Education (CBHE)

(3) Manufacturing firms‟ view on high level HRD

3. Malaysian Students in Japan

4. Findings of labor market outcomes of CBHE: a case between Malaysia and Japan (i.e., “HELP”)

(1) Post Graduation Activities

(2) Sectors of Employment (Relevance)

(3) Location of Employment (Brain Drain)

5. Changing roles of Japanese ODA

3

Introduction

4

Motivation: Why Labor Market

Outcomes of CBHE? (1)

• CBHE is considered as an effective tool for

HRD but also involves risks such as low

quality and brain drain for sending

countries (OECD and World Bank 2007)

• Not many evidence-based research on the

effectiveness of CBHE

5

Motivation: Concentration of Japanese ODA for

High Level Human Resource Development

• Post-secondary education accounts for the largest share in Japanese ODA in education

• Japanese ODA loans has been financing Malaysian as well as other ASEAN countries‟ CBHE programs over years

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

UnspecifiedPost-SecSecondaryBasic

(source) By author based on OECD.Stat Extracts, accessed on Apr.16, 2009

Figure 9b. Japan's ODA for Education by Subsector (Commitment, Calendar year, current US$ million)

(Source: Yoshida 2009 Background paper for UNESCO EFA GMR 2010)

6

Motivation: Why Malaysia as a Case?

1. Rapid economic development of Malaysia• Needs to transform its economy to a next phase

• Needs of high level human resource development

2. Active in high level human resource development (HRD) through

• Domestic higher education system development

• CBHE both as a sending and host country

3. Japan assisting Malaysia in HRD over years, Also unique case of using various modality of ODA (grant, loans) and various forms (traditional and new forms of CBHE) can be a model?

⇒ lessons &policy implications for Japanese ODA

⇒ research significance, opportunity, feasibility

7

Research Question

• How and to what extent have the cross-border higher education programs, assisted by the Japanese ODA loans, met the HRD needs of the manufacturing industry, under changing economic and educational contexts over time?

Specifically, we focus on initial post graduation activities (i.e., employment, skill relevance, and brain drain) of “HELP” graduates between 1999 and 2008 (studied from mid-1990s) in this paper

8

Definition, Methods, and Data

• Background research

• Our definition of CBHE in this paper

includes conventional study abroad as well

as newer modes, namely twinning

• Descriptive statistical analysis

• Use of project data for Higher Education

Loan Project (HELP) with limited scopes

• Other published and unpublished data

9

Contextual Background

10

Context 1: Changing Malaysian

Economy

• Rapid economic development

• Malaysia has been a preferred location of FDI and its economy has grown rapidly in the past few decades

• Japan has been one of the main foreign investors, especially in E&E industry

Japanese Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Malaysia

by Industry (5 year average in Manufacturing Field),

1990-2004

0%5%

10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%

Elect

ric

Ferro

us/N

on-fer

rous

Che

mistry

Tra

nspo

rtatio

n

Woo

d an

d Pul

p

Mac

hine

ry

Tex

tile

Food

Oth

ers

Sh

are

in

to

tal

man

ufa

ctu

rin

g

1990-1994

1995-1999

2000-2004

Source: Taigai Oyobi Tainai Chokusetsu Toshi Jokyo, Ministry of Finance of Japan

Downloaded from http://www.mof.go.jp/1c008.htm on 5/21/10

11

Context 1: Changing Malaysian

Economy

• but…

– Other countries (e.g. Thailand) caught up

around 2000, losing comparative advantage as

a low cost production site

• Need to transform its economy to high

value-added one

– Relatively small pool of high-quality workforce

for Malaysia to become a preferred location for

higher value-added industries (PICS 2003)

12

Prior to the 9th Plan

• Private higher education institutions not allowed to award first degrees before 1996

– Formed partnerships with domestic or foreign universities to offer first degrees (Sirat 2006).

• 1996: A series of laws including Private Higher Education Act

• 1998: Private higher education institutions started to award degrees when the Ministry of Higher Education introduced the 3+0 arrangement (Sirat 2006).

The 9th Plan (2006-2010) addresses:

• Human resource development at tertiary level

– 40 % tertiary education participation rate (17-23) by 2010

– Increase of post-graduate enrollment, especially science and technology.

• Improvement of Malaysian higher education institutions

– Benchmarking to international standards

– Development of regional center of excellence for education and training and Malaysia will receive 100 thousand foreign students by 2010

Context 2: HRD Policies

13

Context 2: Domestic HEI Development

Number of HEIs with University Status by the Year of

Establishment (as of 2007)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

pre199

6199

7199

9200

0200

1200

2200

3200

4200

5200

6200

7

Nu

mb

er

IPTA

(Public)IPTS

(Private)

Source:Tables 2.27 (IPTA), 3.42(IPTS),Malaysia Higher Education Statistics,Ministry of Higher Educatiion

Data downloaded from www.mohe.gov.my/web_statistik/#data_macro on 7/9/10

Note: IPTA (INSTITUT PENGAJIAN TINGGI AWAM): Public University

IPTS(INSTITUT PENGAJIAN TINGGI SWASTA):Private University

14

Context 2: Rapid Increase of

Enrollment at Domestic Universities

• The number of engineering students enrolled at undergraduate level almost doubled from38,649 in 2002 to 75,170 in 2009

• But stayed around 15 to 17% of the total number of undergraduates since the latter also nearly doubled during this period

Share of Students Enrolled in Technology-related

Fields to Total Enrollment at Each Level (%)

2002-2009

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Under-gradaute

Master

PhD

Note : Technology-related fields include engineering, architecture, manufacturing etc.

For details, see individual table in original source.

Source: Authors' calculation using the data from Malaysia Higher Education Statistics,

Ministry of Higher Educatiion

Data downloaded from www.mohe.gov.my/web_statistik/#data_macro on

15

Context 2: Increasing Number of Graduates

with Domestic University Degrees

Number of Higher Education Graduates in Malaysia by Level, 2002-2008

-

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

160,000

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Year

Nu

mb

er

of

gra

du

ate

s

Diploma

Phd

Master

Undergradaute

Source: Malaysia Higher Education Statistics,　Ministry of Higher Educatiion. Data downloaded from

www.mohe.gov.my/web_statistik/statistik_pdf_2008_05/data_makro_1-3.pdf on 7/9/10

University

degrees

16

Context 2: Cross-border Higher Education

(CBHE)

• Active student outbound mobility: Malaysia is among top 10

sending countries in the world & top in ASEAN,

highest as share of total TE

• Japan is among top 5 destinations for Malaysian students

(among 10 for MOHE source)

Outbound

mobile

students

% of Total tertiary

enrollmnet

China 421,148 1.7%

India 153,312 1.0%

Republic of Korea 105,327 3.3%

Germany 77,534 NA

Japan 54,506 1.4%

France 54,021 2.5%

United States 50,265 0.3%

Malaysia 46,473 6.3%

Canada 43,918 3.3%

Russian Federation 42,881 0.5%

Source: UIS

Outbound mobile students,

Top 10 countries in 2007 or Circa2002 2007

Top 5 countries as destination

Australia 17,574 17,691 United Kingdom 9,011 11,811 United States 7,395 5,398 Japan 1,613 2,052 New Zealand 893 1,727

Total (All countries) 41,896 45,952

Source:UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) database

Malaysian Students Studying Abroad

%-authors‟ calculation

17

Context 3: Manufacturing Firms’ Views on

High Level HRD• According PICS 2007 report, some improvement in availability of

professionals, including engineers, but not enough

• More concerns about quality and relevance: “shortage of basic & technical skills of knowledge and skills” as the important constraint for filling vacancies

• Non-negligible percentage of employees with university degree holders are educated overseas

Industry Educated locally

(univ grad)

Educated abroad

(univ grad)

Foreigners

(univ grad)Total

Food processing 85% 14% 2% 100%

Textiles 85% 12% 3% 100%

Garments 88% 13% 0% 100%

Chemicals 81% 14% 5% 100%

Rubber and plastics 93% 5% 2% 100%

Machinery and equipment 69% 17% 14% 100%

E&E 87% 11% 2% 100%

Electric applian 96% 3% 2% 100%

Electronics 79% 19% 2% 100%

Auto parts 75% 18% 6% 100%

Wood and funiture 85% 4% 11% 100%

Total 86% 11% 3% 100%

Source: Authors' calculation using the data from Productivity and Investment Climate Survey(PICS)2

2007, World Bank

Share of Newly Recruited University Degree Holders within Each Industry in 2006

% within Industries

18

Context 3: Manufacturing Firms’ Views

on High Level HRD

Malaysians

Professionals

educated

abroad are

viewed fare

well

Comparison of Performance of Professionals

by Types of Education　in 2006

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Overseas educated vs.

locally educated

Overseas educated vs.

foreigners

Lower

Higher

No

differenc

e

Note: This table only shows the firms with at least one engineer.

Source: Authors' calculation using the data from Productivity and Investment

Climate Survey (PICS)2 2007, World Bank

Those in

Japan, too?

19

Malaysian Students in Japan

20

Malaysian Students in Japan

They are mainly publicly-funded students

2000-2004 2005-2009

Japanese government scholarships 14% 11%

Malaysian government scholarships 50% 56%

Private funds 36% 33%Total 100% 100%

Malaysian Students in Japan by Fund Type, 2000-2009

All Levels of Post-Secondary Education (excluding short-term exchange students)

Note:

The data collection methods between 2000 and 2004 are not unified, thus, the figures are indicative figures. The

data for 2005-2009 exclude short-term exchange students

All levels means post graduate, undergraduate, and other tertiary education such as junior colleges

Source: 2005-2009: Japan Student Service Organization (JASSO). Unpublished data (received on May 26, 2010)

2000-2004: Tsujii (2006) "Ryugakusei Fea to Mareshia no Kyoiku Seido."

21

Malaysian Students in JapanThey Are Mostly in Engineering Fields

All Subjects Engineering Share of Engineering

Ave.2005-09 Ave.2005-09 Ave.2005-09

Malsyaian students

Japanese government scholarships 67 41 62%

Share in all foreign students 5% 9%

Foreign government funds 916 860 94%

Share in all foreign students 81% 87%

Private funds 348 114 33%

Share in all foreign students 1% 3%

Total 1331 1015 76%

Share in all foreign students 2% 17%

All foreign students

Japanese government scholarships 1309 465 36%

Foreign government funds 1171 1013 87%

Private funds 51313 4469 9%

Total 53792 5946 11%

Note: No. of students include both new entrants and existing students

Number of Malaysian Undergradaute Students in Japan and the Share in All Foreign

Undergradaute Students by Fund Type and Subject, 2005-2009

Source: Japan Student Services Organization(JASSO) unpublished data received 5/26/10 and 8/23/10 revised version

22

Japanese ODA Loans Cover a Large

Proportion of Publicly-funded Malaysian

Students in Japan (1999-2008)Share of Japanese ODA Loan Students(HELP and LEP) to Total Undergraduate Students Funded by Malaysian

Government Scholarships in Japan (excluding short-term exchange students), 2005-2008

Types of Funds All Subjects Engineering

2005 2006 2007200

8

Ave.

2005-082005 2006 2007 2008

Ave.

2005-08

Share of HELP to Malaysian

government scholarships (%)21% 12% 6% 8% 12% 23% 13% 7% 8% 13%

Share of LEP to Malaysian

government scholarships (%)50% 33% 17% 0% 24% 55% 35% 18% 0% 26%

Share of HELP&LEP to Malaysian

government scholarships (%)71% 45% 24% 8% 36% 78% 48% 25% 8% 39%

Note: HELP=Higher Education Loan Projects, LEP= Look East Programs

LEP data includes only those years that are covered by yen loan for the purpose of this study.Malaysia government has been sending students to

Japanese universities through LEP since 1982.

Source: Authors' calculation using the data from Japan Student Services Organization(JASSO) unpublished data. Received on May 26, 2010

and YPM and JICA internal data

23

Findings of Labor Market

Outcomes of CBHE Program

between Malaysia and Japan

24

Main Findings of Labor Market

Outcomes of HELP Graduates

• Overall, employment rate of HELP graduates

(„99-08)

Remain relatively stable over years, except for 1 year

At similar level as domestic public universities

(technology fields)

• HELP graduates tend to be employed in the

sector for which the programs intended to

produce human resources

• HELP graduates tend to remain less in Japan

after study (Bachelor) than other foreign students

(04-07)

25

Main Findings 1: Post Graduation

Activities

• 80% of graduates either employed or in further study

• Employment rate of HELP graduates remain stable between 1999 and 2008, except one year

Post Graduation Activities of HELP 1&2 Graduates

(Undergraduate-level), 1999-2008

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Year

Others (%)

Job search upon returning

to Malaysia (%)

Further study (%)

Employed (%)

Note: Others mostly include graduates without information or graduates with limited

information such as returting to Malaysia after graduation or undecided.

Source: Authors' calculation using the data from YPM Yayasan Pelanjaran Mara (YPM)

26

Main Findings 1: Post Graduation Activities

Malaysian Domestic Public University

Graduates in Technical Fields

Year of

graduation

Local Government

related

NGOs Others Total**

MNC total

Number Share in total

2006 1,718 331 7.2% 2,731 0 0 137 26 4,612

2007 2,196 450 7.1% 3,884 0 0 182 58 6,320

2008 2,182 461 6.8% 3,901 416 77 184 45 6,805

2009 1,156 242 4.4% 3,818 262 33 180 52 5,501

Total 7,252 1,484 6.4% 14,334 678 110 683 181 23,238

Note:* The dinifition whether "Japanese firms" or not is created by authors using the data on firm names and address

** The number of participating universities and the responding rates differ by year.

Source: Authors' calculation using the data from "Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education's Graduate Tracer Study."

Employment of Malaysian Domestic Public University Graduates

(Undergradaute-level, Technical Fields) by Type of Employers, 2006-2009

Multi-National Cooperation (MNC) Independent

of which, affliated with Japan*

• Availability of tracer study data

• Similarity of student characteristics with HELP (Bumiputra)

27

Main Findings 1: Post Graduation Activities

Employment of Malaysian Domestic University Graduates

in Technical Fields

HELP is at least comparable with Domestic Graduates of Public Universities

63% of graduates in technical fields of domestic universities are employed and 5%

in further study (2007) while 64% of HELP graduates are employed and 25% in

further study (2007)

Post Graduation Activities of Malaysian Domestic Public University Graduates

(Undergraduate-level in Technical Fields), 2007

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Architecture

Building /Quantity

Surveying /Land

Surveying

Civil

Engineering

Mechanical

Mechatronic

Engineering

Other

Engineering

Chemistry

Engineering

Electric

/Electronic

Telecomunication

Engineering

Unemployed

Waiting for Job

Placement

Skill

Development

Further Study

Working

Source: Ministry of Higher Education. Government of Malaysia (2008) Laporan Kajian Pengesanan Graduan (Graduate Tracer

Study) 2007, Table 4.14b.3vols. Putrajaya

28

Main Findings 2: Sectors of Employment

• HELP graduates tend to work in the sector that the programs intended to produce HRD

Year of

graduation

No. of graduates

who are

employed

Manufacturi

ngService Others Total Japanese Malaysian Others Unknown

1999 78% 20% 2% 100% 78% 20% 0% 2% 45

2000 76% 24% 0% 100% 71% 24% 0% 5% 42

2001 87% 13% 0% 100% 89% 10% 0% 2% 62

2002 96% 4% 0% 100% 96% 4% 0% 0% 25

2003 100% 0% 0% 100% 75% 17% 8% 0% 12

2004 93% 7% 0% 100% 72% 24% 3% 0% 29

2005 63% 37% 0% 100% 59% 41% 0% 0% 27

2006 91% 9% 0% 100% 82% 18% 0% 0% 44

2007 79% 18% 4% 100% 71% 25% 0% 4% 28

2008 81% 19% 0% 100% 78% 22% 0% 0% 27

Total 84% 16% 1% 100% 78% 20% 1% 1% 341

Source: Authors' calculation using the data from YPM Yayasan Pelanjaran Mara (YPM)

Employment of HELP 1&2 Graduates (Undergraduate-level) by Sector and Type of Employers, 1999-2008

Sector Type of company

29

Main Findings 3: Location of Employment

(HELP Graduates)

Graduation yearNo. of graduates

who are employed

Malaysia Japan Unknown

1999 91% 9% 0% 45

2000 90% 7% 2% 42

2001 94% 5% 2% 62

2002 88% 12% 0% 25

2003 83% 17% 0% 12

2004 97% 3% 0% 29

2005 96% 4% 0% 27

2006 70% 30% 0% 44

2007 57% 43% 0% 28

2008 67% 33% 0% 27

Total 84% 15% 1% 341

Location

Employment of HELP 1&2 Graduates (Undergraduate-level)

by Location of Employers (% ), 1999-2008

Note: 35% of firms located in Japan have Malaysia branch.

Source: Authors' calculation using the data from YPM Yayasan Pelanjaran Mara (YPM)

• Before 2006, a vast majority of HELP graduates went

home after completing their degrees

30

Main Findings 3: Location of Employment

(Foreign Graduates with Japanese

University Degrees)

• Other foreign graduates in Japan tend to stay in

Japan than HELP graduates

Total graduates Employed Further study Others Home countries Japan Other locations

2005 7,253 39.5% 38.6% 21.9% 20.9% 78.4% 0.8%

2006 10,177 41.8% 32.0% 26.1% 16.4% 83.2% 0.4%

2007 10,870 44.5% 30.6% 24.8% 13.6% 86.2% 0.2%

2008 11,215 46.1% 27.5% 26.4% 12.4% 87.2% 0.4%

Total 39,515 43.3% 31.6% 25.1% 15.2% 84.4% 0.4%

Location of Employment for the Employed

Source:Gaikokujin Ryugakusei Shinro Jokyo Gakui Jokyo Chosa Kekka (Table1. Gaikokujin Ryugakusei Shinro Jokyo Chosa

Kekka), Japan Student Services Organization(JASSO),Various years

Post Graduation Activities of Japanese University Graduates (Undergraduate-level), 2005-2008

Post Graduation Activities

31

Main Findings 3: Location of Employment

External Factors May Affect Graduate‟s Decision to Stay or

Go Home

32

Changing roles of Japanese

ODA

33

Changing Roles of Japanese ODAChanging Forms of CBHE for HRD in Malaysia and Beyond

(adopted from Knight’s model)

Forms of

CBHE

Changing Forms of Japanese ODA Assistance for Human Resource Development

Policy

Program

People

Conventional study

abroad

(HELP1)

Sandwich as host country

(AUN/Seed-Net 2-Post-graduate)

Twinning

(HELP3-Undergraduate)

Twinning

(HELP2-Undergraduate )

Conventional study abroad

(Look East Program Loan

-Undergraduate

-Post-graduate)

(HELP2/3-Postgraduate)

[HEI development (Sarawak Univ.)]

Early 1990s

Lower

1996 (HE reform)

HEI capacity of Malaysia

Mid 2000 Future

Higher

34

Thank you very much!

35

Malaysian Students in Japan (details)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2000-2004 2005-2009

Japanese government

scholarships276 265 253 276 255 245 245 254 230 209 14% 11%

Malaysian government

scholarships1,033 923 965 1,007 841 1,106 1,149 1,195 1,300 1,395 50% 56%

Private funds 547 615 667 719 914 737 738 672 704 749 36% 33%

Total 1,856 1,803 1,885 2,002 2,010 2,088 2,132 2,121 2,234 2,353 100% 100%

Note: The data collection methods between 2000 and 2004 are not unified, thus, the figures are indicative figures 2005-2009 data

excludes short- term exchange students

Source: 2005-2009: Japan Student Service Organization (JASSO). Unpublished data (received on May 26, 2010)

2000-2004: Tsujii (2006) "Ryugakusei Fea to Mareshia no Kyoiku Seido."

Note: The methods of data collection has changed since 2004, thus, not compatible with the data before 2004. All levels means post

graduate, undergraduate, and other tertiary education such as junior colleges

Number of Malaysian Students in Japan by Fund Type, 2000-2009

All Levels of Post-Secondary Education (excluding short-term exchange students)

36

Malaysian students in Japan (details)

Share of

Engineering

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009Ave.

2005-092005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Ave.

2005-09

Ave.

2005-09

Japanese government

scholarships78 72 72 62 49 67 48 47 47 37 28 41 62%

Share in all foreign

students6% 5% 5% 5% 4% 5% 11% 10% 10% 8% 6% 9%

Foreign government

funds859 892 883 949 998 916 779 845 834 892 949 860 94%

Share in all foreign

students93% 91% 90% 69% 63% 81% 98% 96% 96% 75% 71% 87%

Private funds 404 364 315 309 348 348 142 120 105 103 98 114 33%

Share in all foreign

students1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 3% 3% 2% 2% 2% 3%

Total 1,341 1,328 1,270 1,320 1,395 1,331 969 1,012 986 1,032 1,075 1,015 76%

Share in all foreign

students2% 2% 2% 3% 3% 2% 17% 17% 18% 17% 17% 17%

Japanese government

scholarships1,345 1,317 1,316 1,293 1,272 1,309 450 458 461 478 476 465 36%

Foreign government

funds925 985 976 1,385 1,582 1,171 795 877 867 1,185 1,341 1,013 87%

Private funds 53,165 51,733 50,097 49,650 51,918 51,313 4,347 4,625 4,264 4,521 4,586 4,469 9%

Total 55,435 54,035 52,389 52,328 54,772 53,792 5,592 5,960 5,592 6,184 6,403 5,946 11%

Note: No. of students include both new entrants and existing students

Source: Japan Student Services Organization(JASSO) unpublished data received 5/26/10 and 8/23/10 revised version

Engineering

All foreign students

Number of Malaysian Undergradaute Students in Japan and the Share in All Foreign Undergradaute Students

by Fund Type and Subject, 2005-2009

Malsyaian students

All Subjects

37

Changing Roles of Japanese ODA

Next Step

① Graduates from HELP I and II [all identifiable],

mainly on their employment & educational

experiences

② Graduates from Look East Program for graduates

2004-06 (Bachelor of engineering) as a

comparator group for HELP II

③ Firms as actual and potential employers of HELP

and university graduates in engineering fields

(mainly Japanese affiliated firms in Malaysia)

38

Changing Roles of Japanese ODA

Changing Modality of CBHE Programs between Malaysia

and Japan

Profiles of Programs

HELP I HELP II Look East

Types of program Conventional

Study

Abroad

Twinning

(1+3)*

Conventional

Study

Abroad

Subject areas

Engineering Engineering

Mainly

engineerin

g

Expected years of

graduation1999-2003 2004-2008 2004-2008

No. of students 310 280 885+4

Entry requirement for

the programsTop level

(SPM)

Top level

(SPM)

Top level

(SPM)

* 1 year in Malaysia and 3 years in Japan

39

Changing Roles of Japanese ODA

Next Step

• Differences in the above CBHE programs (i.e. modality) are not considered in the analysis of this paper due to the limited scope of the data

• In the subsequent paper, we will explore the question whether there are any differences in labor market outcomes between different modalities of CBHE programs

• Newly collected data for this research will be used for the next paper

40

Key Literature

CBHE• Jane Knight. 2008. Higher Education in Turmoil. Sense Publishers

• OECD and World Bank. 2007. Cross-border Tertiary Education: A Way

Towards Capacity Development. Washington, DC

• Sirat, Morshidi. 2006. “Transnational higher education in Malaysia:

Balancing benefits and concerns through regulations”. In Huang, F. (ed.),

Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific Region. Hiroshima:

Research Institute for Higher Education. Hiroshima University

Twinning (not many empirical research comparing newer forms of CBHE with

more conventional forms?)

• Lewis, Philip E. and Graham R. Pratt. 1996. “Growth in Malaysian Demand

for Business Education: the Australian Response.” Journal of Higher

Education Policy and Management, 18, 2:207-216

Tracer study

Graduate Tracer Study=Laporan Kajian Pengesanan Graduan 2007(Malaysia), Destinations of Leavers from Higher Education (UK), National

Graduate Survey (Canada), Japan Scholarship Program (ADB), Tracer

Study-Joint Japan/World Bank Graduate Scholarship Program (World

Bank)