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CRITICAL EVALUATION ON LANDSCAPE INSTITUTE (UK) CLAIMS FOR THE BENEFITS

OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

Muhammad Anwar Bin Ramli MA Landscape Architecture

University of Sheffield LSC6140 Landscape Research Dissertation

Department of Landscape January 2011

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CRITICAL EVALUATION ON LANDSCAPE INSTITUTE (UK) CLAIMS FOR THE BENEFITS OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE:

A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW Content

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Purpose Of The Review 1.2 Aim 1.3 Objectives

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Systematic Reviews 2.2 Benefits of Green Infrastructure

Chapter 3: Review Methodology

3.1 Setting up the Testable Statement and Related Keywords

3.2 Identifying The Scientific Evidence to Support Claims 3.3 Gap Analysis to Identify Deficient Evidence 3.4 Compilation of Summaries of Research Evidence

Chapter 4: Scientific Evidence and Analysis

4.1 Evaluation by Theme & Testable Statement 4.2 Gap Analysis

Chapter 5: Findings and Conclusion References

Acknowledgement

This research was carried out with the supervision and support of Professor Paul Selman from Department of Landscape, University of Sheffield.

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Abstract

Green Infrastructure (GI) has been recognised as a tool to combat climate change

and it provides social, economic and environmental benefits. In the United Kingdom,

GI is becoming a prominent task to the all levels of planning either in ministerial

level, regional or local development frameworks. This is reflected in various aspects

of national planning policy. The Landscape Institute of UK is a chartered

professional membership body of Landscape Architects who believes that

landscape practitioners are playing a key role in GI delivery in collaboration with

other professions. They have produced the position statement; ‘Green

Infrastructure: Connected and Multifunctional Landscapes’ to explain the potential of

many benefits GI can offer. Unfortunately there is a shortage of scientific evidence in

the position statement that led this research. Therefore, this research will review the

many benefits that GI can offer in the position statement and how the claims

become a verified statement. In order to do this research, the task is to test the

claims by searching the research evidence and analyzing them using gap analysis.

From there, the original statement will become the verified statement.

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Chapter 1

1. INTRODUCTION

Green Infrastructure (GI) has been recognised as a tool to combat climate

change and other environmental issues because of the benefits it generates.

Generally, it provides social, economic and environmental benefits. Green

infrastructure is not a new idea, but it is a new term and the concept evolved over

150 years from: (1) linking of parks and green spaces for the benefit of the people,

and (2) linking of the natural areas for the benefit of biodiversity and habitat

fragmentation (Benedict 2002, 13).

It can be defined as an ‘interconnected network of green space that

conserves natural ecosystem values and functions and provides associated benefits

to human populations’ (Benedict 2002, 12). While Natural England has defined

‘Green Infrastructure is a strategically planned and delivered network comprising the

broadest range of high quality green spaces and other environmental features. It

must be designed and managed as a multifunctional resource capable of delivering

those ecological services and quality of life benefits required by the communities it

serves and needed to underpin sustainability’.

The components of green infrastructure include parks and gardens, amenity

green space, natural and semi-natural urban green spaces, green corridors and

others (allotments, community gardens, city farms, cemeteries and churchyards). In

order to make green infrastructure functionally workable, it must be planned,

designed and managed properly to achieve a multifunctional and connected nature

underpinned by the concept of ecosystem services.

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`

In the United Kingdom, green infrastructure is becoming a prominent task to

the all levels of planning either in ministerial level, regional or local development

frameworks. This is reflected in various aspects of national planning policy such as:

Planning Policy Statement 1 (PPS1) – Delivering sustainable development (2005),

Planning and Climate Change – Supplement to PPS1 (2007) and PPS12 – Local

Spatial Planning (2008). Moreover, green infrastructure has been planned and

implementation is still in progress through out across the region. Most regions have

produced their own green infrastructure document to ensure planning, design and

management working together to achieve all the benefits expected.

The Landscape Institute of UK is a chartered professional membership body

of Landscape Architects who believes that landscape practitioners are playing a key

Park and gardens Amenity green space Natural and semi-natural urban green spaces

Green corridors Allotments

Community gardens

City farms

Cemeteries

Churchyards

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role in green infrastructure delivery in collaboration with other professions. This will

ensure green infrastructure delivers the wide range of benefits and they have

produced the position statement; ‘Green Infrastructure: Connected and

Multifunctional Landscapes’ to explain the potential of many benefits GI can offer.

The next chapter (literature review) will explain the detail of the benefits claimed by

the Landscape Institute (Landscape Institute, 2009).

The Position Statement is designed to explain the many benefits of GI and

the policy objectives it can help achieve, demonstrate the critical role that landscape

practitioners have to play in the development of GI and it is also show how GI works.

From the observations made, there is a shortage of scientific evidence in the

benefits of GI claims by the Landscape Institute that led this research. Therefore,

this research will review the many benefits that GI can offer in the position statement

and how the claims become a verified statement. In order to do this, the whole

research will be based on the systematic review (type 2 – review based

dissertation).

1.1 Purpose Of The Review

The purpose of this systematic review is to evaluate and investigate

the research evidence of the Green Infrastructure benefits claim by the

Landscape Institute, UK. Thus, the review method will be based on the

academic literature review searching for research evidence of green

infrastructure benefits.

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1.2 Aim

The aim of this research is to test the claims about the benefits of

green infrastructure made in the Landscape Institute‘s Position Statement.

1.3 Objectives

The objectives of this study are:

to propose a set of ‗testable statements‘ regarding the benefit of

GI based on the LI publication;

by means of a systematic review, to identify three evidence-

based research papers in relation to each testable statement;

to identify where there are gaps in the evidence base to support

the claims; and

to summarise the evidence gathered in relation to each

statement.

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Chapter 2

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, there will be a literature on the systematic review and the

benefit of green infrastructure itself. The understanding of the systematic review and

how it is used in this research will be a main focus.

2.1 Systematic Reviews

In the last decade moves have been made to ensure that policy and

practice are firmly based on research evidence. The idea of using ‗what

works‘ suggests a move beyond ideology but, in reality, it has become a

powerful ideology in itself suggesting that government be based on

pragmatic responses even where this goes against political expediency or

financial constraints (Davies, Nutley, and Smith, 2000). Nevertheless, it

would seem that policy based on more and better evidence is no bad thing.

Indeed, social scientists have pushed for such responsiveness for decades.

Systematic reviews fall neatly into this growing movement and refer to

studies that try to answer a clear question by finding and describing all

published and, where possible, unpublished work on a topic.

Systematic reviews may be differentiated from literature reviews in

the social sciences. Such ‗narrative‘ reviews are often carried out with no

explicit search criteria, are not spatially and temporarily delimited and are

usually not carried out with the aim of being exhaustive. A further charge is

that such reviews are also selective in their presentation of evidence, though

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many social scientists would dispute these points. Being systematic does not

logically entail achieving comprehensive coverage; thus a further phase in

systematic review is the attempt to estimate coverage as well as quality.

Wikipedia has defined a ‗systematic review‘ as a literature review on

a single question that tries to identify, appraise, select and synthesize all

high quality research evidence relevant to that question. Systematic review is

not limited to medicine and is quite common in other science such as

psychology, educational research and sociology.

When used in contemporary literature, the term systematic refers to

‗methodological‘ or something ‗done or conceived according to a plan or

system‘. The term review is defined as ‗a general survey or assessment of a

subject or thing‘. A systematic review therefore could be defined as a

methodical assessment of a subject using a predetermined plan. In research

literature, a systematic review has been defined as a concise scientific

investigation, with pre–planned methods that summarise, appraise,

synthesise and communicate the results of multiple primary researches.

As a conclusion, we can summarise that the systematic review is a

systematic approach for assessment of a subject based on the

methodological sequences. In this study, the GI benefits claimed by The

Landscape Institute UK will become a subject for assessment.

2.2 Benefits of Green Infrastructure

The benefits of green infrastructure have been claimed by many

parties. Benedict and McMahon (2002) agree that the green infrastructure

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contributes to enrichment of habitat and biodiversity; maintenance of natural

landscape processes; cleaner air and water; increased recreational

opportunities; improved health; and better connection to nature and sense of

place. Green space also increases property values and can decrease the

costs of public infrastructure and services such as, flood control, water

treatment systems and storm water management.

In the UK, the Landscape Institute and others such as Natural

England and Commission for Architecture and Built Environment (CABE)

also agree the same benefits generated from having the green infrastructure

network. In the Landscape Institute Position Statement, it is emphasized on

the benefit of incorporating the planning, design and management to achieve

multifunctional nature of green infrastructure assets underpinned by the

ecosystem services. The benefits will be reinforced and enhanced by the

connectivity of these assets and include (Landscape Institute, 2009) :

i. Climate change adaptation

Even modest increases in tree canopy cover can significantly reduce

the urban heat island effect via evapotranspiration and shading, as

well as improving air quality, which often suffers because of higher

temperatures. Connectivity of GI via wildlife corridors is critical in

ensuring that biodiversity is safeguarded in the face of a changing

climate and green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to

reduce the risk of flooding.

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ii. Climate change mitigation

Well-designed and managed GI can encourage people to travel in a

more sustainable way, such as cycling and walking. In addition to

acting as carbon sinks, trees and landform can reduce energy use for

heating and cooling buildings by shading them in summer and

sheltering them in winter. A GI approach to planning can also

optimise the potential for efficient, decentralised, renewable energy,

improving local energy security, providing space for ground source

heating, hydroelectric power, biomass and wind power.

iii. Water management

GI is a good approach for managing flood risk. This can involve

placing sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) in developments to

attenuate surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and

recreation. Agricultural land and wetlands can be used to store flood

water in areas where there is no risk to homes and commercial

buildings. GI can be used to manage coastal retreat as well as to

restore wetlands, enhancing carbon sequestration whilst providing

important wildlife habitat.

iv. Dealing with waste

GI assets can deal with waste in a sustainable way. A good example

of this is the use of reed beds which remove pollutants from water.

Historically, waste has been placed in landfill sites, which have then

been adapted for other GI functions, including wildlife habitats and

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leisure parks. Closed landfill sites are a legacy which could provide a

much greater range of functions if greater investment was made

available.

v. Food production

Creating space for food production through allotments and

community gardens and orchards, increases access to healthy food,

provides educational opportunities, contributes to food security and

reconnects communities with their local environment. Connecting

local communities with these assets via footpaths and cycle ways can

encourage this reconnection further.

vi. Biodiversity enhancement, corridors and linkages

The role of GI in providing wildlife habitat in both urban and rural

areas is well established, but taking a landscape-scale approach to

the planning, design and management of connected GI assets

provides the framework within which species migration can more

readily occur in response to environmental pressures such as climate

change.

vii. Recreation and health

As illustrated by all of the case studies in this position statement,

accessible GI provides important opportunities for informal and active

recreation. Ensuring that these assets are provided in close proximity

to people‘s homes, are maintained properly, and are designed with

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the needs of local communities in mind, is critical to their positive role

in public health and wellbeing.

viii. Economic values

Quality green space can have a major positive impact on land and

property markets, creating settings for investment and acting as a

catalyst for wider regeneration.

ix. Local distinctiveness

Well-designed and managed GI assets, particularly those that

engage local communities and which relate to landscape character

and heritage, can enhance local sense of place and foster community

spirit. They can be a catalyst for regeneration and stimulate

employment opportunities by attracting investment and tourism.

x. Education

As demonstrated by the River Ray Corridor and Ingrebourne Hill,

natural environments which are connected to local communities can

provide a range of educational opportunities and assist in

reconnecting society with the natural environment; a fundamental

prerequisite of living within environmental limits, and a cornerstone of

the Government‘s sustainable development strategy.

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xi. Stronger communities

GI can help in meeting a wide range of community needs. The spirit

of the GI approach means that social, environmental and economic

potential is considered and optimised. It can be a focus for

community participation through public management, as well as

providing opportunities for education, training, volunteering and

capacity building.

From the above statement, it‘s clearly shown that there are eleven

(11) aspects of GI benefits claimed by Landscape Institute of UK in the

position statement and it‘s covered all aspects. Unfortunately there is a lack

of the scientific evidence for each aspect and this research will explore into it.

While the Commission for Architecture and Built Environment (CABE)

focuses on the benefit of GI for residents and local communities in terms of

better quality of life, healthier residents, stronger local economy and

protection from climate change. The detail of the benefit quoted from CABE

website as below:

Table 2.1: The Benefit of GI Quoted by

Commission for Architecture and Built Environment (CABE)

Aspects Benefit Mechanism

Better quality of life Reduce crime. Natural surveillance of public spaces.

Boost-up community integration.

Green spaces for social events.

Attracting businesses. By ensuring attractive environmental surroundings.

Increasing house prices.

By increasing green spaces.

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Aspects Benefit Mechanism

Healthier Residents Reduce urban heat island effect.

Evaporative cooling.

Shading and providing corridors for cooler air to flow into urban areas as well as filtering polluted air.

Provide safe and highly accessible green routes.

Walking and cycling.

Reduce physical and mental problems.

Recreation using open space and nature.

Stronger Local Economy Increasing green space.

Lead to an increase in average house prices in an area.

Creating environmentally attractive surroundings.

Encourage businesses to relocate to a place.

Protection from Climate Change

Manage surface water runoff for flood prevention.

Storing tidal flood water to reduce flooding in estuaries.

Storing river flood water to reduce the risk of fluvial flooding.

Create cooler microclimates will reduce the need for cool buildings.

Providing shelter and protection in extreme weather.

Provide habitats, corridors and a more permeable landscape to help wildlife adapt to climate change.

Provide local recreation area to reduce travel.

Providing sustainable transport corridors to reduce carbon emissions from vehicles.

Supplying biomass or bio-fuels to directly replace fossil fuels.

Encourage sustainable construction materials by supplying timber.

Increasing local food production to reduce food miles.

Improving carbon sink and sequestration.

Higher Biodiversity Provides wildlife habitat

Creates green corridors Source: Adapted from CABE Website (http://www.cabe.org.uk/sustainable-places/green-infrastructure/benefits)

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Natural England believes that green Infrastructure can provide many

social, economic and environmental benefits close to where people live and

work including:

Table 2.2: The Benefit of GI Quoted by Natural England

Aspects Benefit

Social

Provide places for active and passive recreation

Improved health and well-being – lowering stress levels and providing opportunities for exercise

Economic Local food production - in allotments, gardens and

through agriculture

Environmental

Reserve and habitat for wildlife with access to nature for people

Climate change adaptation - for example flood alleviation and cooling urban heat islands

Environmental education

Source: Adapted from Natural England Website http://naturalengland.etraderstores.com/NaturalEnglandShop/NE176

In conclusion, there are many benefits of green infrastructure claimed

by various parties and this is a good sign of awareness of the existing

environmental issues that we are facing today. Based on the initiative from

the Landscape Institute and others, indirectly it will increase community

awareness to the environmental issues and also can educate people to act

with communities to battle the environmental issues such as climate change,

urban heat island, flooding and others.

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Chapter 3

3. REVIEW METHODOLOGY

3.1 Setting up the Testable Statement and Related Keywords

In order to review the benefits of GI claim by the Landscape Institute

of UK, it is vital to understand that this review will be undertaken as a review

based (Type 2) dissertation which is focused on academic or scientific

research evidence. The initial effort has been worked out by dividing the

benefit of GI (subject to evaluate) as a ‗theme to evaluate‘ and the ‗testable

statement‘ is formulate from the evaluate theme as the table 3.1 below.

Table 3.1: Formulation of Testable Statement

From the Theme to Evaluate

No Theme to Evaluate Testable Statement

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Climate Change Adaptation Even modest increases in tree canopy cover can significantly reduce the urban heat island effect via evapotranspiration and shading, as well as improving air quality, which often suffers because of higher temperatures. Connectivity of GI via wildlife corridors is critical in ensuring that biodiversity is safeguarded in the face of a changing climate and green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding.

1. Modest increases on tree canopy

cover can reduce urban heat island via evapotranspiration and shading, improving air quality.

2. Green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding.

3. Connectivity of GI via wildlife corridors is critical in ensuring that biodiversity is safeguarded (also mentioned in the other section)

Testable Statement 1 Modest increases on tree canopy cover can reduce urban heat island via evapotranspiration and shading, improving air quality. Keywords for search engine: Trees, urban heat island, vegetation, climate change adaptation, green infrastructure, urban green space.

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Testable Statement 2 Green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding. Keywords for search engine: Trees, green space, rainwater runoff, flood.

2

Climate Change Mitigation Well-designed and managed GI can encourage people to travel in a more sustainable way, such as cycling and walking. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating and cooling buildings by shading them in summer and sheltering them in winter. A GI approach to planning can also optimise the potential for efficient, decentralised, renewable energy, improving local energy security, providing space for ground source heating, hydroelectric power, biomass and wind power.

3. Well designed and managed GI

can encourage cycling and walking.

4. Trees are carbon sinks. 5. Trees and landform can reduce

energy use for heating and cooling building.

6. GI approach to planning can optimise the potential for decentralised energy production.

Testable Statement 3 Well designed and managed GI can encourage cycling and walking. Keywords for search engine: Greenway movement, walking, cycling, active transport, landscape design. Testable Statement 4 Trees are carbon sinks. Keywords for search engine: Urban trees, benefits, vegetation, ecosystem service, trees, carbon sequestration, carbon sink.

Testable Statement 5 Trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating and cooling building. Keywords for search engine: Trees, Heat loss, Urban Heat Island (UHI), mitigation, shade trees, reduce energy

Testable Statement 6 GI approach to planning can optimise the potential for decentralised energy production. Keywords for search engine: Energy conservation, urban trees, renewable energy, wood fuel, micro generation

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3

Water Management GI is a good approach for managing flood risk. This can involve placing sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) in developments to attenuate surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and recreation. Agricultural land and wetlands can be used to store flood water in areas where there is no risk to homes and commercial buildings. GI can be used to manage coastal retreat as well as to restore wetlands, enhancing carbon sequestration whilst providing important wildlife habitat.

7. Sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) can attenuate surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and recreation.

8. GI can be used to manage coastal retreat, restore wetlands.

9. Wetlands are also carbon sinks.

Testable Statement 7 Sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) can attenuate surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and recreation. Keywords for search engine: Sustainable drainage system, water runoff, biodiversity, greenway, recreation. Testable Statement 8 GI can be used to manage coastal retreat, restore wetlands. Keywords for search engine: Coastal retreat, wetland restoration, planning / manage coastal, manage retreat, coastal squeeze. Testable Statement 9 Wetlands are also carbon sinks. Keywords for search engine: Wetland, carbon sinks, carbon sequestration.

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Dealing With Waste GI assets can deal with waste in a sustainable way. A good example of this is the use of reed beds which remove pollutants from water. Historically, waste has been placed in landfill sites, which have then been adapted for other GI functions, including wildlife habitats and leisure parks. Closed landfill sites are a legacy which could provide a much greater range of functions if greater investment was made available.

10. Wider range of after uses on reclamation closed landfill sites.

11. Use of reed beds to remove water pollutants

Testable Statement 10 Effective reclamation of closed landfill site. Keywords for search engine: Closed landfill, biodiversity, woodland, recreation, education, tourism

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Testable Statement 11 Use of reed beds to remove water pollutants Keywords for search engine: Wetland, water pollution, water treatment, reed beds.

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Food Production Creating space for food production through allotments and community gardens and orchards, increases access to healthy food, provides educational opportunities, contributes to food security and reconnects communities with their local environment. Connecting local communities with these assets via footpaths and cycleways can encourage this reconnection further.

12. Space for food production through allotments will increase access to healthy food, provide educational opportunities and reconnect communities.

Testable Statement 12 Space for food production through allotments will increase access to healthy food, provide educational opportunities and reconnect communities. Keywords for search engine: Community garden, urban health, local participation

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Biodiversity Enhancement, Corridors And Linkages The role of GI in providing wildlife habitat in both urban and rural areas is well established, but taking a landscape-scale approach to the planning, design and management of connected GI assets provides the framework within which species migration can more readily occur in response to environmental pressures such as climate change.

13. Species migration – response to

climate change.

Testable Statement 13 Species migration – response to climate change. Keywords for search engine: Green space corridors, connectivity, species migration, greenway movement

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Recreation And Health As illustrated by all of the case studies in this position statement, accessible GI provides important opportunities for informal and active recreation. Ensuring that these assets are provided in close proximity to people‘s homes, are maintained properly,

14. Accessible GI provides

opportunities for informal and active recreation.

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and are designed with the needs of local communities in mind, is critical to their positive role in public health and wellbeing.

Testable Statement 14 Accessible GI provides opportunities for informal and active recreation. Keywords for search engine: Greenways, recreation, health, landscape health, landscape fitness, landscape wellbeing

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Economic Values Quality green space can have a major positive impact on land and property markets, creating settings for investment and acting as a catalyst for wider regeneration.

15. Quality green space – positive

impact on land and property markets.

16. Attract investment and tourism.

Testable Statement 15 Quality green space – positive impact on land and property markets Keywords for search engine: Greenways, property values, economic valuation, tree, water, open space

Testable Statement 16 Attract investment and tourism. Keywords for search engine: Green space, investment, green tourism, landscape, inward investment

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Local Distinctiveness Well-designed and managed GI assets, particularly those that engage local communities and which relate to landscape character and heritage, can enhance local sense of place and foster community spirit. They can be a catalyst for regeneration and stimulate employment opportunities by attracting investment and tourism.

17. Enhance local sense of place and foster community spirit.

Testable Statement 17 Enhance local sense of place and foster community spirit. Keywords for search engine: Community, landscape, sense of place, landscape character, local distinctiveness

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Education As demonstrated by the River Ray Corridor and Ingrebourne Hill, natural environments which are connected to local communities can provide a range of educational

18. GI provides range of educational opportunities.

19. Reconnecting society with natural environment.

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opportunities and assist in reconnecting society with the natural environment; a fundamental prerequisite of living within environmental limits, and a cornerstone of the Government‘s sustainable development strategy.

Testable Statement 18 GI provides range of educational opportunities. Keywords for search engine: Environment for play and development, education, recreation, landscape learning. Testable Statement 19 Reconnecting society with natural environment. Keywords for search engine: Ecological networks, connecting environment, social

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Stronger Communities GI can help in meeting a wide range of community needs. The spirit of the GI approach means that social, environmental and economic potential is considered and optimised. It can be a focus for community participation through public management, as well as providing opportunities for education, training, volunteering and capacity building.

20. Focus for community participations through public management.

Testable Statement 20 Focus for community participations through public management. Keywords for search engine: Community Participation, green community investment / engagement

After the entire ‗theme to evaluate‘ has been converted into the

‗testable statements‘, the suitable keywords will be identified from the

testable statement and from there, the appropriate scientific or research

evidence can be found from the search engine. In terms of searching the

suitable research evidence, familiar search engines such as Google Scholar

will be used and from there it will direct to another search engine for

academic purposes such as Scopus, ISI Web of Knowledge and Science

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Direct. The other resources are also available from publications, reports,

proceedings and conference papers.

The important part in searching the scientific evidence of Green

Infrastructure claims by the Landscape Institute is to understand the green

infrastructure assets because all these assets will determine the success of

the benefits it can generate.

3.2 Identify The Scientific Evidence to Support Claims

The next step is to identify at least three (3) or more scientific papers

or other research evidence for each testable statement to support the claims

(theme to evaluate). So, the next chapter will have the scientific evidence for

each testable statement and compile summaries of research abstracts (from

the research paper).

3.3 Gap Analysis to Identify Deficient Evidence

In this type of research, we cannot expect all the testable statements

should have the scientific evidence from the previous researcher. Maybe

there is lack of published evidence and we just can simply treat it as a claim,

and this is where the use of gap analysis is needed to identify areas where

the evidence is currently deficient.

3.4 Compilation of Summaries of Research Evidence

This is the last stage of this research where the entire claim will

become the verified statement after each claim filled by the gaps from the

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supporting scientific evidence. However, some of the testable statements

simply remains ‗claims‘ because they cannot yet be substantiated.

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Chapter 4

4. SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE AND ANALYSIS

In this chapter, the research evidence will be found out from the academic

research papers based on the keywords generated on each ‗testable statement‘ for

each theme (GI benefit claim by LI) and these are useable for gap analysis.

4.1 Evaluation by Theme and Testable Statement

Theme 1: Climate Change Adaptation

Testable Statement 1: Modest increases on tree canopy cover can reduce

urban heat island (UHI) via evapotranspiration and shading, improving air

quality

The higher temperature in urban area is caused by the presence of hard

surfaces such as concrete and asphalt and the absence of greenery that would

otherwise help to cool the local atmosphere. The existence of buildings exacerbates

this issue. Cars and buildings also contribute to produce waste heat to the overall

effect of UHI.

Gill et al. (2007) found that if there is increasing green cover by 10% in urban

areas could keep extreme surface temperatures by 2.5°C by 2080s, despite climate

change. By removing 10% green cover would increase expected maximum surface

temperature by 7°C by the 2080s.

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While Solecki (2005) proved that urban vegetation can reduce health

hazards associated with the UHI effect by removing pollutants from the air. Planting

trees in urban area is an effective and economically efficient way to reduce energy

consumption at the sites. The effectiveness of UHI mitigation strategies

demonstrated that additional trees in neighbourhoods in and around Newark, UK

and Camden, UK will increase the amount of cooling energy saving.

Leonard (1972) found that the transpiration of a mature tree corresponds to a

refrigerator with a capacity of more than 150,000 thermal units/BTUs per day. A

large mature tree is able to transpire 450 litres of water per day. This enables it to

consume 1000 MJ of caloric energy in order to carry out the transpiration process,

thus lowering urban temperatures.

Akbari (2002) confirmed that urban tree planting can account for a 25%

reduction in net cooling and heating energy usage in urban landscapes. In hot

climates, deciduous trees shading a building can save cooling-energy use,

meanwhile in cold climates; evergreen trees shielding the building from the cold

winter wind can save heating-energy use.

Testable Statement 2: Green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to

reduce the risk of flooding

The same research done by Gill et al. (2007) also found that by adding 10%

green cover would reduce run-off from a 28mm rainfall event by 4.9% by the 2080s.

Reciprocally by adding 10% tree cover can reduce run-off from 28mm rainfall event

by 5.7% by 2080s. However, by adding green roofs to all the buildings in town

centres, retail and high-density residential areas significantly reduces run-off from

8% to14.1% by the 2080s for a 28 mm rainfall event.

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According to Mentens, et al. (2006) green roof (green space) can reduce

rainwater runoff. The application for the region of Brussels showed that extensive

roof greening on just 10% of the buildings would result in a runoff reduction of 2.7%

for the region and of 54% for the individual buildings. Green roofs can therefore be a

useful tool for reducing urban rainfall runoff.

Kolb (2004) reported that 45% of all rainfall can be recycled using the green

roofs. It may reduce runoff water by 60% to 100%, depending on the type of green

roof system.

Even though green roof systems retain storm water, runoff will still occur

after it becomes saturated. However, runoff is delayed because it takes time for the

green roof to become saturated and for the water to drain through the media. This

delay can prevent storm water sewer systems from overflowing, by allowing it to

process runoff for a longer time at a lower flow rate (Getter et al., 2006). Green roofs

can delay runoff between 95 min (Liu, 2003) and 4 hour (Moran et al., 2004),

compared with the reference roofs for which runoff was nearly instantaneous.

After runoff begins on a green roof system, the rate at which the rain leaves

the roof is slower than a non greened roof because of the nature of the green roof

components. Liu, 2003 found that when initial rainfall was 2.8 mm/h, runoff from the

green roof was reduced to 0.5 /hour. By slowing down the rate of runoff and turning

it out over a longer period of time, green roofs can help mitigate the erosion power

of runoff that does enter streams, either through direct runoff or storm sewers.

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Theme 2: Climate Change Mitigation

Testable Statement 3: Well designed and managed GI can encourage cycling

and walking

Pikora et al. (2003) performed the research on influence of the environment

to the physical activity whether walking or cycling in the neighbourhood area. A

physical environmental factor that may influence walking/cycling in the local

neighbourhood is functional, safety, aesthetic and destination. Based on the

interview result, the first reason for walking/cycling is factor is personal safety and

aesthetics is become the second reason. This is including the presence of trees,

garden, parks or views that encourage people to do so. This is where green

infrastructure elements can become an important factor for people to walking or

cycling.

Good design of the public open space (green infrastructure component) will

encourage physical activity in community that potentially contribute to the health of

local residents. Corti et al. (2005) examined the influence of attractiveness on the

use of public open space. 28.8% of the respondents using it for physical activity with

the increasing level of access are distance, attractiveness and size. 50% of the

respondents are attracted to the large public open space associated with the high

levels of walking (95% confidence level, 1.06 - 2.13). The study confirmed that

access to attractive large public open space is associated with higher levels of

walking or jogging.

Cervero et al. (2008) examines the influence of built environments on

walking and cycling with the example of Bogotá, Colombia. The city is well known as

sustainable urban transport systems. Ciclovı´a (‗‗cycleway‘‘) is the largest linear park

29

in the world located in this area are being used by the cyclist and pedestrian for

recreational purpose especially on Sundays and holidays. Surveys reveal around

half of Ciclovı´a users are on bicycle or roller-skate and the other half are on foot.

The influence of using this area was street design and for recreational activities,

having reserved lanes for bicycles and pedestrians reasonably close to one‘s

residence encouraged Ciclovı´a usage.

Parks and trails can promote physical activity. Killingworth et al. (2003)

revealed that a survey of U.S. adults using a park or walking and jogging trail, nearly

30% reported an increase in activity since they began using these facilities. This is

similar in a Missouri where 55.2% people using trails reported an increase walking

since they began using trails.

Testable Statement 4: Trees are carbon sinks

Under the Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Institute of

Terrestrial Ecology has been developing an inventory of carbon in the vegetation

and soils of Great Britain (GB). Milne and Brown, (1997) discover the total amount of

carbon held by vegetation is estimated to be 114 Mtonnes. Woodlands and forests

hold 80% of the GB total although they occupy only about 11% of the rural land

area. Broadleaf species hold about 50% of the carbon in woodlands and forests.

The predominant location of vegetation carbon is the broadleaved woodlands of

southern England while the amount of carbon in the soils of GB is estimated to be

9838 Mt (6948 Mt in Scotland and 2890 Mt in England and Wales). In Scotland,

most soil carbon is in blanket peats, whereas most soil carbon is in stagnogley soils

in England and Wales. Scottish peat soils have the greatest density of carbon and in

total contain 4523 Mt of carbon, 46% of the GB total.

30

It is estimated that the urban trees in Syracuse store some 163,500 tons of

carbon and have an annual carbon uptake of 3,870 tons/yr . As CO2 is an important

greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming, the value of the effect of urban

forests on carbon is estimated at $3 million for storage and $71,500/yr for uptake.

(Nowak et al. 2001)

Urban vegetation is increasingly recognized as an alternative ameliorative

method by removing some pollutants mainly through dry deposition process. Jim

(2008) examined the capability and monetary value of the ecosystem service in

Guangzhou city in South China. The annual removal of SO2, NO2 and total

suspended particulates at about 312.03 Mg, and the benefits were valued at

RMB90.19 thousand (US$1.00 ¼ RMB8.26). More removal was realized by

recreational land use due to a higher tree cover. Higher concentration of pollutants

in the dry winter months induced more removal.

Birdsay et al. (1993) reported that since 1952, carbon stored on US

woodland has increased by 38% (8.8x1015g), primarily in the East. This increase is

consistent with recently reported trends in Europe and accounts for as much as 21%

of a hypothesized carbon sink in Northern temperate forests.

Testable Statement 5: Trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating

and cooling building.

Trees and cool roofs that shade buildings also reduce the amount of solar

energy that enters building and help to reduce summer air conditioning loads. This

saves mainly electricity and of course money. The analysis by Rosenfeld et al.

(1996) in Los Angeles (LA) show that a ―cool communities‖ strategy (shade trees)

can directly lower the annual air conditioning bills in LA by about $100 million (M),

31

cooling the air (saving indirectly $70M more in air conditioning) and help to reduce

smog by 10% (worth another $360M) for a total savings of about $0.5 billion per

year.

It was reported in a study conducted by Spronken-Smith et al. (2000) that

parks could help control temperatures through an evaporation of more than 300% as

compared to its surrounding.

Urban trees and high-albedo surfaces can offset or reverse the heat-island

effect. Mitigation of urban heat islands can potentially reduce national energy use in

air conditioning by 20% and save over $10B per year in energy use and

improvement in urban air quality. This amounts to 40 TWh/year saving worth over

$4B per year by 2015, in cooling-electricity savings along. (Akbari, Pomerantz &

Taha, 2001)

Kikegawa et al. (2005) make conclusions based on simulation of cooling

energy saving and suggested that reduction in the air-conditioning anthropogenic

heat can be the most effective measure in office buildings‘ canopies and vegetation

increase on the side walls of buildings. This could decrease in near-ground summer

air temperature of 0.2 – 1.20C. Indirectly this decrease could result in the buildings‘

cooling energy-savings of 4 – 40%.

Testable Statement 6: Green infrastructure approach to planning can optimise

the potential for decentralised energy production

There is not much research evidence found for this testable statement.

32

However, Alanne and Saari (2004) suggested a new trend of distributed

energy generation which means that energy conversion units are situated close to

energy consumers. A distributed energy system is an efficient, reliable and

environmental friendly compare to the traditional way. They conclude that a

distributed energy system is a good option with respect to sustainable development

in the long run. Distributed energy generation aims at utilizing local fuels like

biomass and establishing local fuel storage.

Recently, South Yorkshire Forest Partnership introduces South Yorkshire

Woodfuel Program as a renewable energy generation from wood or biomass. It is

one of a number of alternative energy sources that can significantly reduce the

amount of harmful emissions that are released into the atmosphere. Wood is a

renewable fuel, and growing trees take up carbon dioxide as they grow, so burning

wood is far more sustainable and overall contributes some 90% less CO2 emissions,

than burning fossil fuels. Since heating consumes most of the energy used in

buildings, the introduction of low carbon fuels for heating will reduce the contribution

this has on climate change. Woodchip can also be a cheaper fuel than traditional

fossil-based resources such as oil or LPG. Woodfuel can be burned to generate

heat or electricity and is an important part of the UK‘s renewable energy supply. It is

a sustainable, low carbon, source of energy that is produced from managed woods,

where felled trees are replanted.

Theme 3: Water Management

Testable Statement 7: Sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) can attenuate

surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and recreation

There is not much research evidence found for this testable statement.

33

Boller (2004) introduces a new technique for urban stormwater management

to ensure it can functional such as retention, contaminant barrier, infiltration or direct

discharge. Surface runoff in open channels, small creeks, ponds, reed beds and

other planted systems can be considered as elements of landscaping. It is

suggested that the structures for stormwater handling are integrated into local

landscaping in the surrounding of buildings such as ponds, reed-beds, ditches, etc.

creating attractive blue-green environments.

Broadhead and Jones (2010) recommend that flood risk management can be

done through restoration of natural systems. This is important for habitat creation

and biodiversity enrichment by integrating flood risk and biodiversity in river and

floodplain management. To achieve this, it should be extended to other community-

led benefits such as soil health, renewable energy, recreation and fishing.

Springhill Cohousing, Stroud, UK. High density housing on a steep site, yet SuDS proliferates here; rills and swales collect and store rain water, while benefiting biodiversity

(Robert Bray Associates)

34

Testable Statement 8: GI can be used to manage coastal retreat, restore

wetlands

According to Maddrell (1995), recycling shingle has been used for a beach

protection was unique and it is applied for Dungeness Nuclear Power Station to

protect it from erosion by beach feeding. The beach feeding scheme has operated

for 29 years and it is suitable to manage coastal area of Dungeness and protect this

area from flooding, damage to the station and has small adverse environmental

impacts. The concept of coastal retreat significantly reducing the quantities of

recharge shingle required.

Hsieh et al. (2004) explore the establishment of wetlands conservation

greenway. It will connect the various types of wetlands to form a conservation

greenway in Changhua County Coast, Taiwan. Three (3) different types of wetland

management areas are recognized: (1) protected areas, (2) ecological parks (for

sustainable use), and (3) restoration areas.

The wetlands conservation greenway along the west coast of Taiwan.

A wetlands conservation greenway on the Changhua County coast, Taiwan.

35

Henry and Amoros (1974) recognized ecological restoration as a discipline

that should be conducted scientifically and rigorously to increase success and self-

sustainability of restored ecosystems. Thus for future restoration projects should

follow these following steps: (1) increase restoration legitimacy with a team of

interdisciplinary scientists working on the project; (2) must have a precise restoration

missions, goal and objectives; (3) monitoring ecosystem changes (before and after

restoration).

Testable Statement 9: Wetlands are also carbon sinks

Wetlands are important in global carbon dynamics because of their large soil

carbon pools, high methane (CH4) emissions, and potential for carbon sequestration

in peat formation, sediment deposition and plant biomass.

Euliss Jr. (2006) evaluated the potential carbon sinks of wetlands restoration

in North America. It is estimated to sequester 378 Tg of organic carbon over a 10-

year period. It also can sequester over twice the organic carbon as no-till cropland

on only about 17% of the total land area in the North America. This research also

estimated the wetland restoration to offset 2.4% of the annual fossil CO2 emission

for North America in 1990 was 1.6 Pg C.

Twllley et al., (1992) revealed that the global storage of carbon (C) in

mangrove biomass is estimated at 4.03 Pg C; and 70% of this C occurs in coastal

margins from 0 ° to 10 ° latitude.

Meanwhile, according to Chmura et al., (2003) mangrove swamps and salt

marshes (wetlands) store at least 44.6 Tg C yr-1, and it release negligible amounts of

greenhouse gases and store more carbon per unit area.

36

Theme 4: Dealing With Waste

Testable Statement 10: Effective reclamation of closed landfill site

Aplet and Conn (1997) examined the successful conversion of landfill sites

for parks or other beneficial land uses in Los Angeles County, California. The uses

of completed landfills as golf course are golf courses, parks, playgrounds and ball

fields, botanical gardens, residential and industrial development, and others (parking

areas, airport runways and goods-transfer yards).

Simmons (1999) revealed a technique for restoration of landfill sites for

ecological diversity of both rural and semi-urban locations and improving their visual

appearance. The appropriate techniques for restoration for ecological diversity is

important and it must consider the combination of intervention followed by natural

progression, unless a particular habitat type needs to be established. The timing of

restoration works must take post-closure operational and environmental protection

works into account to minimize conflicts and wasted effort.

Brownfield land is used for waste disposal and closed landfills within

‗community forest‘ in England account for some 3,000 hectares. Tree planting and

reclamation of the brownfield land can meet the target of converting the landscape

from 4 to 12% woodland cover in period of 30 years. Dickinson et al. (2004) found

that closed landfill sites can be successfully restored to community forest with

selected species such as F. Excelsior, Q. Petraea, M. Sylcestris, S. Aucuparia, A.

Pseudoplatanus, C. Monogyna, A. Glutinosa, P. Padus and P. Spinosa.

37

Testable Statement 11: Use of reed beds to remove water pollutants

Gersberg et al. (1986) investigated the role of each of three higher aquatic

plant types, Scirpus validus (bulrush), Phragmites communis (common reed) and

Typha latifola (cattail), in the removal of nitrogen, biochemical oxygen demand

(BOD) and total suspended solids (TSS) from primary municipal wastewaters using

artificial wetlands. The bulrushes and reeds proved to be superior at removing

ammonia (1.4 mg 1-1 for the bulrush bed and 5.3 mg 1-1 for the reed bed). The high

ammonia-N (and total N) removal efficiencies shown by the bulrush and reed beds

are attributed to the ability of these plants to translocation O2 from the shoots to the

roots. The oxidized rhizosphere so formed stimulates sequential nitrification-

denitrification. Similarly BOD removal efficiencies were highest in the bulrush and

reed beds, both with mean effluent BOD levels (5.3 and 22.2 mg 1-1, respectively).

Green and Upton (1994) proved that design and construction of reed beds

used for effluent polishing in UK. The majority of sewage treatment plants in UK are

designed to meet effluent quality standards of 45 mg/L total suspended solids (TSS)

and 25 mg/L biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) on a 95 percentile basis. It is

cheaper in capital running costs than sand filters for population less than 2,000.

Nevertheless, Cooper and Green (1995) realized that after 10 year‘s

implementation of reed bed treatment system for sewage system in UK (since

1985), the problems has overcome with the use of gravel-based system because of

the difficulty experienced with over-land flow in soil systems. After that, reed bed

treatment system has been accepted in the UK as an appropriate solution for village

treatment and they are being installed widely.

38

Theme 5: Food Production

Testable Statement 12: Space for food production through allotments will

increase access to healthy food, provide educational opportunities and

reconnect communities

Martin and Marsden (1999) explore the re-emergence of urban food

production initiatives in the local authorities of England and Wales. From the

questionnaires to the local authorities, the perception that urban food production

strengthens communities was reiterated, with the majority of respondents stating

that community development was a main benefit of urban food production and a

major reason why local authorities believed they should become involved in

schemes.

Holland (2004) examined the community garden movement in the UK and

these are to be found in the inner city areas such as Bradford, Leeds, Bristol and

Sandwell. They are usually are open spaces managed and operated by members of

the local community for a variety of purposes: in conjunction with vegetation growing

(either as landscape or for consumption), some schemes are experimental

permaculture plots, others use organic methods and yet others are concerned with

health, education and training. All appear to be based in a sense of community, with

participation and involvement being particularly strong features.

Wakefield et al. (2007) investigated the health impacts of community

gardening in Toronto, Ontario through participant observation, focus groups and in-

depth interviews. Result suggested that community gardens were perceived by

gardeners to provide numerous health benefits including improved access to food,

39

nutrient, physical activity and improved mental health. The community gardens were

also seen to promote social health and community cohesion.

Theme 6: Biodiversity Enhancement, Corridors and Linkages

Testable Statement 13: Species migration – response to climate change

Fabos (1995) broad up the issues of greenway movement and its emergence

since it was initiated by Sir Frederick Law Olmsted in the US. Majority of greenways

fall into one of three categories and that the three types are; (1) Greenways of

ecologically significant corridors and natural systems, mostly along rivers, coastal

areas and ridgelines to maintain biodiversity and to provide for wildlife migration and

appropriate nature studies; (2) Recreational greenways; and (3) Greenways with

historical and cultural values to attract tourists and to provide recreational,

educational, scenic and economic benefits.

Gilbert (1998) conduct field experiments to test the idea that corridors can

reduce the rate of loss of species help to maintain species richness and minimized

the extinctions by establishing the corridors. The result is positive whereby

connecting patches of habitat with corridors did slow the rate of extinction of species

and preserving species richness for longer period of time than disconnected habitat

patches. This is because the habitat can migrate to the other area using the corridor.

It is true that the theory predicts that species richness can be maintained or at least

extinctions minimized by boosting rates of immigration through corridors.

MoÈrtberg and Wallentinus (2000) investigated if the remnants forest in the

city and green space corridors could support target species for conservation. The

findings can be used for developing guidelines for design of urban green space

40

corridors. The logistic regression models showed that important properties of

remnants of natural vegetation were large areas of forest on rich soils, together with

connectivity in the form of amounts of this habitat in the landscape. These properties

were associated with the green space corridors.

Theme 7: Recreation and Health

Testable Statement 14: Accessible GI provides opportunities for informal and

active recreation

Shafer et al., 2000, conducted a research on three greenway trails in Texas.

The research was based on the human ecosystem concept and was intended to

determine if and how such greenway facilities were contributing to quality of life and

how people might perceive such contributions based on the way they used the trail

(e.g. for transportation or recreation). The results indicated that most people used

greenway trails for recreation but that trails differed in user types and activities

based on location and policy. Users felt that these urban greenway trails were

contributing most to community quality of life through resident health/fitness, the

natural areas they provide, better land use and resident pride. They felt that they

contributed least to diversifying industry, business development and access to

shopping areas or public transportation.

Dunnett, et al. (2002) estimated that in the UK there are 27,000 urban parks,

covering 14% of cities and towns and adding up to a total of 143,000 hectares.

About 74% of adults agree that green spaces are important for their general health.

Kuppuswamy (2009) reviewed the relationship between exercise and open

green space and reported that green infrastructure will help the government reach

41

targets to increase levels of physical activity and to provide a significant economic

reason to maintain green space.

Theme 8: Economic Values

Testable Statement 15: Quality green space – positive impact on land and

property markets

Anderson and Cordell (1988) conducted a survey on sales of 844 singles

family dwellings in Athens, Georgia, USA. The results indicated that trees are

associated with a 3.5 - 4.5% increase in the selling price of single family dwellings.

During the study period (1978 – 1980), the average house sold at $38,100 and this

sales price increased due to the trees between $1475 and $1750. This result means

that when the housing area is associated with the green element, it will increase the

property value and have economic impacts on land.

Tyrväinen (1997) investigated study on how urban forest benefits are

capitalized in property (apartment) prices using hedonic pricing method. The result

indicated that urban forests are an appreciated environmental characteristic and

their benefits are reflected in the property prices. Proximity of watercourses and

urban forest areas had a positive influence on apartment price.

While Luttik (2000) performed the research about an attractive environment

is likely to influence house prices using hedonic pricing method. The biggest impact

in housing prices is environmental factors (up to 28%) for houses with a garden

facing water or connected to a sizeable lake. From the 3,000 house transaction in

Netherlands, the research demonstrated that a pleasant view can lead to a

considerable increase in house price, particularly if the house overlooks water

42

(8±10%) or open space (6±12%). It can conclude that, the analysis revealed

housing prices varies by the landscape type and an attractive landscape types were

shown to attract a premium of 5±12% over less attractive environmental settings.

Des Rosiers, et al. (2002) undertake study on effect of landscaping on house

values based on the field survey of 760 single-family homes at the Quebec Urban

Community. Findings suggest that the good trees cover in the visible surroundings

housing area give a positive price to the higher house value (raises a property‘s

value by nearly 4%).

Nicholls and Crompton (2005) proved that the effect of greenways on

surrounding residential property. By using the hedonic pricing method, the study

showed that greenways had significant positive impacts on properties sales prices.

Testable Statement 16: Attract investment and tourism

Lerner and Poole (1999) found that greening projects in the US tend to

reduce costs related to urban sprawl and infrastructure provision; attract investment,

raise property values and invigorate local economies; boost tourism; preserve

farmland; prevent flood damage; and safeguard environmental quality generally.

De Sousa (2003) conducted research on ―greening experience‖ in Toronto

where Brownfield sites is redeveloping in urban areas as a green space to bring

improvement to the environment. Brownfield sites have a great potential for

―greening‖ the city environments, through the implementation of parks, playgrounds,

trails, greenways, and other open spaces. Overall, the greening projects generated

new 614 hectares of green space in Toronto and it is involved former industrial area,

former railway corridor and properties contaminated by previous land filling and

43

waste disposal activities. Some of the famous site is Parliament Square, The Music

Garden, Woodbine Park, Beaches North, Colgate Park and Don Valley Brickworks.

All of the projects were carried out by the public sector, with the majority of sites

redeveloped by the municipal government‘s Parks Department and each one taking

from 3 to 5 years to complete. Over half of the sites were already owned by the city

or by some other level of government, while the remaining sites were privately

owned.

Dodds and Joppe (2010) examined how the Green Tourist Association in

Toronto, Canada, developed the concept of urban green tourism by developing the

‘Other Map of Toronto’ to highlight ‗green‘ activities including eco-businesses, green

spaces, galleries and heritage sites, natural food stores and sustainable

transportation. It‘s also provided features relating to environmental awareness. Short

paragraphs on the map also added a green perspective, addressing topics such as

natural history, environmental visits, green spaces and parklands, special garden

and tips on how to be a green tourist.

Theme 9: Local Distinctiveness

Testable Statement 17: Enhance local sense of place and foster community

spirit

There is not much research evidence found for this testable statement.

However, Mazlina & Ismail (2008) conducted a study on the roles of green

infrastructure network as social spaces for well-being of urban residents in Taiping,

a town in central Peninsular Malaysia. It‘s involved 32 respondents from the

residents. A large percentage of residents (91%) participated in recreational

44

activities with the greenery and open spaces allowing mobility and active living, thus

trigger many positive moods such as feeling serene, cheerful, relaxation, comfort

and restful. The physical experiences are associated with social interactions of

residents in the open spaces that stimulate community integration and

empowerment affording sense of harmony, bonding and attachment to the town.

The study suggests that the characteristics and experience of the green network

resulted in progressive physical, cognitive and social functioning of urban residents,

hence, offering well-being.

Meanwhile Ottmann, et al, (2010) interviewed the gardeners by visiting and

observing the Community Gardens in Bronx, New York City with 19 community

gardens and 32 gardeners in this study. It can conclude that the community

gardening can play a very important for the social reproduction of the community in

the Bronx, NY. The program is beneficial to the community for food production but

also as a place where gardeners and community ‗feel at home‘. Basically the garden

is help to promote a sense of place which is a focus for communities and as a centre

for community cultural and educational activities.

Theme 10: Education

Testable Statement 18: GI provides range of educational opportunities

DeLucio and Mugica (1994) considered that visiting national parks or other

ecologically valuable areas is positive in terms of environmental education. The

experience of the visit can contribute to improving the visitors‘ sensitivity and in

changing their preferences. It is the result of the comparison from the four Spanish

national parks from different types of visitor relating to their behaviour, expectations

and attitudes.

45

While Fjørtoft (2001) conducted an experimental study to a small group of

five to seven-year-old children in kindergartens in Telemark, Norway. The

experimental site was a small forest of 7.7 hectares of mixed woodland vegetation,

located closed to a kindergarten. The children were allowed to go at will, but they

will accompanied by adults in certain part. The children have some favourite places

in the forest so that they can climb the trees, hiding and role-play, climbing rocks.

From the result, there is strong relation between the structures of the landscape

(environment) and the impact on motor fitness in children. The motor fitness tests

showed a general tendency that the children using the forest as a playscape

performed better in motor skills than the children on the traditional playground.

At the international level, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO) Network of National Geoparks was established to preserve

geological heritage for future generations (conservation) and at the same time to

educate and teach the public about issues in geological landscapes and

environmental matters (education). There are about 25 National Geoparks (17

European an 8 Chinese) are members of the UNESCO Network until February 2004

(Eder and Patzak, 2004).

Testable Statement 19: Reconnecting society with natural environment

There is not much research evidence found for this testable statement.

However, we can see the evidence of Natural England‘s Access to Nature

grant scheme is aiming to encourage people to appreciate England‘s natural

environment and enjoy green spaces to those people who currently have little or no

contact with the natural environment. The scheme is about £25 million funded

through the Big Lottery Fund‘s Changing Spaces programme. The programme is

46

aiming for 1.7 million people from urban, rural and coastal communities to have

benefited from the grant that gives them the opportunity to experience and enjoy the

natural environment through variety of funded projects. The recipients of the grant

funding so far are Community Service Volunteers at country parks in Birmingham

with the grant value of £225,140.00. The project will establish ranger clubs in

primary schools and work with community groups. Visits to the wider countryside will

be organised where children will be able to learn about the work of countryside

rangers and undertake activities like guided walks/pond dipping.

Theme 11: Stronger Communities

Testable Statement 20: Focus for community participations through public

management

There is not much research evidence found for this testable statement.

4.2 Gap Analysis

Gap analysis has been identified in the early stage of the research to

become the analysis method for this research review. In that manner, to complete

the gap analysis, the table 4.1 below include verifiable evidence to produce verified

statement. By adding the scientific evidence to the statement (italic and bold font),

the statement is verified. Meanwhile, the other statement which is lack of scientific

evidence (verifiable evidence), it will remain as it before.

47

Table 4.1: Gap Analysis of the verifiable evidence to produce verified statement

Benefit of GI Claimed

by Landscape Institute

Testable

Statement

Verifiable

Evidence

Verified

Statement

1. Climate Change Adaptation

Even modest increases in tree canopy cover can significantly reduce the urban heat island

effect via evapotranspiration and shading, as well as improving air quality, which

often suffers because of higher temperatures. Connectivity of GI via wildlife corridors is critical in ensuring

that biodiversity is safeguarded in the face of a changing climate and green

space can ameliorate surface water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding.

1. Modest increases

on tree canopy

cover can reduce urban heat island via

evapotranspiration and shading, improving air

quality.

Increasing green cover by 10% in urban areas

could keep extreme surface temperatures by 2.5°C, however by

removing 10% of green cover would increase expected maximum

surface temperature by 7°C by the 2080s.

Urban tree planting can

account for a 25% reduction in net cooling in

urban landscapes.

Even modest increases in tree canopy cover can significantly

reduce the urban heat island effect via evapotranspiration and shading, as well as improving air quality

which often suffers because of higher temperatures. By increasing 10% green cover in urban areas

could keep extreme surface temperatures by 2.5°C, however by removing 10% of green cover would increase expected

maximum surface temperature by 7°C by the 2080s. Tree planting in urban area can account for a 25%

reduction in net cooling in urban landscapes.

Connectivity of GI via wildlife corridors is critical in ensuring that biodiversity is safeguarded in the

face of a changing climate and green space can ameliorate surface water run-off to reduce the risk of

flooding. By adding 10% tree cover can reduce run-off from 28mm rainfall event by 5.7% by 2080s.

2. Green space can ameliorate surface

water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding.

By adding 10% green

cover would reduce run-off from a 28mm rainfall event by 4.9% by the

2080s.

Reciprocally by adding

10% tree cover can reduce run-off from 28mm rainfall event by

5.7% by 2080s.

2. Climate Change Mitigation Well-designed and managed

GI can encourage people to travel in a more sustainable way, such as cycling and

walking. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating and cooling

buildings by shading them in summer and sheltering them in winter. A GI approach to

planning can also optimise the potential for efficient, decentralised, renewable

energy, improving local energy security, providing space for ground source

heating, hydroelectric power, biomass and wind power.

3. Well designed and managed GI can encourage cycling

and walking.

The presence of trees, garden, parks or views that encourage people to

cycle and walk.

Access to attractive large

public open space is associated with higher levels of walking or

jogging

Well-designed and managed GI can encourage people to travel in a more sustainable way, such as cycling

and walking. Trees, garden, parks or views will encourage people to do cycling and walking.

In addition to acting as carbon sinks, it is estimated that carbon held by vegetation in GB is to be 114

Mtonnes (Mt.) while the amount of carbon in the soils of GB is estimated to be 9838 Mt.

Trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating and cooling

buildings by shading them in summer and sheltering them in winter. Canopies and vegetation

on the side walls of buildings could cool energy-savings of 4-40%.

A GI approach to planning can also optimise the potential for efficient,

decentralised, renewable energy, improving local energy security, providing space for ground source

heating, hydroelectric power, biomass and wind power. This is because the distributed energy

system is an efficient, reliable and environmental friendly and it is good for sustainable

development. The example of local project is South Yorkshire Woodfuel Program as a renewable

energy generation from wood or biomass.

4. Trees are carbon sinks.

Total amount of carbon

held by vegetation in Great Britain (GB) is estimated to be 114

Mtonnes (Mt.) while the amount of carbon in the soils of GB is estimated

to be 9838 Mt.

5. Trees and landform can

reduce energy use for heating and cooling building.

Canopies and vegetation

increase on the side walls of buildings could decrease in near-ground

summer air temperature of 0.2-1.2

0C, indirectly

this decrease could result

in the buildings‘ cooling energy-savings of 4-40%.

6. GI approach to

planning can optimise the potential for

decentralised energy production.

Distributed energy

system is an efficient, reliable and environ-

mental friendly compare to the traditional way. Distributed energy

system is a good option with respect to sustainable development

in the long run and aims at utilizing local fuels (biomass and local fuel

storage).

48

Benefit of GI Claimed by Landscape Institute

Testable Statement

Verifiable Evidence

Verified Statement

3. Water Management

GI is a good approach for managing flood risk. This can involve placing sustainable

drainage systems (SUDs) in developments to attenuate surface water runoff and

enhance biodiversity and recreation. Agricultural land and wetlands can be used to

store flood water in areas where there is no risk to homes and commercial

buildings. GI can be used to manage coastal retreat as well as to restore wetlands,

enhancing carbon sequestration whilst providing important wildlife habitat.

7. Sustainable

drainage systems

(SUDs) can attenuate surface water runoff and

enhance biodiversity and recreation.

The structures for

stormwater handling are integrated into local landscaping such as

ponds, reed-beds, ditches for creating attractive blue-green

environments.

GI is a good approach for managing flood risk. This can involve placing

sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) in developments to attenuate surface water runoff and

enhance biodiversity and recreation. Agricultural land and wetlands can be used to store flood water in areas

where there is no risk to homes and commercial buildings. The structures for stormwater

handling can be integrated into local landscaping such as ponds, reed-beds and ditches for

creating attractive blue-green environments.

GI can be used to manage coastal retreat as well as to restore wetlands through recycling shingle to

protect it from erosion by beach feeding. This can be seen at Dungeness Nuclear Power

Station. GI also could enhancing carbon

sequestration and it is estimated that global storage of carbon in mangrove biomass is 4.03 Pg C

whilst providing important wildlife habitat.

8. GI can be used to

manage coastal retreat, restore wetlands.

Recycling shingle has

been used for a beach protection was unique and it is applied for

Dungeness Nuclear Power Station to protect it from erosion by beach

feeding.

9. Wetlands are also carbon sinks.

Global storage of carbon (C) in mangrove biomass is estimated at 4.03 Pg C

The annual fossil CO2 emission for North

America in 1990 was 1.6 Pg C.

4. Dealing With Waste

GI assets can deal with waste in a sustainable way. A good example of this is the use of

reed beds which remove pollutants from water. Historically, waste has been

placed in landfill sites, which have then been adapted for other GI functions, including

wildlife habitats and leisure parks. Closed landfill sites are a legacy which could provide

a much greater range of functions if greater investment was made available.

10. Wider range of

after uses on

reclamation closed landfill sites.

The uses of completed

landfills as golf course are golf courses, parks, playgrounds and ball

fields, botanical gardens, residential and industrial development, and others

(parking areas, airport runways and goods-transfer yards).

Closed landfill sites can be successfully restored

to community forest.

GI assets can deal with waste in a sustainable way. A good example of

this is the use of reed beds which remove pollutants from water. Reed beds proved to be superior at

removing ammonia (5.3 mg 1-1

) and BOD at (22.2 mg 1

-1).

Historically, waste has been placed in landfill sites, which have then been adapted for other GI functions,

including wildlife habitats and leisure parks. Closed landfill sites are a legacy which could provide a much

greater range of functions if greater investment was made available. Completed landfills can be used

as golf courses, parks, playgrounds and ball fields, botanical gardens, residential and

industrial development, and others (parking areas, airport runways and goods-transfer

yards). It also can be restored to community forest.

11. Use of reed beds to

remove water pollutants.

Design and construction

of reed beds used for effluent polishing in UK.

The majority of sewage treatment plants in UK are designed to meet

effluent quality standards.

Reed beds proved to be superior at removing

ammonia (5.3 mg 1-1

).

BOD removal efficiencies

were highest in the reed beds, with mean effluent BOD levels (22.2 mg 1

-1).

49

Benefit of GI Claimed by Landscape Institute

Testable Statement

Verifiable Evidence

Verified Statement

5. Food Production

Creating space for food production through allotments and community gardens and

orchards, increases access to healthy food, provides educational opportunities,

contributes to food security and reconnects communities with their local environment.

Connecting local communities with these assets via footpaths and cycle ways can

encourage this reconnection further.

12. Space for food

production through

allotments will increase access to healthy food,

provide educational opportunities and reconnect

communities.

Community development

was a main benefit of urban food production in the local authorities of

England and Wales.

Community gardening in

Toronto were perceived by gardeners to provide numerous health benefits

including improved access to food, nutrient, physical activity and

improved mental health, promote social health and community cohesion.

Creating space for food production through allotments and community

gardens and orchards, increases access to healthy food, provides educational opportunities,

contributes to food security and reconnects communities with their local environment. Connecting local

communities with these assets via footpaths and cycle ways can encourage this reconnection further.

Local authorities of England and Wales agreed that the main benefit of urban food production

was community development and it is similar in Toronto where it is improved access to food, nutrient,

physical activity and improved mental health, promote social health and community cohesion.

6. Biodiversity Enhancement, Corridors And Linkages The role of GI in providing

wildlife habitat in both urban and rural areas is well established, but taking a

landscape-scale approach to the planning, design and management of connected GI

assets provides the framework within which species migration can more

readily occur in response to environmental pressures such as climate change.

13. Species migration – response to climate change

Corridors can reduce the rate of loss of species help to maintain species

richness and minimized the extinctions by establishing the corridors.

This is positive whereby connecting patches of habitat with corridors did

slow the rate of extinction of species and preserving species richness for

longer period of time than disconnected habitat patches. This is because

the habitat can migrate to the other area using the corridor.

The role of GI in providing wildlife habitat in both urban and rural areas is well established, but taking a landscape-scale approach to the

planning, design and management of connected GI assets provides the framework within which species

migration can more readily occur in response to environmental pressures such as climate change.

This is proved where corridors can reduce the rate of loss of species whereby connecting

patches of habitat with corridors did slow the rate of extinction of species and preserving species

richness for longer period of time so that habitat can migrate to other area using the corridor.

7. Recreation And Health As illustrated by all of the

case studies in this position statement, accessible GI provides important

opportunities for informal and active recreation. Ensuring that these assets are provided in close proximity to people‘s

homes, are maintained properly, and are designed with the needs of local

communities in mind, is critical to their positive role in public health and wellbeing.

14. Accessible GI provides opportunities for

informal and active recreation

About 74% of adults in UK agreed that green spaces are important for

their general health.

In Texas, most people

used greenway trails for recreation. Users felt that these urban greenway

trails were contributing most to community quality of life through

resident health/fitness, the natural areas they provide, better land use

and resident pride.

As illustrated by all of the case studies in this position statement, accessible GI provides important

opportunities for informal and active recreation. In UK, about 74% of adults in UK agreed that green

spaces are important for their general health. Ensuring that these assets are provided in close proximity to people‘s homes, are

maintained properly, and are designed with the needs of local communities in mind, is critical to

their positive role in public health and wellbeing.

50

Benefit of GI Claimed by Landscape Institute

Testable Statement

Verifiable Evidence

Verified Statement

8. Economic Values

Quality green space can have a major positive impact on land and property markets,

creating settings for investment and acting as a catalyst for wider

regeneration.

15. Quality green

space – positive

impact on land and property markets

Trees are associated with

a 3.5 - 4.5% increase in the selling price of single family dwellings.

Proximity of watercourses and urban forest areas

had a positive influence on apartment price.

The good trees cover in

the visible surroundings housing area give a

positive price to the higher house value (raises a property‘s value

by nearly 4%)

Quality green space can have a major positive impact on land and

property markets, creating settings for investment and acting as a catalyst for wider regeneration. The

good trees cover in housing areas will increase 3.5 – 4.5% property’s value. At the same time, having a

greening project or green space will attract investment and tourism activity.

16. Attract investment and tourism

Greening projects in the

US tend to attract investment.

Redeveloping in urban

areas as a green space in the city of Toronto the implementation of parks,

playgrounds, trails, greenways, and other open spaces can attract

tourism activity.

9. Local Distinctiveness Well-designed and managed

GI assets, particularly those that engage local communities and which relate

to landscape character and heritage, can enhance local sense of place and foster

community spirit. They can be a catalyst for regeneration and stimulate employment

opportunities by attracting investment and tourism.

17. Enhance local sense of place and foster community

spirit

The characteristics and experience of the green

network resulted in progressive physical, cognitive and social

functioning of urban residents, hence offering well-being.

Community gardening can play a very important

for the social reproduction of the community in the Bronx,

NY where the garden is help to promote a sense of place which is a focus

for communities and as a centre for community cultural.

Well-designed and managed GI assets, particularly those that engage local communities and which

relate to landscape character and heritage, can enhance local sense of place and foster community spirit.

This is where the community gardening play a very important role in Bronx, New York to

promote sense of place and focus as a centre for community cultural. They can be a catalyst for

regeneration and stimulate employment opportunities by attracting investment and tourism.

10. Education

As demonstrated by the River Ray Corridor and Ingrebourne

Hill, natural environments which are connected to local communities can provide a

range of educational opportunities and assist in reconnecting society with the

natural environment; a fundamental prerequisite of living within environmental

limits, and a cornerstone of the Government‘s sustainable development strategy.

18. GI provides range

of educational opportunities

Visiting national parks or

other ecologically valuable areas is positive

in terms of environmental education. It can contribute to improving

the visitors‘ sensitivity and in changing their preferences.

As demonstrated by the River Ray

Corridor and Ingrebourne Hill, natural environments which are connected to local communities can

provide a range of educational opportunities and assist in reconnecting society with the natural

environment; a fundamental prerequisite of living within environmental limits, and a

cornerstone of the Government‘s sustainable development strategy. By visiting the national parks or

other ecologically valuable areas is positive in terms of environmental education and

Natural England’s Access to Nature grant scheme is helping people who currently have little or

no contact with the natural environment.

19. Reconnecting society with natural environment

Natural England‘s Access to Nature grant scheme is

aiming to encourage people to appreciate England‘s natural

environment and enjoy green spaces to those people who currently have little or no contact

with the natural environment.

51

Benefit of GI Claimed by Landscape Institute

Testable Statement

Verifiable Evidence

Verified Statement

11. Stronger Communities

GI can help in meeting a wide range of community needs. The spirit of the GI approach

means that social, environmental and economic potential is considered and

optimised. It can be a focus for community participation through public management,

as well as providing opportunities for education, training, volunteering and

capacity building.

20. Focus for

community

participations through public management

None

GI can help in meeting a wide range of community needs. The spirit of

the GI approach means that social, environmental and economic potential is considered and

optimised. It can be a focus for community participation through public management, as well as

providing opportunities for education, training, volunteering and capacity building.

From the table 4.1 above, we can see most of the testable statement have its

own scientific or research evidence. Only one (1) didn‘t have any of scientific or

research evidence to support the statement. The next chapter will discuss detail on

findings of this research review.

52

Chapter 5

5. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Findings

According to the previous chapter, the benefit of green infrastructure

has been recognized by many and research evidence is successfully proven

to verify the Position Statement from Landscape Institute, UK claims the

many benefits of GI. Generally, there is certain testable statement with too

many scientific or research evidence and some of them none. This can be

seen from the topics of climate change adaptation and mitigation, water

management, waste, biodiversity and corridor linkages, food production,

recreation and health, economic values and education. There is significant

lack of scientific or research evidence under the topics of stronger

communities, local distinctiveness and some of the topics related to the

communities. Therefore, further research should lead to a lack of research

evidence to this topic to support the claims.

In the meantime, it is vital to understand the GI assets related to each

testable statement and the benefits it can offer. For example, the education

benefit can be achieved through the GI assets (urban forest, national park or

green space) by the community. On the other hand, there must be the GI

assets stated in the claims for each position statement.

The other findings is also weather the scientific or research evidence

is really can apply in the UK context is still questionable. This is because

53

there is no specific scientific or research in UK which is only focus on the

specific topics under the green infrastructure benefits in UK. So, this

research review is necessary to make an assumption there is same scenario

can be applied in UK or throughout the world. Below are the new position

statement suggested for the Landscape Institute to include in the position

statement:

i. Climate Change Adaptation

Even modest increases in tree canopy cover can significantly

reduce the urban heat island effect via evapotranspiration and

shading, as well as improving air quality which often suffers

because of higher temperatures. By increasing 10% green cover

in urban areas could keep extreme surface temperatures by

2.5°C, however by removing 10% of green cover would increase

expected maximum surface temperature by 7°C by the 2080s.

Tree planting in urban area can account for a 25% reduction in

net cooling in urban landscapes. Connectivity of GI via wildlife

corridors is critical in ensuring that biodiversity is safeguarded in

the face of a changing climate and green space can ameliorate

surface water run-off to reduce the risk of flooding. By adding

10% tree cover can reduce run-off from 28mm rainfall event by

5.7% by 2080s.

ii. Climate Change Mitigation

Well-designed and managed GI can encourage people to travel in

a more sustainable way, such as cycling and walking. Trees,

garden, parks or views will encourage people to do cycling and

walking. In addition to acting as carbon sinks, it is estimated that

54

carbon held by vegetation in GB is to be 114 Mtonnes (Mt.) while

the amount of carbon in the soils of GB is estimated to be 9838

Mt. Trees and landform can reduce energy use for heating and

cooling buildings by shading them in summer and sheltering them

in winter. Canopies and vegetation on the side walls of buildings

could cool energy-savings of 4-40%. A GI approach to planning

can also optimise the potential for efficient, decentralised,

renewable energy, improving local energy security, providing

space for ground source heating, hydroelectric power, biomass

and wind power. This is because the distributed energy system is

an efficient, reliable and environmental friendly and it is good for

sustainable development. The example of local project is South

Yorkshire Woodfuel Program as a renewable energy generation

from wood or biomass.

.

iii. Water Management

GI is a good approach for managing flood risk. This can involve

placing sustainable drainage systems (SUDs) in developments to

attenuate surface water runoff and enhance biodiversity and

recreation. Agricultural land and wetlands can be used to store

flood water in areas where there is no risk to homes and

commercial buildings. The structures for stormwater handling can

be integrated into local landscaping such as ponds, reed-beds

and ditches for creating attractive blue-green environments. GI

can be used to manage coastal retreat as well as to restore

wetlands through recycling shingle to protect it from erosion by

beach feeding. This can be seen at Dungeness Nuclear Power

Station. GI also could enhancing carbon sequestration and it is

55

estimated that global storage of carbon in mangrove biomass is

4.03 Pg C whilst providing important wildlife habitat.

iv. Dealing With Waste

GI assets can deal with waste in a sustainable way. A good

example of this is the use of reed beds which remove pollutants

from water. Reed beds proved to be superior at removing

ammonia (5.3 mg 1-1) and BOD at (22.2 mg 1-1). Historically,

waste has been placed in landfill sites, which have then been

adapted for other GI functions, including wildlife habitats and

leisure parks. Closed landfill sites are a legacy which could

provide a much greater range of functions if greater investment

was made available. Completed landfills can be used as golf

courses, parks, playgrounds and ball fields, botanical gardens,

residential and industrial development, and others (parking areas,

airport runways and goods-transfer yards). It also can be restored

to community forest.

v. Food Production

Creating space for food production through allotments and

community gardens and orchards, increases access to healthy

food, provides educational opportunities, contributes to food

security and reconnects communities with their local environment.

Connecting local communities with these assets via footpaths and

cycle ways can encourage this reconnection further. Local

authorities of England and Wales agreed that the main benefit of

urban food production was community development and it is

similar in Toronto where it is improved access to food, nutrient,

56

physical activity and improved mental health, promote social

health and community cohesion.

vi. Biodiversity Enhancement, Corridors And Linkages

The role of GI in providing wildlife habitat in both urban and rural

areas is well established, but taking a landscape-scale approach

to the planning, design and management of connected GI assets

provides the framework within which species migration can more

readily occur in response to environmental pressures such as

climate change. This is proved where corridors can reduce the

rate of loss of species whereby connecting patches of habitat with

corridors did slow the rate of extinction of species and preserving

species richness for longer period of time so that habitat can

migrate to other area using the corridor.

vii. Recreation and Health

As illustrated by all of the case studies in this position statement,

accessible GI provides important opportunities for informal and

active recreation. In UK, about 74% of adults in UK agreed that

green spaces are important for their general health. Ensuring that

these assets are provided in close proximity to people‘s homes,

are maintained properly, and are designed with the needs of local

communities in mind, is critical to their positive role in public

health and wellbeing.

viii. Economic Values

Quality green space can have a major positive impact on land and

property markets, creating settings for investment and acting as a

57

catalyst for wider regeneration. The good trees cover in housing

areas will increase 3.5 – 4.5% property’s value. At the same time,

having a greening project or green space will attract investment

and tourism activity.

ix. Local Distinctiveness

Well-designed and managed GI assets, particularly those that

engage local communities and which relate to landscape

character and heritage, can enhance local sense of place and

foster community spirit. This is where the community gardening

play a very important role in Bronx, New York to promote sense of

place and focus as a centre for community cultural. They can be a

catalyst for regeneration and stimulate employment opportunities

by attracting investment and tourism.

x. Education

As demonstrated by the River Ray Corridor and Ingrebourne Hill,

natural environments which are connected to local communities

can provide a range of educational opportunities and assist in

reconnecting society with the natural environment; a fundamental

prerequisite of living within environmental limits, and a

cornerstone of the Government‘s sustainable development

strategy. By visiting the national parks or other ecologically

valuable areas is positive in terms of environmental education and

Natural England’s Access to Nature grant scheme is helping

people who currently have little or no contact with the natural

environment.

58

xi. Stronger Communities

GI can help in meeting a wide range of community needs. The

spirit of the GI approach means that social, environmental and

economic potential is considered and optimised. It can be a focus

for community participation through public management, as well

as providing opportunities for education, training, volunteering and

capacity building.

5.2 Conclusion

In conclusion, it is hoped that this review may informed the

Landscape Institute, UK on how the benefit of green infrastructure should be

addressed in the Position Statement. The scientific or research evidence is

very important to address together with the statement to ensure that the

benefits of green infrastructure are able to deliver by the landscape

practitioners. The research evidence found from this review is applicable to

the UK context and some of the can be apply throughout the world.

59

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