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Crime Scene Investigationand ForensicsAn Introductory Text

ContentsArticles

Bloodstain pattern analysis 1Ballistics 10Ballistic fingerprinting 11DNA profiling 14Fingerprint 26Forensic footwear evidence 45Forensic toxicology 48

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 51Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 53

Article LicensesLicense 54

Bloodstain pattern analysis 1

Bloodstain pattern analysisBloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) is one of several specialties in the field of forensic science. The use ofbloodstains as evidence is not new; however, the application of modern science has brought it to a higher level. Newtechnologies, especially advances in DNA analysis, are available for detectives and criminologists to use in solvingcrimes and apprehending offenders.The science of bloodstain pattern analysis applies scientific knowledge from other fields to solve practical problems.Bloodstain pattern analysis draws on the scientific disciplines of biology, chemistry, mathematics and physics. If ananalyst follows a scientific process, this applied science can produce strong, solid evidence, making it an effectivetool for investigators.

Results of BPANot every result of BPA will qualify as incontrovertible evidence, but the following are some things a bloodstainpattern analyst may be able to determine conclusively and state as fact:• Movement and direction of persons or objects while they were shedding blood.• Position of persons or objects during bloodshed.• Movement of persons or objects after bloodshed.• The mechanism or object used to create a specific pattern.• The direction a stain was traveling when it was deposited.• The area of origin of an impact pattern.• The minimum number of impacts during an incident.• The sequence of events.A basic understanding of blood spatter analysis allows first responding officers and investigators alike to assist incorrectly collecting and preserving bloodstain data at the scene. If they know what they have at the scene, then basedon their department policy they should know what they need to do next. Bloodstain pattern analysis requiressufficient education and training to be an effective investigative technique, which not all law enforcement officersattending a crime scene will necessarily have.Bloodstain analysts receive specialized training. The foundation course in bloodstain pattern analysis is the BasicBloodstain Pattern Analysis Course. This is taught at many government and private institutions. The course criteriawere developed by the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts (IABPA) with the following statedpurpose:

A course of instruction designed for investigators, crime scene technicians, forensic technicians, and othersinvolved in criminal and medical-legal investigations and crime scene analysis. The course is intended todevelop a fundamental knowledge of the discipline of bloodstain pattern analysis. The course should illustrateto the student basic principals [sic] of bloodstain pattern analysis and the practical application of the disciplineto actual casework. The course syllabus is not intended to create an "instant" expert.

Beyond this basic course are conferences, seminars, and courses such as the Maths and Physics for BPA and TheAdvance Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Course, both of which are provided by the Ontario Police College (OPC) andthe Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). These two institutions also have Bloodstain Analyst Understudyprograms. The International Association for Identification (IAI) provides its own certification in bloodstain patternanalysis.In addition to formal study of the subject, practical experience and experimentation is paramount in the developmentof a skilled bloodstain pattern analyst.

Bloodstain pattern analysis 2

Bloodstain pattern categoriesThere are several different thoughts on how to classify and define bloodstain patterns. The following is one acceptedway of categorizing them based on the mechanism that created the stain. The three stain groups are: Passive,Projected, and Transfer/Contact. The definitions used below are from the suggested IABPA terminology list:

Passive bloodstainsPassive bloodstains are those stains created by the force of gravity.• Passive Drops - Bloodstain drop(s) created or formed by the force of gravity acting alone.• Drip Pattern - A bloodstain pattern which results from blood dripping into blood.• Flow Pattern - A change in the shape and direction of a bloodstain due to the influence of gravity or movement of

the object.• Pool Pattern - A bloodstain pattern formed when a source of blood is stationary for a period of time.

Projected bloodstainsA projected stain occurs when some form of energy has been transferred to a blood source.• Low Velocity Impact Spatter (LVIS) - A bloodstain pattern that is caused by a low velocity impact\force to a

blood source.• Medium Velocity Impact Spatter (MVIS) - A bloodstain pattern caused by a medium velocity impact\force to a

blood source. A beating typically causes this type of spatter.• High Velocity Impact Spatter (HVIS) - A bloodstain pattern caused by a high velocity impact\force to a blood

source such as that produced by gunshot or high-speed machinery.• Cast-Off Pattern - A bloodstain pattern created when blood is released or thrown from a blood-bearing object in

motion.• Arterial Spurting (OR Gushing) Pattern - Bloodstain pattern(s) resulting from blood exiting the body under

pressure from a breached artery.• Back Spatter - Blood directed back towards the source of energy or force that caused the spatter.• Expiratory Blood - Blood that is blown out of the nose, mouth, or a wound as a result of air pressure and/or air

flow which is the propelling force.

Transfer/Contact bloodstainsA transfer or contact stain is produced when an object with blood comes in contact with an object or surface thatdoes not have blood. It may be possible to discern the object that left the blood impression.• Wipe Pattern - A bloodstain pattern created when an object moves through an existing stain, removing and/or

altering its appearance.• Swipe Pattern - The transfer of blood from a moving source onto an unstained surface. Direction of travel may be

determined by the feathered edge.As indicated above, there are other terms currently used in BPA and different ways of classifying bloodstainpatterns. For example there is a debate over the misnomer of the LVIS, MVIS, and HVIS as it relates to the physicalterm "velocity". A sub-committee of the SWGSTAIN has been tasked with addressing the terminology issues anddevelop a taxonomy for bloodstain patterns.

Bloodstain pattern analysis 3

"Velocity" impact stainsContrary to what the name states, the terms low-, medium-, and high-velocity impact spatter do not describe thevelocity of the blood droplets as they fly through the air. The variation in the "velocity" is meant to describe theamount of energy transferred to a blood source in order to create the stains. Velocity is a speed (m/s) with adirection. Often the terms force and energy are quoted in conjunction with the unit ft/s or m/s which is incorrect.Force is related to velocity and mass (N or 1 kg ·m·s−2). Energy (work) is related to the force exerted on an object (Jor N·m or kg·m2·s−2). As indicated above, there has been great debate over these terms and their definitions. Belowis one method of differentiating low-, medium-, and high-velocity impact spatter.

Low velocity impact spatterLow velocity impact spatter (LVIS) is generally produced when objects traveling less than 1.5 m/s come in contactwith a blood source. The preponderance of stains is generally larger than 3 mm in diameter.

Medium velocity impact spatterMedium velocity impact spatter (MVIS) is generally produced when objects traveling between 1.5 m/s and 7.5 m/scome in contact with a blood source. The preponderance of stains is generally between 1 mm and 3 mm in diameter.Mechanisms that could produce this type of pattern include blunt force trauma or cutting/stabbing actions.

High velocity impact spatterHigh velocity impact spatter (HVIS) is generally produced when objects traveling greater than 30 m/s come incontact with a blood source. The preponderance of stains is generally smaller than 1 mm in diameter. This patternoften has a mist-like appearance. High velocity patterns may be created by gunshots or explosives, but may also becaused by industrial machinery, coughing, or sneezing.

BloodBlood is a tissue that is circulated within the body to assist other parts of the body. This connective tissue hasspecialized cells that allow it to carry out its complex functions. For a healthy person, approximately 8% of theirtotal weight is blood. For a 70-kg (154-lb.) individual, this equates to 5.6 L (12 US pints).

Biological considerationsBlood contains three components suspended within plasma. The three components are erythrocytes, leukocytes, andplatelets.• Erythrocytes - also known as red blood cells, are transporters. The role of erythrocytes is to transport oxygen. To

do this it produces great quantities of hemoglobin, which gives it the distinct red colour. Blood that has passedthrough the heart and been oxygenated (in the arteries) tends to have a brighter shade of red as opposed to bloodthat is returning to the heart (in the veins). There are about 30 trillion erythrocytes circulating in the human bloodat any given time.

• Leukocytes - also known as white blood cells, are defenders. The role of leukocytes is to defend the body againstharmful bacteria and microorganisms. There are five different types of leukocytes all having different sizes,shapes, structures, and functions. Leukocytes fight infection and disease. There are about 430 billion leukocytescirculating in the human blood at any given time (~1 per 700 erythrocytes).

• Platelets - are pieces of larger cells that have broken off in the bone marrow. These bits of cytoplasm are enclosedby a membrane and do not have a nucleus. They play a major role in haemostasis (control of bleeding) byplugging up a breach in a vessel.

Bloodstain pattern analysis 4

Plasma is a yellowish fluid that carries the suspended erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. It is composed of water(92%), proteins (7%), and other materials such as salts, waste, and hormones, among others. Plasma makes up about55% of blood. The remaining 45% is blood cells and platelets. Because plasma is lighter than the blood cells andplatelets, it can be easily separated. Plasma does not separate from blood cells in the body because it is in a constantstate of agitation.

Physical considerationsIn physics there are two continuous physical states of matter, solid and fluid. Once blood has left the body it behavesas a fluid and all physical laws apply.• Gravity - is acting on blood (without the body's influence) as soon as it exits the body. Given the right

circumstances blood can act according to ballistic theory.• Viscosity - is the amount of internal friction in the fluid. It describes the resistance of a liquid to flow.• Surface tension - is the force that gives the ability to blood to maintain its shape. When two fluids are in contact

with each other (blood and air) there are forces attracting all molecules to each other.

Blood spatter flight characteristicsExperiments with blood have shown that a drop of blood tends to form into a sphere in flight rather than the artisticteardrop shape. This is what one would expect of a fluid in freefall. The formation of the sphere is a result of surfacetension that binds the molecules together.This spherical shape of blood in flight is important for the calculation of the angle of impact (incidence) of bloodspatter when it hits a surface. That angle will be used to determine the point from which the blood originated whichis called the Point of Origin or more appropriately the Area of Origin.A single spatter of blood is not enough to determine the Area of Origin at a crime scene. The determination of theangles of impact and placement of the Area of Origin should be based on the consideration of a number of stains andpreferably stains from opposite sides of the pattern to create the means to triangulate.

Determining angles of impactAs mentioned earlier a blood droplet in freefall has the shape of a sphere. Should the droplet strike a surface and awell-formed stain is produced, an analyst can determine the angle at which this droplet struck the surface. This isbased on the relationship between the length of the major axis, minor axis, and the angle of impact.A well-formed stain is in the shape of an ellipse (see figure 1). Dr. Victor Balthazard, and later Dr. Herbert LeonMacDonell, realized the relationship of the width-length ratio of the ellipse was the function of the sine of the impactangle. Accurately measuring the stain will easily result in the calculation the impact angle.

Bloodstain pattern analysis 5

Fig. 1 Upward moving bloodstain showing proper ellipse placement.

Fig. 2 Angles of Impact

Angles of Impact

Because of the three dimensionalaspect of trajectories there are threeangles of impact, , , and .The easiest angle to calculate isgamma ( ). Gamma is simply theangle of the bloodstain path measuredfrom the true vertical (plumb) of thesurface (see figure 2 showing plumbline and extended angle from stain.)The next angle that can be quite easilycalculated is alpha ( ). Alpha is theimpact angle of the bloodstain pathmoving out from the surface (seefigure 2 with alpha at the top by thestain.) The third angle to be calculatedis beta ( ). Beta is the angle of thebloodstain path pivoting about thevertical (z) axis (see figure 2 with betaextended to the floor). All three anglesare related through trigonometrythrough the equation quoted below.

Calculating the angle

= length of ellipse (major axis)= width of ellipse (minor

axis)

= angle of impactThe relationship between thesevariables is:

Therefore:

Bloodstain pattern analysis 6

Relationship between angles , , and

Accurately measuring the stain and calculating the angle of impact requires due diligence of the analyst. In the pastanalysts have used a variety of instruments. Methods currently used include:• Viewing loop with an embedded scale in 0.2 mm increments or better that is placed over the stain. The analyst

then uses a scientific calculator or spreadsheet to complete the angle calculations.• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BPA) software that superimposes an ellipse over a scaled close-up image of an

individual bloodstain. The programs then automatically calculates the angles of impact.Using software produces a very accurate result that is measurable and reproducible.

Point and area of convergenceTo determine the point/area of convergence an analyst has to determine the path the blood droplets travelled. Thetangential flight path of individual droplets can be determined by using the angle of impact and the offset angle ofthe resulting bloodstain. “Stringing” stains is a method of visualizing this. For the purpose of the point ofconvergence, only the top view of the flight paths is required. Note that this is a two-dimensional (2D) and not athree-dimensional (3D) intersection.• The point of convergence is the intersection of two bloodstain paths, where the stains come from opposite sides of

the impact pattern. (see figure 3)• The area of convergence is the box formed by the intersection of several stains from opposite sides of the impact

pattern. (see figure 4)In the past, some analysts have drawn lines along the major axes of the stains and brought them to an area ofconvergence on the wall. Instead of using a top-down view, they used a front view. This provides a false point/areaof convergence.

Bloodstain pattern analysis 7

Fig. 3 Point of convergence

Area of origin

The area of origin is the area inthree-dimensional space where theblood source was located at the time ofthe bloodletting incident. The area oforigin includes the area of convergencewith a third dimension in the z direction.Since the z-axis is perpendicular to thefloor, the area of origin has threedimensions and is a volume.

The term point of origin has also beenaccepted to mean the same thing.However it has been argued, there areproblems associated to this term. First, ablood source is not a point source. Toproduce a point source the mechanismwould have to be fixed inthree-dimensional space and have anaperture where only a single blooddroplet is released at a time, withenough energy to create a pattern. Thisdoes not seem likely. Second, bodies are

dynamic. Aside from the victim physically moving, skin is elastic and bones break. Once a force is applied to thebody there will be an equal and opposite reaction to the force applied by the aggressor (Newton's third law ofmotion). Part of the force will move the blood source, even a millimetre, and change the origin while it is stillproducing blood. So the source becomes contained in a three-dimensional volume, or region.

As with the area of convergence, the area of origin is easily calculated by using BPA software. There are otherlonger, mathematical methods of determining the area or origin, one of which is the tangential method.IABPA definition:

Bloodstain pattern analysis 8

Fig. 4 Area of convergence

• Point (Area) of Origin - Thecommon point (area) inthree-dimensional space to which thetrajectories of several blood dropscan be retraced. (see figure 5)

Fig. 5 Area of origin (blue area representing a volume in 3D space)

Photography

Crime scene photography has someunique requirements. In the event thereis a bloodletting scene, the basics arestill required but special attention mustbe given to the bloodstains. Thecurrent means of documenting thescene include, 35 mm (B&W, colour,and specialty film), digital cameras(such as Nikon D200 among others),and video (Hi-8, DV, and otherformats). Each method has its pros andcons. Often the scene is documentedusing multiple methods. (Videographyhas been included here because itfollows the same principles andprovides crime scene images.)

There are three types of crime scene photos:• Overall – wide-angle images (28–35 mm range) that capture the scene as it is. This type of image provides

anyone who has not been in the scene a good overall layout.

Bloodstain pattern analysis 9

• Mid-range – images taken with a normal lens (45–55 mm range) give greater detail than the overall shots. In thecase of a bloodletting scene, the mid-range image could capture a single bloodstain pattern.

• Close-up – images taken with a macro lens giving the greatest amount of detail. For example, a medium velocityimpact pattern can contain thousands of individual stains where there is a preponderance of small stains (1–3 mmin diameter) some of which require individual images.

Many times an analyst cannot attend a bloodletting scene. Therefore, the analyst may have to do all his work basedon the crime scene images and notes of the person who attended. An appropriate sized scale should be in overall,mid-range, and close-up images. For overall images the scales should be parallel and perpendicular to the floor. Thisprovides the analyst, and anyone else who looks at the images, a proper perspective on what they are observing.(Note: in some cases overall and mid-range images are taken with and without a scale.)

In popular culture• Serial killer Dexter Morgan of the Dexter novels and Showtime series is a blood spatter analyst for the

Miami-Dade County Police Department.• Catherine Willows is a blood spatter analyst on the CBS series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation.

References• Bevel, Tom; Gardner, Ross M. Bloodstain Pattern Analysis With an Introduction to Crimescene Reconstruction,

3rd Ed. CRC Press 2008• James, Stuart H.; Kish, Paul Erwin; Sutton, T. Paulette (2005). Principles of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis [1] (3rd,

illustrated, revised ed.). Taylor and Francis/CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-2014-3. Retrieved 2009-01-30.• Hueske, Edward E., Shooting Incident Investigation/Reconstruction Training Manual, 2002• IABPA (International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts). Suggested IABPA Terminology List.

Retrieved October 2005 from: http:/ / www. iabpa. org/ Terminology. pdf• IABPA (International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts). Suggested IABPA Terminology List.

Retrieved October 2005 from: http:/ / www. iabpa. org/ RevEduc. pdf• James, Stuart H, Eckert, William G. Interpretation of Bloodstain Evidence at Crime Scenes, 2nd Edition, CRC

Press 1999.• Solomon, Berg, Martin, & Villee. Biology, 3rd edition. Saunders College Publishing, Fort Worth, 1993.• Sutton, Paulette T., Bloodstain Pattern Interpretation, Short Course Manual, University of Tennessee, Memphis

TN 1998• Vennard, John King. Elementary fluid mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982.

External links• FBI Laboratory Scientific Working Group on Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (SWGSTAIN) [2]

• International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts (IABPA) [3]

References[1] http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=aM6hNdjHRSgC[2] http:/ / swgstain. org/[3] http:/ / iabpa. org/

Ballistics 10

BallisticsBallistics (gr. βάλλειν ('ba'llein'), "throw") is the science of mechanics that deals with the flight, behavior, andeffects of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity bombs, rockets, or the like; the science or art of designing andaccelerating projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance.A ballistic body is a body which is free to move, behave, and be modified in appearance, contour, or texture byambient conditions, substances, or forces, as by the pressure of gases in a gun, by rifling in a barrel, by gravity, bytemperature, or by air particles. A ballistic missile is a missile only guided during the relatively brief initial poweredphase of flight, whose course is subsequently governed by the laws of classical mechanics.

Gun ballisticsGun ballistics is the study of projectiles from the time of shooting to the time of impact with the target. Gun ballisticsis often broken down into the following four categories, which contain detailed information on each category:[1]

• Internal ballistics, (sometimes called interior ballistics) the study of the processes originally accelerating theprojectile, for example the passage of a bullet through the barrel of a rifle.[2]

• Transition ballistics, (sometimes called intermediate ballistics) the study of the projectile's behavior when itleaves the barrel and the pressure behind the projectile is equalized.[3]

• External ballistics, (sometimes called exterior ballistics) the study of the passage of the projectile through amedium, most commonly earth's atmosphere. [4]

• Terminal ballistics, the study of the interaction of a projectile with its target, whether that be flesh (for a huntingbullet), steel (for an anti-tank round), or even furnace slag (for an industrial slag disruptor).[5]

Forensic ballisticsForensic ballistics involves analysis of bullets and bullet impacts to determine information of use to a court or otherpart of a legal system. Separately from ballistics information, firearm and tool mark examinations ("ballisticfingerprinting") involve analysing firearm, ammunition, and tool mark evidence in order to establish whether acertain firearm or tool was used in the commission of a crime.

See also• Ballistic conduction (related to electron transport)• Gunshot residue• Hydrostatic shock• Physics of firearms• Trajectory• Vaporific Effect• Gunshot injury• Stopping Power• Peter Bielkowicz• Microscopes and ballistics

Ballistics 11

References[1] U.S. Marine Corps (1996). FM 6-40 Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Field Artillery Manual Cannonry (http:/ / www. fas. org/ man/

dod-101/ sys/ land/ docs/ fm6-40-ch3. htm). Department of the Army. .[2] http:/ / www. ballistics. org/ docs/ InteriorBallistics. pdf[3] http:/ / www. ballistics. org/ docs/ Ballistic%20Fields%20-%20Launch%20Dynamics. pdf[4] http:/ / www. ballistics. org/ docs/ Ballistic%20Fields%20-%20Exterior%20Ballistics. pdf[5] http:/ / www. ballistics. org/ docs/ Ballistic%20Fields%20-%20Terminal%20Ballistics. pdf

External links• Ballistic Trajectories (http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ BallisticTrajectories/ ) by Jeff Bryant, The Wolfram

Demonstrations Project.• http:/ / ballistics. org/ International Ballistics Society

Ballistic fingerprintingBallistic fingerprinting refers to a set of forensic techniques that rely on marks that firearms leave on bullets tomatch a bullet to the gun it was fired with.[1] It is a subset of forensic ballistics (the application of ballistics to legalquestions) and internal ballistics (the study of events between the firing of a gun and the bullet leaving the barrel).[1]

History

Controversial bullet from the John F. Kennedyassassination.

A forensic ballistics experiment

Rifling, which first made an appearance in the 15th century, is theprocess of making grooves in gun barrels that imparts a spin to theprojectile for increased accuracy and range. Bullets fired from rifledweapons acquire a distinct signature of grooves, scratches, andindentations which are of value for matching a fired projectile to afirearm.

The first firearms evidence identification can be traced back toEngland in 1835 when the unique markings on a bullet taken from avictim were matched with a bullet mold belonging to the suspect.When confronted with the damning evidence, the suspect confessed tothe crime. Alexandre Lacassagne was the first scientist to try to matchan individual bullet to a gun barrel.

The first court case involving firearms evidence took place in 1902when a specific gun was proven to be the murder weapon. The expertin the case, which was reviewed by Mr. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmesin Commonwealth v. Best, 180 Mass. 492 (1902)[2] , had read aboutfirearm identification, and had a gunsmith test-fire the alleged murderweapon into a wad of cotton wool. A magnifying glass was used tomatch the bullet from the victim with the test bullet.

Calvin Goddard, physician and ex-army officer, acquired data from allknown gun manufacturers in order to develop a comprehensivedatabase. With his partner, Charles Waite, he catalogued the results oftest-firings from every type of handgun made by 12 manufacturers.Waite also invented the [[ComparisoSearch Results

Ballistic fingerprinting 12

1.

No. 99-P-827. - COMMONWEALTH v. BEST - MA Court of Appeals

COMMONWEALTH v. BEST. COMMONWEALTH v. Marvin BEST. No. 99-P-827.

Argued Nov. 8, 2000. -- January 19, 2001. Present: PORADA, LENK, &

DUFFLY, JJ. ...

caselaw.findlaw.com/ma-court-of-appeals/1036593.html - Cached

►

2.

No. 09-P-1336. - COMMONWEALTH v. CABRAL - MA Court of Appeals

Petersen, supra at 52-53, 851 N.E.2d 1102, quoting from

Commonwealth v. Best ...n Microscopecomparison microscope. With this

instrument, two bullets could be laid adjacent to one another for

comparative examination.

In 1925 Goddard wrote an article for the Army Ordnance titled "Forensic Ballistics" in which he described the use ofthe comparison microscope regarding firearms investigations. He is generally credited with the conception of theterm "forensic ballistics," though he later admitted it to be an inadequate name for the science.In 1929 the St. Valentine's Day Massacre led to the opening of the first independent scientific crime detectionlaboratory in the United States.

TechniquesBallistic fingerprinting techniques are based on the principle that all firearms have inevitable variations due to marksleft by the machining process, leaving shallow impressions in the metal which are rarely completely polished out.Also, normal wear and tear from use can cause each firearm to acquire distinct characteristics over time.

Gross differencesThe simplest considerations are the gross differences. A 10 mm bullet, for example, could not have been fired from a9 mm barrel.

StriationsWhen a bullet is fired through a rifled barrel, the raised and lowered spirals of the rifling etch fine grooves called"striations" into the bullet. These can be matched with the barrel through which the bullet was fired. Examinersdistinguish between striations common to all guns of a particular type ("class characteristics") and those unique to aparticular gun ("individual characteristics").[1]

The class characteristics depend upon the type of rifling in the barrel, which varies among manufacturers and modelsin number and shape of the grooves, twist rate, and direction. Colt, for example, traditionally uses a left-hand twist,while Smith and Wesson uses a right hand twist; a current production M16 rifle uses a 1 in 7 inch twist, while mostcivilian AR-15s and the current Mini-14 use a 1 in 9 inch twist. Marlin Firearms use a distinctive 16-grooveMicro-Groove rifling in many of their firearms, while the M1903 Springfield rifle had two, four, or six groovesdepending on the manufacturer. Polygonal rifling may leave striations that are difficult to match to a particularbarrel.Individual characteristics are caused by imperfections in the rifling process and tools, but also by the wear and tearcaused by regular use, and can therefore change over time. Criminals or those concerned with government intrusionin privacy sometimes attempt to alter a gun's individual characteristics by changing or shortening the barrel, or byrubbing its interior with a steel brush.[3]

Ballistic fingerprinting 13

Breech markingsMarks on the cartridge case can be matched to marks in the chamber and breech. For a number of reasons, Cartridgecases are often easier to identify than bullets. First, the parts of a firearm that produce marks on cartridge cases areless subject to long-term wear, and second, bullets are often severely deformed on impact, destroying much of themarkings they acquire.

ShotgunsBallistic fingerprinting of bullets does not work with firearms such as shotguns that fire shot-containing cartridges.In many cases the shot rides inside a plastic sleeve that prevents it from ever touching the barrel, and even in caseswhere the shot does touch the barrel, the random movement of the shot down the barrel will not leave any consistentmarks. But shotgun cases can still be examined for firing pin marks and the like.[1]

Ballistic fingerprinting aids

DatabasesSome localities, particularly Maryland, have attempted to build up a large database of "fingerprints"; in the case ofthe Maryland law, all new firearms sales must provide a fired case from the firearm in question to the Maryland StatePolice, who photograph it and log the information in a database. The Maryland State Police wrote a report critical ofthe program and asking the Maryland General Assembly to disband it, since it was expensive and had notcontributed to solving a single crime.[4] Subsequently however, the database did provide evidence used to obtain onemurder conviction at an estimated cost of 2.6 million dollars per conviction.[5]

A California Department of Justice survey, using 742 guns used by the California Highway Patrol as a test bed,showed very poor results; even with such a limited database, less than 70% of cases of the same make as the"fingerprint" case yielded the correct gun in the top 15 matches; when a different make of ammunition was used, thesuccess rate dropped to less than 40%.

Bullet marking

A microstamped cartridge case. The primer hasbeen imprinted by the firing pin.

There have been several proposals for the mandated marking of bulletsto aid in ballistic fingerprinting, and some jurisdictions have passedlegislation to that effect. California, for instance, passed a bill AB 1471which requires all new models of handguns to be equipped withmicrostamping technology by 2010.

Several techniques have been proposed:• Firearm microstamping is a process that engraves the make, model,

and serial number on the cartridge and on the face of the firing pin,which stamps the primer as the firing pin impacts it.

• A British researcher[6] proposed in a 2008 report that ammunitionmanufacturers coat their bullets with pollen, or with a pollen depositcoated with a metal oxide. Pollen grains are sticky enough and have a sufficiently hard outer case to survive beingfired. They also attach themselves to the clothing and hands of people who handle the ammunition and the gun,providing an additional forensics clue (the pollen is extremely difficult to wash off completely, according to theresearchers). If manufacturers used unique pollen varieties or unique mixtures of pollen and oxide coatings, themanufacturing database could be used to quickly identify a bullet found at a crime scene, assuming theinvestigating bodies equip themselves with the necessary pollen-identification equipment.[7]

Ballistic fingerprinting 14

References• John Lott [8] article on Maryland ballistic fingerprinting• Copy of California DOJ Study [9] of ballistic fingerprinting effectiveness• "Scientists reject bullet-mark database" [10] MSNBC Deep Background, Pete Williams, NBC News Justice

Correspondent, Posted on Wednesday, March 05, 2008

Notes[1] Kopel, David B. (2008). "Ballistic fingerprints". In Ayn Embar-seddon, Allan D. Pass (eds.). Forensic Science. Salem Press. pp. 109.

ISBN 978-1587654237.[2] http:/ / masscases. com/ cases/ sjc/ 180/ 180mass492. html[3] Kopel, 110.[4] "Maryland State Police Report Recommends Suspending Ballistics ID System", Associated Press, January 17, 2005 (http:/ / www. officer.

com/ web/ online/ Laws--Legislation-and-Court-Decision-News/Maryland-State-Police-Report-Recommends-Suspending-Ballistics-ID-System/ 6$20408)

[5] "Ballistics Database Yields 1st Conviction", Washington Post, April 2, 2005 (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ articles/A19876-2005Apr1. html)

[6] Engineering & Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), a British research funding agency[7] Newscripts, Chemical & Engineering News, 86, 33, 18 Aug. 2008, p. 88[8] http:/ / www. nationalreview. com/ comment/ lott200502040751. asp[9] http:/ / www. nssf. org/ PDF/ CA_study. pdf[10] http:/ / deepbackground. msnbc. msn. com/ archive/ 2008/ 03/ 05/ 732908. aspx

DNA profilingDNA profiling (also called DNA testing, DNA typing, or genetic fingerprinting) is a technique employed byforensic scientists to assist in the identification of individuals by their respective DNA profiles. DNA profiles areencrypted sets of numbers that reflect a person's DNA makeup, which can also be used as the person's identifier.DNA profiling should not be confused with full genome sequencing.[1] It is used in, for example, parent testing andcriminal investigation.Although 99.9% of human DNA sequences are the same in every person, enough of the DNA is different todistinguish one individual from another, unless they are monozygotic twins.[2] DNA profiling uses repetitive("repeat") sequences that are highly variable,[2] called variable number tandem repeats (VNTR). VNTRs loci arevery similar between closely related humans, but so variable that unrelated individuals are extremely unlikely tohave the same VNTRs.The DNA profiling technique was first reported in 1984[3] by Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester inEngland,[4] and is now the basis of several national DNA databases. Dr. Jeffreys's genetic fingerprinting was madecommercially available in 1987, when a chemical company, ICI, started a blood-testing centre in England.[5]

DNA profiling processThe process begins with a sample of an individual's DNA (typically called a "reference sample"). The most desirablemethod of collecting a reference sample is the use of a buccal swab, as this reduces the possibility of contamination.When this is not available (e.g. because a court order may be needed and not obtainable) other methods may need tobe used to collect a sample of blood, saliva, semen, or other appropriate fluid or tissue from personal items (e.g.toothbrush, razor, etc.) or from stored samples (e.g. banked sperm or biopsy tissue). Samples obtained from bloodrelatives (biological relative) can provide an indication of an individual's profile, as could human remains which hadbeen previously profiled.

DNA profiling 15

A reference sample is then analyzed to create the individual's DNA profile using one of a number of techniques,discussed below. The DNA profile is then compared against another sample to determine whether there is a geneticmatch.

Variations of VNTR allele lengths in 6 individuals.

RFLP analysis

The first methods for finding outgenetics used for DNA profilinginvolved restriction enzyme digestion,followed by Southern blot analysis.Although polymorphisms can exist inthe restriction enzyme cleavage sites,more commonly the enzymes andDNA probes were used to analyzeVNTR loci. However, the Southernblot technique is laborious, andrequires large amounts of undegradedsample DNA. Also, Karl Brown'soriginal technique looked at many minisatellite loci at the same time, increasing the observed variability, but makingit hard to discern individual alleles (and thereby precluding parental testing). These early techniques have beensupplanted by PCR-based assays.

PCR analysisWith the invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, DNA profiling took huge strides forward inboth discriminating power and the ability to recover information from very small (or degraded) starting samples.PCR greatly amplifies the amounts of a specific region of DNA, using oligonucleotide primers and a thermostableDNA polymerase. Early assays such as the HLA-DQ alpha reverse dot blot strips grew to be very popular due totheir ease of use, and the speed with which a result could be obtained. However they were not as discriminating asRFLP. It was also difficult to determine a DNA profile for mixed samples, such as a vaginal swab from a sexualassault victim.Fortunately, the PCR method is readily adaptable for analyzing VNTR loci. In the United States the FBI hasstandardized a set of 13 VNTR assays for DNA typing, and has organized the CODIS database for forensicidentification in criminal cases. Similar assays and databases have been set up in other countries. Also, commercialkits are available that analyze single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). These kits use PCR to amplify specificregions with known variations and hybridize them to probes anchored on cards, which results in a colored spotcorresponding to the particular sequence variation.

STR analysisThe method of DNA profiling used today is based on PCR and uses short tandem repeats (STR). This method useshighly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA (the most common is 4 bases repeated, butthere are other lengths in use, including 3 and 5 bases). Because unrelated people almost certainly have differentnumbers of repeat units, STRs can be used to discriminate between unrelated individuals. These STR loci (locationson a chromosome) are targeted with sequence-specific primers and amplified using PCR. The DNA fragments thatresult are then separated and detected using electrophoresis. There are two common methods of separation anddetection, capillary electrophoresis (CE) and gel electrophoresis.

DNA profiling 16

Each STR is polymorphic, however, the number of alleles is very small. Typically each STR allele will be shared byaround 5 - 20% of individuals. The power of STR analysis comes from looking at multiple STR loci simultaneously.The pattern of alleles can identify an individual quite accurately. Thus STR analysis provides an excellentidentification tool. The more STR regions that are tested in an individual the more discriminating the test becomes.From country to country, different STR-based DNA-profiling systems are in use. In North America, systems whichamplify the CODIS 13 core loci are almost universal, while in the UK the SGM+ system (which is compatible withThe National DNA Database), is in use. Whichever system is used, many of the STR regions used are the same.These DNA-profiling systems are based on multiplex reactions, whereby many STR regions will be tested at thesame time.The true power of STR analysis is in its statistical power of discrimination. Because the 13 loci that are currentlyused for discrimination in CODIS are independently assorted (having a certain number of repeats at one locus doesn'tchange the likelihood of having any number of repeats at any other locus), the product rule for probabilities can beapplied. This means that if someone has the DNA type of ABC, where the three loci were independent, we can saythat the probability of having that DNA type is the probability of having type A times the probability of having typeB times the probability of having type C. This has resulted in the ability to generate match probabilities of 1 in aquintillion (1 with 18 zeros after it) or more.However, DNA database searches showed much more frequent than expected false DNA matches including oneperfect 13 locus match out of only 30,000 DNA samples in Maryland in January 2007.[6] Moreover, since there areabout 12 million monozygotic twins on Earth, that theoretical probability is useless. For example, the actualprobability that 2 random people have the same DNA depends on whether there were twins or triplets (etc.) in thefamily, and the number of loci used in the test. Where twins are common, the probability of matching the DNA is 22in 1000, or about 2.2 in 100 will have matching DNA.In practice, the risk of contaminated-matching is much greater than matching a distant relative, such as a samplebeing contaminated from nearby objects, or from left-over cells transferred from a prior test. Logically, the risk isgreater for matching the most common person in the samples: everything collected from, or in contact with, a victimis a major source of contamination for any other samples brought into a lab. For that reason, multiplecontrol-samples are typically tested, to ensure that they stayed clean, when prepared during the same period as theactual test samples. Unexpected matches (or variations) in several control-samples indicates a high probability ofcontamination for the actual test samples. In a relationship test, the full DNA profiles should differ (except fortwins), to prove that a person wasn't actually matched as being related to their own DNA in another sample.

AmpFLPAnother technique, AmpFLP, or amplified fragment length polymorphism was also put into practice during the early1990s. This technique was also faster than RFLP analysis and used PCR to amplify DNA samples. It relied onvariable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphisms to distinguish various alleles, which were separated on apolyacrylamide gel using an allelic ladder (as opposed to a molecular weight ladder). Bands could be visualized bysilver staining the gel. One popular locus for fingerprinting was the D1S80 locus. As with all PCR based methods,highly degraded DNA or very small amounts of DNA may cause allelic dropout (causing a mistake in thinking aheterozygote is a homozygote) or other stochastic effects. In addition, because the analysis is done on a gel, veryhigh number repeats may bunch together at the top of the gel, making it difficult to resolve. AmpFLP analysis can behighly automated, and allows for easy creation of phylogenetic trees based on comparing individual samples ofDNA. Due to its relatively low cost and ease of set-up and operation, AmpFLP remains popular in lower incomecountries.

DNA profiling 17

DNA family relationship analysisUsing PCR technology, DNA analysis is widely applied to determine genetic family relationships such as paternity,maternity, siblingship and other kinships.During conception, the father’s sperm cell and the mother’s egg cell, each containing half the amount of DNA foundin other body cells, meet and fuse to form a fertilized egg, called a zygote. The zygote contains a complete set ofDNA molecules, a unique combination of DNA from both parents. This zygote divides and multiplies into anembryo and later, a full human being.At each stage of development, all the cells forming the body contain the same DNA—half from the father and halffrom the mother. This fact allows the relationship testing to use all types of all samples including loose cells from thecheeks collected using buccal swabs, blood or other types of samples.While a lot of DNA contains information for a certain function, there is some called junk DNA, which is currentlyused for human identification. At some special locations (called loci) in the junk DNA, predictable inheritancepatterns were found to be useful in determining biological relationships. These locations contain specific DNAmarkers that DNA scientists use to identify individuals. In a routine DNA paternity test, the markers used are ShortTandem Repeats (STRs), short pieces of DNA that occur in highly differential repeat patterns among individuals.Each person’s DNA contains two copies of these markers—one copy inherited from the father and one from themother. Within a population, the markers at each person’s DNA location could differ in length and sometimessequence, depending on the markers inherited from the parents.The combination of marker sizes found in each person makes up his/her unique genetic profile. When determiningthe relationship between two individuals, their genetic profiles are compared to see if they share the same inheritancepatterns at a statistically conclusive rate.For example, the following sample report from this commercial DNA paternity testing laboratory Universal Geneticssignifies how relatedness between parents and child is identified on those special markers:

DNA Marker Mother Child Alleged father

D21S11 28, 30 28, 31 29, 31

D7S820 9, 10 10, 11 11, 12

TH01 14, 15 14, 16 15, 16

D13S317 7, 8 7, 9 8, 9

D19S433 14, 16.2 14, 15 15, 17

The partial results indicate that the child and the alleged father’s DNA match among these five markers. Thecomplete test results show this correlation on 16 markers between the child and the tested man to draw a conclusionof whether or not the man is the biological father.Scientifically, each marker is assigned with a Paternity Index (PI), which is a statistical measure of how powerfully amatch at a particular marker indicates paternity. The PI of each marker is multiplied with each other to generate theCombined Paternity Index (CPI), which indicates the overall probability of an individual being the biological fatherof the tested child relative to any random man from the entire population of the same race. The CPI is then convertedinto a Probability of Paternity showing the degree of relatedness between the alleged father and child.The DNA test report in other family relationship tests, such as grandparentage and siblingship tests, is similar to apaternity test report. Instead of the Combined Paternity Index, a different value, such as a Siblingship Index, isreported.The report shows the genetic profiles of each tested person. If there are markers shared among the tested individuals,the probability of biological relationship is calculated to determine how likely the tested individuals share the samemarkers due to a blood relationship.

DNA profiling 18

Y-chromosome analysisRecent innovations have included the creation of primers targeting polymorphic regions on the Y-chromosome(Y-STR), which allows resolution of a mixed DNA sample from a male and female and/or cases in which adifferential extraction is not possible. Y-chromosomes are paternally inherited, so Y-STR analysis can help in theidentification of paternally related males. Y-STR analysis was performed in the Sally Hemings controversy todetermine if Thomas Jefferson had sired a son with one of his slaves.

Mitochondrial analysisFor highly degraded samples, it is sometimes impossible to get a complete profile of the 13 CODIS STRs. In thesesituations, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is sometimes typed due to there being many copies of mtDNA in a cell,while there may only be 1-2 copies of the nuclear DNA. Forensic scientists amplify the HV1 and HV2 regions of themtDNA, then sequence each region and compare single-nucleotide differences to a reference. Because mtDNA ismaternally inherited, directly linked maternal relatives can be used as match references, such as one's maternalgrandmother's daughter's son. A difference of two or more nucleotides is generally considered to be an exclusion.Heteroplasmy and poly-C differences may throw off straight sequence comparisons, so some expertise on the part ofthe analyst is required. mtDNA is useful in determining clear identities, such as those of missing people when amaternally linked relative can be found. mtDNA testing was used in determining that Anna Anderson was not theRussian princess she had claimed to be, Anastasia Romanov.mtDNA can be obtained from such material as hair shafts and old bones/teeth..

DNA databasesThere are now several DNA databases in existence around the world. Some are private, but most of the largestdatabases are government controlled. The United States maintains the largest DNA database, with the CombinedDNA Index System, holding over 5 million records as of 2007.[7] The United Kingdom maintains the National DNADatabase (NDNAD), which is of similar size, despite the UK's smaller population. The size of this database, and itsrate of growth, is giving concern to civil liberties groups in the UK, where police have wide-ranging powers to takesamples and retain them even in the event of acquittal.[8]

The U.S. Patriot Act of the United States provides a means for the U.S. government to get DNA samples from othercountries if they are either a division of, or head office of, a company operating in the U.S. Under the act, theAmerican offices of the company can't divulge to their subsidiaries/offices in other countries the reasons that theseDNA samples are sought or by whom.When a match is made from a National DNA Databank to link a crime scene to an offender who has provided aDNA Sample to a databank that link is often referred to as a cold hit. A cold hit is of value in referring the policeagency to a specific suspect but is of less evidential value than a DNA match made from outside the DNADatabank.[9]

Considerations when evaluating DNA evidenceIn the early days of the use of genetic fingerprinting as criminal evidence, juries were often swayed by spurious statistical arguments by defense lawyers along these lines: given a match that had a 1 in 5 million probability of occurring by chance, the lawyer would argue that this meant that in a country of say 60 million people there were 12 people who would also match the profile. This was then translated to a 1 in 12 chance of the suspect being the guilty one. This argument is not sound unless the suspect was drawn at random from the population of the country. In fact, a jury should consider how likely it is that an individual matching the genetic profile would also have been a suspect in the case for other reasons. Another spurious statistical argument is based on the false assumption that a 1 in 5 million probability of a match automatically translates into a 1 in 5 million probability of innocence and is known as

DNA profiling 19

the prosecutor's fallacy.When using RFLP, the theoretical risk of a coincidental match is 1 in 100 billion (100,000,000,000), although thepractical risk is actually 1 in 1000 because monozygotic twins are 0.2% of the human population. Moreover, the rateof laboratory error is almost certainly higher than this, and often actual laboratory procedures do not reflect thetheory under which the coincidence probabilities were computed. For example, the coincidence probabilities may becalculated based on the probabilities that markers in two samples have bands in precisely the same location, but alaboratory worker may conclude that similar—but not precisely identical—band patterns result from identicalgenetic samples with some imperfection in the agarose gel. However, in this case, the laboratory worker increasesthe coincidence risk by expanding the criteria for declaring a match. Recent studies have quoted relatively high errorrates which may be cause for concern.[10] In the early days of genetic fingerprinting, the necessary population data toaccurately compute a match probability was sometimes unavailable. Between 1992 and 1996, arbitrary low ceilingswere controversially put on match probabilities used in RFLP analysis rather than the higher theoretically computedones.[11] Today, RFLP has become widely disused due to the advent of more discriminating, sensitive and easiertechnologies.STRs do not suffer from such subjectivity and provide similar power of discrimination (1 in 10^13 for unrelatedindividuals if using a full SGM+ profile) It should be noted that figures of this magnitude are not considered to bestatistically supportable by scientists in the UK, for unrelated individuals with full matching DNA profiles a matchprobability of 1 in a billion is considered statistically supportable (Since 1998 the DNA profiling system supportedby The National DNA Database in the UK is the SGM+ DNA profiling system which includes 10 STR regions and asex indicating test. However, with any DNA technique, the cautious juror should not convict on genetic fingerprintevidence alone if other factors raise doubt. Contamination with other evidence (secondary transfer) is a key source ofincorrect DNA profiles and raising doubts as to whether a sample has been adulterated is a favorite defensetechnique. More rarely, chimerism is one such instance where the lack of a genetic match may unfairly exclude asuspect.

Evidence of genetic relationshipIt's also possible to use DNA profiling as evidence of genetic relationship, but testing that shows no relationship isabsolutely certain. While almost all individuals have a single and distinct set of genes, rare individuals, known as"chimeras", have at least two different sets of genes. There have been several cases of DNA profiling that falsely"proved" that a mother was unrelated to her children.[12]

Fake DNA evidenceThe value of DNA evidence has to be seen in light of recent cases where criminals planted fake DNA samples atcrime scenes. In one case, a criminal even planted fake DNA evidence in his own body: Dr. John Schneeberger rapedone of his sedated patients in 1992 and left semen on her underwear. Police drew what they believed to beSchneeberger's blood and compared its DNA against the crime scene semen DNA on three occasions, never showinga match. It turned out that he had surgically inserted a Penrose drain into his arm and filled it with foreign blood andanticoagulants.In a study conducted by the life science company Nucleix and published in the journal Forensic ScienceInternational, scientists found that an In vitro synthesized sample of DNA matching any desired genetic profile canbe constructed using standard molecular biology techniques without obtaining any actual tissue from that person.In the case of the Phantom of Heilbronn, police detectives found DNA traces from the same woman on various crime scenes in Austria, Germany and France - among them murders, burglaries and robberies. Only after the DNA of the "woman" matched the DNA sampled from the burned body of a male asylum seeker in France, detectives began to have serious doubts about the DNA evidence. In that case, DNA traces were already present on the cotton swabs used to collect the samples at the crime scene, and the swabs had all been produced at the same factory in Austria.

DNA profiling 20

The company's product specification said that the swabs were guaranteed to be sterile, but not DNA-free.

DNA evidence as evidence in criminal trials

Familial searchingFamilial searching is the use of family members' DNA to identify a closely related suspect in jurisdictions wherelarge DNA databases exist, but no exact match has been found. The first successful use of the practice was in a UKcase where a man was convicted of manslaughter when he threw a brick stained with his own blood into a movingcar. Police could not get an exact match to the UK's DNA database because the man had no criminal convictions, butpolice implicated him using a close relative's DNA.[13] The technique was used to catch a Los Angeles serial killerknown as the "Grim Sleeper" in 2010.[14]

Surreptitious DNA collectingPolice forces may collect DNA samples without the suspects' knowledge, and use it as evidence. Legality of thismode of proceeding has been questioned in Australia.In the United States, it has been accepted, courts often claiming that there was no expectation of privacy, citingCalifornia v. Greenwood (1985), during which the Supreme Court held that the Fourth Amendment does not prohibitthe warrantless search and seizure of garbage left for collection outside the curtilage of a home. Critics of thispractice underline the fact that this analogy ignores that "most people have no idea that they risk surrendering theirgenetic identity to the police by, for instance, failing to destroy a used coffee cup. Moreover, even if they do realizeit, there is no way to avoid abandoning one’s DNA in public."[15]

In the UK, the Human Tissue Act 2004 prohibited private individuals from covertly collecting biological samples(hair, fingernails, etc.) for DNA analysis, but excluded medical and criminal investigations from the offense.[16]

England and WalesEvidence from an expert who has compared DNA samples must be accompanied by evidence as to the sources of thesamples and the procedures for obtaining the DNA profiles.[17] The judge must ensure that the jury must understandthe significance of DNA matches and mismatches in the profiles. The judge must also ensure that the jury does notconfuse the 'match probability' (the probability that a person that is chosen at random has a matching DNA profile tothe sample from the scene) with the 'likelihood ratio' (the probability that a person with matching DNA committedthe crime). In R v. Doheny[18] Phillips LJ gave this example of a summing up, which should be carefully tailored tothe particular facts in each case:

Members of the Jury, if you accept the scientific evidence called by the Crown, this indicates that thereare probably only four or five white males in the United Kingdom from whom that semen stain couldhave come. The Defendant is one of them. If that is the position, the decision you have to reach, on allthe evidence, is whether you are sure that it was the Defendant who left that stain or whether it ispossible that it was one of that other small group of men who share the same DNA characteristics.

Juries should weigh up conflicting and corroborative evidence, using their own common sense and not by usingmathematical formulae, such as Bayes' theorem, so as to avoid "confusion, misunderstanding and misjudgment".[19]

DNA profiling 21

Presentation and evaluation of evidence of partial or incomplete DNA profiles

In R v Bates[20] , Moore-Bick LJ said:“We can see no reason why partial profile DNA evidence should not be admissible provided that the jury aremade aware of its inherent limitations and are given a sufficient explanation to enable them to evaluate it.There may be cases where the match probability in relation to all the samples tested is so great that the judgewould consider its probative value to be minimal and decide to exclude the evidence in the exercise of hisdiscretion, but this gives rise to no new question of principle and can be left for decision on a case by casebasis. However, the fact that there exists in the case of all partial profile evidence the possibility that a"missing" allele might exculpate the accused altogether does not provide sufficient grounds for rejecting suchevidence. In many there is a possibility (at least in theory) that evidence exists which would assist the accusedand perhaps even exculpate him altogether, but that does not provide grounds for excluding relevant evidencethat is available and otherwise admissible, though it does make it important to ensure that the jury are givensufficient information to enable them to evaluate that evidence properly”.[21]

DNA testing in the USThere are state laws on DNA profiling in all 50 states of the United States.[22] Detailed information on database lawsin each state can be found at the National Conference of State Legislatures website.[23]

Development of artificial DNAIn August 2009, scientists in Israel raised serious doubts concerning the use of DNA by law enforcement as theultimate method of identification. In a paper published in the journal Forensic Science International: Genetics, theIsraeli researchers demonstrated that it is possible to manufacture DNA in a laboratory, thus falsifying DNAevidence. The scientists fabricated saliva and blood samples, which originally contained DNA from a person otherthan the supposed donor of the blood and saliva.[24]

The researchers also showed that, using a DNA database, it is possible to take information from a profile andmanufacture DNA to match it, and that this can be done without access to any actual DNA from the person whoseDNA they are duplicating. The synthetic DNA oligos required for the procedure are common in molecularlaboratories.[24]

Dr. Daniel Frumkin, lead author on the paper, was quoted in The New York Times saying, "You can just engineer acrime scene... any biology undergraduate could perform this."[24]

Dr. Frumkin perfected a test that can differentiate real DNA samples from fake ones. His test detects epigeneticmodifications, in particular, DNA methylation. Seventy percent of the DNA in any human genome is methylated,meaning it contains methyl group modifications within a CpG dinucleotide context. Methylation at the promoterregion is associated with gene silencing. The synthetic DNA lacks this epigenetic modification, which allows the testto distinguish manufactured DNA from original, genuine, DNA.[24]

It is unknown how many, if any, police departments currently use the test, which appears to be a serious issue. Nopolice lab has publicly announced that it is using the new test to verify DNA results, even though any forensiclaboratory doing DNA identification could adopt this test to authenticate its results as "real" DNA.[25]

DNA profiling 22

Cases• In the 1950s, Anna Anderson claimed that she was Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia. In the 1980's,

after her death, samples of her tissue that had been stored at a Charlottesville, Virginia hospital following amedical procedure were tested using DNA fingerprinting, and showed that she bore no relation to theRomanovs.[26]

• In 1986, Richard Buckland was exonerated, despite having admitted to the rape and murder of a teenager nearLeicester, the city where DNA profiling was first discovered. This was the first use of DNA finger printing in acriminal investigation.[27]

• In 1987, in the same case as Buckland, British baker Colin Pitchfork was the first criminal caught andconvicted using DNA fingerprinting.[28]

• In 1987, genetic fingerprinting was used in criminal court for the first time in the trial of a man accused ofunlawful intercourse with a mentally handicapped 14-year-old female who gave birth to his baby.[29]

• In 1987, Florida rapist Tommy Lee Andrews was the first person in the United States to be convicted as a resultof DNA evidence, for raping a woman during a burglary; he was convicted on November 6, 1987, and sentencedto 22 years in prison.[30] [31]

• In 1988, Timothy Wilson Spencer was the first man in Virginia to be sentenced to death through DNA testing, forseveral rape and murder charges. He was dubbed "The South Side Strangler" because he killed victims on thesouth side of Richmond, Virginia. He was later charged with rape and 1st degree murder and was sentenced todeath. He was executed on April 27, 1994. David Vasquez, initially convicted of one of Spencer's crimes, becamethe first man in America exonerated based on DNA evidence.

• In 1989, Chicago man Gary Dotson was the first person whose conviction was overturned using DNA evidence.• In 1991, Allan Legere was the first Canadian to be convicted as a result of DNA evidence, for four murders he

had committed while an escaped prisoner in 1989. During his trial, his defense argued that the relatively shallowgene pool of the region could lead to false positives.

• In 1992, DNA evidence was used to prove that Nazi doctor Josef Mengele was buried in Brazil under the nameWolfgang Gerhard.

• In 1993, Kirk Bloodsworth was the first person to have been convicted of murder and sentenced to death, whoseconviction was overturned using DNA evidence.

• The 1993 rape and murder of Mia Zapata, lead singer for the Seattle punk band The Gits was unsolved 9 yearsafter the murder. A database search in 2001 failed, but the killer's DNA was collected when he was arrested inFlorida for burglary and domestic abuse in 2002.

• The science was made famous in the United States in 1994 when prosecutors heavily relied on DNA evidenceallegedly linking O.J. Simpson to a double murder. The case also brought to light the laboratory difficulties andhandling procedure mishaps which can cause such evidence to be significantly doubted.

• In 1994, Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) detectives successfully tested hairs from a cat known asSnowball, and used the test to link a man to the murder of his wife, thus marking for the first time in forensichistory the use of non-human DNA to identify a criminal.

• In 1998, Dr. Richard J. Schmidt was convicted of attempted second-degree murder when it was shown that therewas a link between the viral DNA of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) he had been accused of injectingin his girlfriend and viral DNA from one of his patients with full-blown AIDS. This was the first time viral DNAfingerprinting had been used as evidence in a criminal trial.

• In 1999, Raymond Easton, a disabled man from Swindon, England, was arrested and detained for 7 hours inconnection with a burglary. He was released due to an inaccurrate DNA match. His DNA had been retained onfile after an unrelated domestic incident some time previously.[32]

• In May 2000 Gordon Graham murdered Paul Gault at his home in Lisburn, Northern Ireland. Graham was convicted of the murder when his DNA was found on a sports bag left in the house as part of an elaborate ploy to

DNA profiling 23

suggest the murder occurred after a burglary had gone wrong. Graham was having an affair with the victims wifeat the time of the murder. It was the first time Low Copy Number DNA was used in Northern Ireland.[33]

• In 2001, Wayne Butler was convicted for the murder of Celia Douty. It was the first murder in Australia to besolved using DNA profiling.[34] [35]

• In 2002, DNA testing was used to exonerate Douglas Echols, a man who was wrongfully convicted in a 1986 rapecase. Echols was the 114th person to be exonerated through post-conviction DNA testing.

• In August 2002, Annalisa Vincenzi was shot dead in Tuscany. Bartender Peter Hamkin, 23, was arrested, inMerseyside, in March 2003 on an extradition warrant heard at Bow Street Magistrates' Court in London toestablish whether he should be taken to Italy to face a murder charge. DNA "proved" he shot her, but he wascleared on other evidence.[36]

• In 2003, Welshman Jeffrey Gafoor was convicted of the 1988 murder of Lynette White, when crime sceneevidence collected 12 years earlier was re-examined using STR techniques, resulting in a match with hisnephew.[37] This may be the first known example of the DNA of an innocent yet related individual being used toidentify the actual criminal, via "familial searching".

• In June 2003, because of new DNA evidence, Dennis Halstead, John Kogut and John Restivo won a re-trial ontheir murder conviction. The three men had already served eighteen years of their thirty-plus-year sentences.

• The trial of Robert Pickton is notable in that DNA evidence is being used primarily to identify the victims, and inmany cases to prove their existence.

• In March 2003, Josiah Sutton was released from prison after serving four years of a twelve-year sentence for asexual assault charge. Questionable DNA samples taken from Sutton were retested in the wake of the HoustonPolice Department's crime lab scandal of mishandling DNA evidence.

• In 2004, DNA testing shed new light into the mysterious 1912 disappearance of Bobby Dunbar, a four-year-oldboy who vanished during a fishing trip. He was allegedly found alive eight months later in the custody of WilliamCantwell Walters, but another woman claimed that the boy was her son, Bruce Anderson, whom she had entrustedin Walters' custody. The courts disbelieved her claim and convicted Walters for the kidnapping. The boy wasraised and known as Bobby Dunbar throughout the rest of his life. However, DNA tests on Dunbar's son andnephew revealed the two were not related, thus establishing that the boy found in 1912 was not Bobby Dunbar,whose real fate remains unknown.[38]

• In 2005, Gary Leiterman was convicted of the 1969 murder of Jane Mixer, a law student at the University ofMichigan, after DNA found on Mixer's pantyhose was matched to Leiterman. DNA in a drop of blood on Mixer'shand was matched to John Ruelas, who was only four years old in 1969 and was never successfully connected tothe case in any other way. Leiterman's defense unsuccessfully argued that the unexplained match of the blood spotto Ruelas pointed to cross-contamination and raised doubts about the reliability of the lab's identification ofLeiterman.[39] [40] [41]

• In December 2005, Evan Simmons was proven innocent of a 1981 attack on an Atlanta woman after servingtwenty-four years in prison. Mr Clark is the 164th person in the United States and the fifth in Georgia to be freedusing post-conviction DNA testing.

• In March 2009, Sean Hodgson who spent 27 years in jail, convicted of killing Teresa De Simone, 22, in her car inSouthampton 30 years ago was released by senior judges. Tests prove DNA from the scene was not his. Britishpolice have now reopened the case.

DNA profiling 24

References[1] Kijk magazine, 01 January 2009[2] "Use of DNA in Identification" (http:/ / www. accessexcellence. org/ RC/ AB/ BA/ Use_of_DNA_Identification. php). Accessexcellence.org.

. Retrieved 2010-04-03.[3] Joseph Wambaugh, The Blooding (New York, New York: A Perigord Press Book, 1989), 83.[4] Jeffreys A.J., Wilson V., Thein S.W. (1984). "Hypervariable 'minisatellite' regions in human DNA" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/

journal/ v314/ n6006/ abs/ 314067a0. html). Nature 314: 67–73. doi:10.1038/314067a0[5] Joseph Wambaugh, The Blooding (New York, New York: A Perigord Press Book, 1989), 202.[6] Felch, Jason; et al (July 20, 2008). "FBI resists scrutiny of 'matches'" (http:/ / articles. latimes. com/ 2008/ jul/ 20/ local/ me-dna20). Los

Angeles Times: pp. P8. .[7] "CODIS — National DNA Index System" (http:/ / www. fbi. gov/ hq/ lab/ codis/ national. htm). Fbi.gov. . Retrieved 2010-04-03.[8] "Restrictions on use and destruction of fingerprints and samples" (http:/ / www. wikicrimeline. co. uk/ index.

php?title=Identification_by_body_samples_and_impressions#Section_82:_Restrictions_on_use_and_destruction_of_fingerprints_and_samples).Wikicrimeline.co.uk. 2009-09-01. . Retrieved 2010-04-03.

[9] Rose & Goos. DNA — A Practical Guide. Toronto: Carswell Publications.[10] Nick Paton Walsh False result fear over DNA tests (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ crime/ article/ 0,2763,640157,00. html) The Observer,

Sunday 27 January 2002[11] The Evaluation of Forensic DNA Evidence (http:/ / www. nap. edu/ openbook/ 0309053951/ html/ 35. html) 1996[12] "Two Women Don't Match Their Kids' DNA" (http:/ / abcnews. go. com/ Primetime/ story?id=2315693). Abcnews.go.com. 2006-08-15. .

Retrieved 2010-04-03.[13] Bhattacharya, Shaoni (20 April 2004). "Killer convicted thanks to relative's DNA" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/

dn4908-killer-convicted-thanks-to-relatives-dna. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2008-05-06.[14] Grim Sleeper’ Arrest Fans Debate on DNA Use (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 07/ 09/ us/ 09sleeper. html) Jennifer Steinhauer, New

York Times, July 8, 2010[15] Amy Harmon, Lawyers Fight DNA Samples Gained on Sly (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 04/ 03/ science/ 03dna. html), New York

Times, April 3, 2008.[16] Human Tissue Act 2004 (http:/ / www. dh. gov. uk/ en/ Publichealth/ Scientificdevelopmentgeneticsandbioethics/ Tissue/

TissueGeneralInformation/ DH_4102169), UK, available in pdf.[17] R v. Loveridge, EWCA Crim 734 (2001).[18] R v. Doheny [1996] EWCA Crim 728 (http:/ / www. bailii. org/ ew/ cases/ EWCA/ Crim/ 1996/ 728. html), [1997] 1 Cr App R 369 (), Court

of Appeal[19] R v. Adams [1997] EWCA Crim 2474 (http:/ / www. bailii. org/ ew/ cases/ EWCA/ Crim/ 1997/ 2474. html) (), Court of Appeal[20] R v Bates [2006] EWCA Crim 1395 (http:/ / www. bailii. org/ ew/ cases/ EWCA/ Crim/ 2006/ 1395. html) (), Court of Appeal[21] "WikiCrimeLine DNA profiling" (http:/ / www. wikicrimeline. co. uk/ index.

php?title=DNA_profiling#Presentation_and_evaluation_of_evidence_of_partial_or_incomplete_DNA_profiles). Wikicrimeline.co.uk. .Retrieved 2010-04-03.

[22] "Genelex: The DNA Paternity Testing Site" (http:/ / www. healthanddna. com/ dna-learning/ book-dna-testing. html). Healthanddna.com.1996-01-06. . Retrieved 2010-04-03.

[23] Donna Lyons — Posted by Glenda. "State Laws on DNA Data Banks" (http:/ / www. ncsl. org/ IssuesResearch/ CivilandCriminalJustice/StateLawsonDNADataBanks/ tabid/ 12737/ Default. aspx). Ncsl.org. . Retrieved 2010-04-03.

[24] Pollack, Andrew (August 18, 2009). "DNA Evidence Can Be Fabricated, Scientists Show" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 08/ 18/science/ 18dna. html?_r=1). The New York Times. . Retrieved April 1, 2010.

[25] "Elsevier" (http:/ / www. fsigenetics. com/ article/ S1872-4973(09)00099-4/ abstract). Fsigenetics.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-03.[26] Identification of the remains of the Romanov family by DNA analysis by Peter Gill, Central Research and Support Establishment, Forensic

Science Service, Aldermaston, Reading, Berkshire, RG7 4PN, UK, Pavel L. Ivanov, Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, RussianAcademy of Sciences, 117984, Moscow, Russia, Colin Kimpton, Romelle Piercy, Nicola Benson, Gillian Tully, Ian Evett, Kevin Sullivan,Forensic Science Service, Priory House, Gooch Street North, Birmingham B5 6QQ, UK, Erika Hagelberg, University of Cambridge,Department of Biological Anthropology, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DZ, UK - (http:/ / www. nature. com/ ng/ journal/ v6/ n2/ abs/ng0294-130. html)

[27] "DNA pioneer's 'eureka' moment" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ programmes/ newsnight/ 8245312. stm). BBC News. September 9, 2009. .Retrieved April 1, 2010.

[28] Joseph Wambaugh, The Blooding (New York, New York: A Perigord Press Book, 1989), 369.[29] Joseph Wambaugh, The Blooding (New York, New York: A Perigord Press Book, 1989), 316.[30] "Gene Technology — Page 14" (http:/ / www. txtwriter. com/ Backgrounders/ Genetech/ GEpage14. html). Txtwriter.com. 1987-11-06. .

Retrieved 2010-04-03.[31] "frontline: the case for innocence: the dna revolution: state and federal dna database laws examined" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ pages/

frontline/ shows/ case/ revolution/ databases. html). Pbs.org. . Retrieved 2010-04-03.

DNA profiling 25

[32] Jeffries, Stuart (2006-10-08). "Suspect Nation" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ comment/ story/ 0,,1933724,00. html). London: TheGuardian. . Retrieved April 1, 2010.

[33] Gordon, Stephen (2008-02-17). "Freedom in bag for killer Graham?" (http:/ / www. belfasttelegraph. co. uk/ sunday-life/ news/freedom-in-bag-for-killer-graham-13906320. html). Belfasttelegraph.co.uk. . Retrieved 2010-06-19.

[34] Dutter, Barbie (2001-06-19). "18 years on, man is jailed for murder of Briton in 'paradise'" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/worldnews/ australiaandthepacific/ 1322624/ 18-years-on,-man-is-jailed-for-murder-of-Briton-in-'paradise'. html). London: The Telegraph. .Retrieved 2008-06-17.

[35] McCutcheon, Peter (2004-09-08). "DNA evidence may not be infallible: experts" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ 7. 30/ content/ 2004/ s1195029.htm). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. . Retrieved 2008-06-17.

[36] "Mistaken identity claim over murder" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ england/ 2766289. stm). BBC News. February 15, 2003. . RetrievedApril 1, 2010.

[37] Satish Sekar. "Lynette White Case: How Forensics Caught the Cellophane Man" (http:/ / lifeloom. com/ I2Sekar. htm). Lifeloom.com. .Retrieved 2010-04-03.

[38] " DNA clears man of 1914 kidnapping conviction (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ tech/ news/ 2004-05-05-1914-dna_x. htm)," USA Today,(May 5, 2004), by Allen G. Breed, Associated Press.

[39] CBS News (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2005/ 11/ 22/ 48hours/ main1066064. shtml) story on the Jane Mixer murder case; March24, 2007.

[40] Another CBS News (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2007/ 07/ 17/ earlyshow/ main3065082. shtml) story on the Mixer case; July 17,2007.

[41] An advocacy site (http:/ / www. garyisinnocent. org) challenging Leiterman's conviction in the Mixer murder.

External links• DNA Fingerprinting (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2009/ may/ 24/ dna-fingerprinting-alec-jeffreys)

Eureka Moment• Create a DNA Fingerprint (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ sheppard/ analyze. html) PBS.org• In silico simulation of Molecular Biology Techniques (http:/ / insilico. ehu. es) - A place to learn typing

techniques by simulating them• National DNA Databases in the EU (https:/ / www. kuleuven. be/ cbmer/ page. php?LAN=E& ID=399&

FILE=subject& PAGE=1)• Key Dates in the History of DNA Profiling (http:/ / www. crimtrac. gov. au/ systems_projects/

KeyDatesintheHistoryofDNAProfiling. html)• Fingerprinting.com (http:/ / www. fingerprinting. com/ dna-fingerprinting. php) DNA Fingerprinting

Identification and Methods

Fingerprint 26

Fingerprint

Closeup of the palm of the hand and the base ofseveral fingers; as seen here, debris can gather

between the ridges.

The fingerprints created by that friction ridgestructure.

A fingerprint in its narrow sense is an impression left by the frictionridges of a human finger.[1] In a wider use of the term, fingerprints arethe traces of an impression from the friction ridges of any part of ahuman hand. A print from the foot can also leave an impression offriction ridges. A friction ridge is a raised portion of the epidermis onthe fingers and toes (digits), the palm of the hand or the sole of thefoot, consisting of one or more connected ridge units of friction ridgeskin.[1] These are sometimes known as "epidermal ridges" which arecaused by the underlying interface between the dermal papillae of thedermis and the interpapillary (rete) pegs of the epidermis. Theseepidermal ridges serve to amplify vibrations triggered, for example,when fingertips brush across an uneven surface, better transmitting thesignals to sensory nerves involved in fine texture perception.[2] Theseridges also assist in gripping rough surfaces, as well as smooth wetsurfaces.[3]

Impressions of fingerprints may be left behind on a surface by thenatural secretions of sweat from the eccrine glands that are present infriction ridge skin, or they may be made by ink or other substancestransferred from the peaks of friction ridges on the skin to a relativelysmooth surface such as a fingerprint card.[4] Fingerprint recordsnormally contain impressions from the pad on the last joint of fingersand thumbs, although fingerprint cards also typically record portions oflower joint areas of the fingers.

Fingerprints used for identification

Fingerprint identification, known as dactyloscopy,[5] or hand printidentification, is the process of comparing two instances of frictionridge skin impressions (see Minutiae), from human fingers, the palm ofthe hand or even toes, to determine whether these impressions couldhave come from the same individual. The flexibility of friction ridgeskin means that no two finger or palm prints are ever exactly alike in every detail; even two impressions recordedimmediately after each other from the same hand. Fingerprint identification, also referred to as individualization,involves an expert, or an expert computer system operating under threshold scoring rules, determining whether twofriction ridge impressions are likely to have originated from the same finger or palm (or toe or sole).

An intentional recording of friction ridges is usually made with black printer's ink rolled across a contrasting whitebackground, typically a white card. Friction ridges can also be recorded digitally using a technique called Live Scan.A "latent print" is the chance recording of friction ridges deposited on the surface of an object or a wall. Latent printsare invisible to the naked eye, whereas "patent prints" or "plastic prints" are viewable with the un-aided eye. Latentprints are often fragmentary and require chemical methods, powder, or alternative light sources in order to be madeclear. Sometimes an ordinary bright flashlight will make a latent print visible.When friction ridges come into contact with a surface that will take a print, material that is on the friction ridges such as perspiration, oil, grease, ink or blood, will be transferred to the surface. Factors which affect the quality of friction

Fingerprint 27

ridge impressions are numerous. Pliability of the skin, deposition pressure, slippage, the material from which thesurface is made, the roughness of the surface and the substance deposited are just some of the various factors whichcan cause a latent print to appear differently from any known recording of the same friction ridges. Indeed, theconditions surrounding every instance of friction ridge deposition are unique and never duplicated. For these reasons,fingerprint examiners are required to undergo extensive training.

Fingerprint types

Exemplar prints

Exemplar prints, or known prints, is the name given to fingerprints deliberately collected from a subject, whether forpurposes of enrollment in a system or when under arrest for a suspected criminal offense. During criminal arrests, aset of exemplar prints will normally include one print taken from each finger that has been rolled from one edge ofthe nail to the other, plain (or slap) impressions of each of the four fingers of each hand, and plain impressions ofeach thumb. Exemplar prints can be collected using Live Scan or by using ink on paper cards.

Latent prints

Although the word latent means hidden or invisible, in modern usage for forensic science the term latent printsmeans any chance or accidental impression left by friction ridge skin on a surface, regardless of whether it is visibleor invisible at the time of deposition. Electronic, chemical and physical processing techniques permit visualization ofinvisible latent print residues whether they are from natural sweat on the skin or from a contaminant such as motoroil, blood, ink, paint or some other form of dirt. The different types of fingerprint patterns, such as arch, loop andwhorl, will be described below.Latent prints may exhibit only a small portion of the surface of a finger and this may be smudged, distorted,overlapped by other prints from the same or from different individuals, or any or all of these in combination. For thisreason, latent prints usually present an “inevitable source of error in making comparisons,” as they generally “containless clarity, less content, and less undistorted information than a fingerprint taken under controlled conditions, andmuch, much less detail compared to the actual patterns of ridges and grooves of a finger.”[6]

Patent prints

Patent prints are chance friction ridge impressions which are obvious to the human eye and which have been causedby the transfer of foreign material from a finger onto a surface. Some obvious examples would be impressions fromflour and wet clay. Because they are already visible and have no need of enhancement they are generallyphotographed rather than being lifted in the way that latent prints are. An attempt to preserve the actual print isalways made for later presentation in court, and there are many techniques used to do this. Patent prints can be lefton a surface by materials such as ink, dirt, or blood.

Plastic prints

A plastic print is a friction ridge impression left in a material that retains the shape of the ridge detail. Although veryfew criminals would be careless enough to leave their prints in a lump of wet clay, this would make a perfect plasticprint.[7] Commonly encountered examples are melted candle wax, putty removed from the perimeter of windowpanes and thick grease deposits on car parts. Such prints are already visible and need no enhancement, butinvestigators must not overlook the potential that invisible latent prints deposited by accomplices may also be onsuch surfaces. After photographically recording such prints, attempts should be made to develop other non-plasticimpressions deposited from sweat or other contaminates.

Fingerprint 28

Electronic recording

There has been a newspaper report[8] of a man selling stolen watches sending images of them on a mobile phone, andthose images included parts of his hands in enough detail for police to be able to identify fingerprint patterns.

Classifying fingerprintsBefore computerisation replaced manual filing systems in large fingerprint operations, manual fingerprintclassification systems were used to categorize fingerprints based on general ridge formations (such as the presence orabsence of circular patterns on various fingers), thus permitting filing and retrieval of paper records in largecollections based on friction ridge patterns alone. The most popular ten-print classification systems include theRoscher system, the Juan Vucetich system, and the Henry Classification System. Of these systems, the Roschersystem was developed in Germany and implemented in both Germany and Japan, the Vucetich system (developed bya Croatian-born Buenos Aires Police Officer) was developed in Argentina and implemented throughout SouthAmerica, and the Henry system was developed in India and implemented in most English-speaking countries.[9]

In the Henry system of classification, there are three basic fingerprint patterns: Loop, Whorl and Arch,[10] whichconstitute 60–65%, 30–35% and 5% of all fingerprints respectively.[11] There are also more complex classificationsystems that break down patterns even further, into plain arches or tented arches,[9] and into loops that may be radialor ulnar, depending on the side of the hand the tail points towards. Whorls may also have sub-group classificationsincluding plain whorls, accidental whorls, double loop whorls, peacock's eye, composite, and central pocket loopwhorls.[9]

The system used by most experts, although complex, is similar to the Henry System of Classification. It consists offive fractions, in which R stands for right, L for left, i for index finger, m for middle finger, t for thumb, r for ringfinger and p(pinky) for little finger. The fractions are as follows: Ri/Rt + Rr/Rm + Lt/Rp + Lm/Li + Lp/Lr. Thenumbers assigned to each print are based on whether or not they are whorls. A whorl in the first fraction is given a16, the second an 8, the third a 4, the fourth a 2, and 0 to the last fraction. Arches and loops are assingned values of0. Lastly, the numbers in the numerator and denominator are added up, using the scheme:

(Ri + Rr + Lt + Lm + Lp)/(Rt + Rm + Rp + Li + Lr)

and a 1 is added to both top and bottom, to exclude any possibility of division by zero. For example, if the right ringfinger and the left index finger have whorls, the fractions would look like this:

0/0 + 8/0 + 0/0 + 0/2 + 0/0 + 1/1, and the calculation: (0 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1)/(0 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 1) = 9/3 = 3.Using this system reduces the number of prints that the print in question needs to be compared to. For example, theabove set of prints would only need to be compared to other sets of fingerprints with a value of 3.[12]

Arch  

Fingerprint 29

Loop(Right Loop)  

Whorl  

Arch(Tented Arch)  

FootprintsFriction ridge skin present on the soles of the feet and toes (plantar surfaces) is as unique in its ridge detail as are thefingers and palms (palmar surfaces). When recovered at crime scenes or on items of evidence, sole and toeimpressions can be used in the same manner as finger and palm prints to effect identifications. Footprint (toe andsole friction ridge skin) evidence has been admitted in courts in the United States since 1934.[13]

The footprints of infants, along with the thumb or index finger prints of mothers, are still commonly recorded inhospitals to assist in verifying the identity of infants. Often, the only identifiable ridge detail that can be seen on ababy's foot is from the large toe or adjacent to the large toe.It is not uncommon for military records of flight personnel to include bare foot inked impressions. Friction ridge skin protected inside flight boots tends to survive the trauma of a plane crash (and accompanying fire) better than fingers.

Fingerprint 30

Even though the US Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory (AFDIL), as of 2010, stored refrigerated DNAsamples from all active duty and reserve personnel, almost all casualty identifications are effected using fingerprintsfrom military ID card records (live scan fingerprints are recorded at the time such cards are issued). When frictionridge skin is not available from deceased military personnel, DNA and dental records are used to confirm identity.

Fingerprint capture and detection

Livescan devices

A fingerprint scanner

Fingerprint being scanned

Fingerprint image acquisition is considered to be the most critical stepin an automated fingerprint authentication system, as it determines thefinal fingerprint image quality, which has a drastic effect on the overallsystem performance. There are different types of fingerprint readers onthe market, but the basic idea behind each is to measure the physicaldifference between ridges and valleys.

Fingerprint 31

A finger print reader on a laptop

All the proposed methods can begrouped into two major families:solid-state fingerprint readers andoptical fingerprint readers. Theprocedure for capturing a fingerprintusing a sensor consists of rolling ortouching with the finger onto a sensingarea, which according to the physicalprinciple in use (optical, ultrasonic,capacitive or thermal) captures thedifference between valleys and ridges.When a finger touches or rolls onto asurface, the elastic skin deforms. Thequantity and direction of the pressureapplied by the user, the skin conditionsand the projection of an irregular 3Dobject (the finger) onto a 2D flat planeintroduce distortions, noise and inconsistencies in the captured fingerprint image. These problems result ininconsistent, irreproducible and non-uniform irregularities in the image.[14] During each acquisition, therefore, theresults of the imaging are different and uncontrollable. The representation of the same fingerprint changes every timethe finger is placed on the sensor plate, increasing the complexity of any attempt to match fingerprints, impairing thesystem performance and consequently, limiting the widespread use of this biometric technology.

3D fingerprint [15]

In order to overcome these problems, as of 2010, non-contact ortouchless 3D fingerprint scanners have been developed .[16] [17]

Acquiring detailed 3D information, 3D fingerprint scanners take adigital approach to the cumbersome analog process of pressing orrolling the finger. By modelling the distance between neighboringpoints, the fingerprint can be imaged at a resolution high enough torecord all the necessary detail.[18]

Latent fingerprint detection

Since the late nineteenth century, fingerprint identification methods have been used by police agencies around theworld to identify suspected criminals as well as the victims of crime. The basis of the traditional fingerprintingtechnique is simple. The skin on the palmar surface of the hands and feet forms ridges, so-called papillary ridges, inpatterns that are unique to each individual and which do not change over time. Even identical twins (who share theirDNA) do not have identical fingerprints. The best way to render latent fingerprints visible, so that they can bephotographed, can be complex and may depend, for example, on the type of surfaces on which they have been left. Itis generally necessary to use a ‘developer’, usually a powder or chemical reagent, to produce a high degree of visualcontrast between the ridge patterns and the surface on which a fingerprint has been deposited.Developing agents depend on the presence of organic materials or inorganic salts for their effectiveness, although thewater deposited may also take a key role. Fingerprints are typically formed from the aqueous-based secretions of theeccrine glands of the fingers and palms with additional material from sebaceous glands primarily from the forehead.This latter contamination results from the common human behaviors of touching the face and hair. The resultinglatent fingerprints consist usually of a substantial proportion of water with small traces of amino acids and chlorides

Fingerprint 32

mixed with a fatty, sebaceous component which contains a number of fatty acids and triglycerides. Detection of asmall proportion of reactive organic substances such as urea and amino acids is far from easy.Fingerprints at a crime scene may be detected by simple powders, or by chemicals applied in situ. More complextechniques, usually involving chemicals, can be applied in specialist laboratories to appropriate articles removedfrom a crime scene. With advances in these more sophisticated techniques, some of the more advanced crime sceneinvestigation services from around the world were, as of 2010, reporting that 50% or more of the fingerprintsrecovered from a crime scene had been identified as a result of laboratory-based techniques.

Laboratory techniques

Although there are hundreds of reported techniques for fingerprint detection, many of these are only of academicinterest and there are only around 20 really effective methods which are currently in use in the more advancedfingerprint laboratories around the world. Some of these techniques, such as ninhydrin, diazafluorenone and vacuummetal deposition, show great sensitivity and are used operationally. Some fingerprint reagents are specific, forexample ninhydrin or diazafluorenone reacting with amino acids. Others such as ethyl cyanoacrylate polymerisation,work apparently by water-based catalysis and polymer growth. Vacuum metal deposition using gold and zinc hasbeen shown to be non-specific, but can detect fat layers as thin as one molecule. More mundane methods, such as theapplication of fine powders, work by adhesion to sebaceous deposits and possibly aqueous deposits in the case offresh fingerprints. The aqueous component of a fingerprint, whilst initially sometimes making up over 90% of theweight of the fingerprint, can evaporate quite quickly and may have mostly gone after 24 hours. Following work onthe use of argon ion lasers for fingerprint detection,[19] a wide range of fluorescence techniques have beenintroduced, primarily for the enhancement of chemically-developed fingerprints, although the inherent fluorescenceof some latent fingerprints may also be detected. The most comprehensive manual of the operational methods offingerprint enhancement is published by the UK Home Office Scientific Development Branch and is used widelyaround the world.[20]

Research

The International Fingerprint Research Group (IFRG) which meets biennially, consists of members of the leadingfingerprint research groups from Europe, the US, Canada, Australia and Israel and leads the way in the development,assessment and implementation of new techniques for operational fingerprint detection.One problem for the early twenty-first century is the fact that the organic component of any deposited material isreadily destroyed by heat, such as occurs when a gun is fired or a terrorist bomb is detonated, when the temperaturemay reach as high as 500°C. Encouragingly, however, the non-volatile inorganic component of eccrine secretion hasbeen shown to remain intact even when exposed to temperatures as high as 600°C.A technique has been developed that enables fingerprints to be visualised on metallic and electrically conductive surfaces without the need to develop the prints first.[21] This technique involves the use of an instrument called a scanning Kelvin probe (SKP), which measures the voltage, or electrical potential, at pre-set intervals over the surface of an object on which a fingerprint may have been deposited. These measurements can then be mapped to produce an image of the fingerprint. A higher resolution image can be obtained by increasing the number of points sampled, but at the expense of the time taken for the process. A sampling frequency of 20 points per mm is high enough to visualise a fingerprint in sufficient detail for identification purposes and produces a voltage map in 2–3 hours. As of 2010, this technique had been shown to work effectively on a wide range of forensically important metal surfaces including iron, steel and aluminum. While initial experiments were performed on flat surfaces, the technique has been further developed to cope with irregular or curved surfaces, such as the warped cylindrical surface of fired cartridge cases. Research during 2010 at Swansea University has found that physically removing a fingerprint from a metal surface, for example by rubbing with a tissue, does not necessarily result in the loss of all fingerprint information from that surface. The reason for this is that the differences in potential that are the basis of the visualisation are caused by the interaction of inorganic salts in the fingerprint deposit and the metal surface and

Fingerprint 33

begin to occur as soon as the finger comes into contact with the metal, resulting in the formation of metal-ioncomplexes that cannot easily be removed.

Cartridge case with an appliedfingerprint

Scanning Kelvin Probe scan of the same cartridgecase with the fingerprint clearly detected. The

Kelvin probe can easily cope with the 3Dcurvature of the cartridge case increasing the

versatility of the technique.

Another problem for the early twenty-first century is that during crimescene investigations, a decision has to be made at an early stagewhether to attempt to retrieve fingerprints through the use ofdevelopers or whether to swab surfaces in an attempt to salvagematerial for DNA profiling. The two processes are mutuallyincompatible, as fingerprint developers destroy material that couldpotentially be used for DNA analysis, and swabbing is likely to makefingerprint identification impossible.

The application of the new scanning Kelvin probe (SKP) fingerprintingtechnique, which makes no physical contact with the fingerprint anddoes not require the use of developers, has the potential to allowfingerprints to be recorded whilst still leaving intact material that couldsubsequently be subjected to DNA analysis. A forensically usableprototype was under development at Swansea University during 2010,in research that was generating significant interest from the BritishHome Office and a number of different police forces across the UK, aswell as internationally. The hope is that this instrument couldeventually be manufactured in sufficiently large numbers to be widelyused by forensic teams worldwide.[22] [23]

The disappearance of children's latent prints

In 1995, researchers at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, at theinstigation of Detective Art Bohanan of the Knoxville PoliceDepartment, discovered that children's fingerprints are considerablymore short-lived than adult fingerprints.[5] The rapid disappearance ofchildren's fingerprints was attributed to a lack of the more waxy oilsthat become present at the onset of puberty. The lighter fatty acids ofchildren's fingerprints evaporate within a few hours. As of 2010,researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory are investigatingtechniques to capture these lost fingerprints.

Fingerprints reveal drug use

The secretions, skin oils and dead cells in a human fingerprint containresidues of various chemicals and their metabolites present in the body. These can be detected and used for forensicpurposes. For example, the fingerprints of tobacco smokers contain traces of cotinine, a nicotine metabolite; theyalso contain traces of nicotine itself. Caution should be used, however, as its presence may be caused by merecontact of the finger with a tobacco product. By treating the fingerprint with gold nanoparticles with attachedcotinine antibodies, and then subsequently with a fluorescent agent attached to cotinine antibodies, the fingerprint ofa smoker becomes fluorescent; non-smokers' fingerprints stay dark. The same approach, as of 2010, is being testedfor use in identifying heavy coffee drinkers, cannabis smokers, and users of various other drugs.[24] [25] In 2008,British researchers developed methods of identifying users of marijuana, cocaine and methadone from theirfingerprint residues.[26]

Fingerprint 34

United States databases and compressionIn the United States, the FBI manages a fingerprint identification system and database called the IntegratedAutomated Fingerprint Identification System, or IAFIS, which currently holds the fingerprints and criminal recordsof over 51 million criminal record subjects and over 1.5 million civil (non-criminal) fingerprint records. US Visitcurrently holds a repository of the fingerprints of over 50 million people, primarily in the form of two-finger records.In 2008, US Visit hoped to have changed over to a system recording FBI-standard ten-print records.Most American law enforcement agencies use Wavelet Scalar Quantization (WSQ), a wavelet-based system forefficient storage of compressed fingerprint images at 500 pixels per inch (ppi). WSQ was developed by the FBI, theLos Alamos National Lab, and the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST). For fingerprintsrecorded at 1000 ppi spatial resolution, law enforcement (including the FBI) uses JPEG 2000 instead of WSQ.

History

Fingerprinting clerks, Los Angeles PoliceDepartment, 1928

Antiquity and the medieval period

Fingerprints have been found on ancient Babylonian clay tablets, seals,and pottery.[27] [28] [29] [30] They have also been found on the walls ofEgyptian tombs and on Minoan, Greek, and Chinese[31] pottery, as wellas on bricks and tiles from ancient Babylon and Rome. Some of thesefingerprints were deposited unintentionally by the potters and masonsas a natural consequence of their work, and others were made in theprocess of adding decoration. However, on some pottery, fingerprintshave been impressed so deeply into the clay that they were possiblyintended to serve as an identifying mark by the maker.

Fingerprints were used as signatures in ancient Babylon in the secondmillennium BCE. In order to protect against forgery, parties to a legal contract would impress their fingerprints intoa clay tablet on which the contract had been written. By 246 BCE, Chinese officials were impressing theirfingerprints into the clay seals used to seal documents. With the advent of silk and paper in China, parties to a legalcontract impressed their handprints on the document. Sometime before 851 CE, an Arab merchant in China, AbuZayd Hasan, witnessed Chinese merchants using fingerprints to authenticate loans.[32] By 702, Japan had adopted theChinese practice of sealing contracts with fingerprints.

Although ancient peoples probably did not realize that fingerprints could uniquely identify individuals,[33] referencesfrom the age of the Babylonian king Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE) indicate that law officials would take thefingerprints of people who had been arrested.[34] During China's Qin Dynasty, records have shown that officials tookhand prints, foot prints as well as finger prints as evidence from a crime scene.[35] In China, around 300 CE,handprints were used as evidence in a trial for theft. By 650, the Chinese historian Kia Kung-Yen remarked thatfingerprints could be used as a means of authentication.[36] In his Jami al-Tawarikh (Universal History), the Persianphysician Rashid-al-Din Hamadani (also known as "Rashideddin", 1247–1318) refers to the Chinese practice ofidentifying people via their fingerprints, commenting: "Experience shows that no two individuals have fingersexactly alike."[37] In Persia at this time, government documents may have been authenticated with thumbprints.[38]

Fingerprint 35

Europe in the 17th and 18th centuriesIn 1684, the English physician, botanist, and microscopist Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) published the first scientificpaper to describe the ridge structure of the skin covering the fingers and palms.[39] In 1685, the Dutch physicianGovard Bidloo[40] (1649–1713) and the Italian physician Marcello Malpighi[41] (1628–1694) published books onanatomy which also illustrated the ridge structure of the fingers. A century later, in 1788, the German anatomistJohann Christoph Andreas Mayer (1747–1801) recognized that fingerprints are unique to each individual.[42] [43]

Modern eraJan Evangelista Purkyně or Purkinje (1787–1869), a Czech physiologist and professor of anatomy at the Universityof Breslau, published a thesis in 1823 discussing 9 fingerprint patterns, but he did not mention any possibility ofusing fingerprints to identify people.[44] Some years later, the German anatomist Georg von Meissner (1829–1905)studied friction ridges,[45] and five years after this, in 1858, Sir William James Herschel initiated fingerprinting inIndia. In 1877 at Hooghly (near Calcutta) he instituted the use of fingerprints on contracts and deeds to prevent thethen-rampant repudiation of signatures[46] and he registered government pensioners' fingerprints to prevent thecollection of money by relatives after a pensioner's death.[47] Herschel also fingerprinted prisoners upon sentencingto prevent various frauds that were attempted in order to avoid serving a prison sentence.In 1880, Dr Henry Faulds, a surgeon in a Tokyo hospital, published his first paper on the subject in the scientificjournal Nature, discussing the usefulness of fingerprints for identification and proposing a method to record themwith printing ink. He also established their first classification and was also the first to identify fingerprints left on avial.[48] Returning to the UK in 1886, he offered the concept to the Metropolitan Police in London but it wasdismissed at that time.[49] Faulds wrote to Charles Darwin with a description of his method but, too old and ill towork on it, Darwin gave the information to his cousin, Francis Galton, who was interested in anthropology. Galton,by 1892 Sir Francis Galton, having been thus inspired to study fingerprints for ten years, published a detailedstatistical model of fingerprint analysis and identification and encouraged its use in forensic science in his bookFinger Prints. He had calculated that the chance of a "false positive" (two different individuals having the samefingerprints) was about 1 in 64 billion.[50]

Juan Vucetich, an Argentine chief police officier, created the first method of recording the fingerprints of individualson file, associating these fingerprints to the anthropometric system of Alphonse Bertillon, who had created, in 1879,a system to identify individuals by anthropometric photographs and associated quantitative descriptions. A year later,in 1892, after studying Galton's pattern types, Vucetich set up the world's first fingerprint bureau. In that same year,Francisca Rojas of Necochea, was found in a house with neck injuries, whilst her two sons were found dead withtheir throats cut. Rojas accused a neighbour, but despite brutal interrogation, this neighbour would not confess to thecrimes. Inspector Alvarez, a colleague of Vucetich, went to the scene and found a bloody thumb mark on a door.When it was compared with Rojas' prints, it was found to be identical with her right thumb. She then confessed to themurder of her sons.A Fingerprint Bureau was established in Calcutta (Kolkata), India, in 1897, after the Council of the GovernorGeneral approved a committee report that fingerprints should be used for the classification of criminal records.Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau, before it became the Fingerprint Bureau, were Azizul Haque andHem Chandra Bose. Haque and Bose were Indian fingerprint experts who have been credited with the primarydevelopment of a fingerprint classification system eventually named after their supervisor, Sir Edward RichardHenry.[51] [52] The Henry Classification System, co-devised by Haque and Bose, was accepted in England and Waleswhen the first United Kingdom Fingerprint Bureau was founded in Scotland Yard, the Metropolitan Policeheadquarters, London, in 1901. Sir Edward Richard Henry subsequently achieved improvements in dactyloscopy.In the United States, Dr Henry P. DeForrest used fingerprinting in the New York Civil Service in 1902, and by 1906,New York City Police Department Deputy Commissioner Joseph A. Faurot, an expert in the Bertillon system and afinger print advocate at Police Headquarters, introduced the fingerprinting of criminals to the United States.

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The Scheffer case of 1902 is the first case of the identification, arrest and conviction of a murderer based uponfingerprint evidence. Alphonse Bertillon identified the thief and murderer Scheffer, who had previously beenarrested and his fingerprints filed some months before, from the fingerprints found on a fractured glass showcase,after a theft in a dentist's apartment where the dentist's employee was found dead. It was able to be proved in Courtthat the fingerprints had been made after the showcase was broken.[53] A year later, Alphonse Bertillon created amethod of getting fingerprints off smooth surfaces and took a further step in the advance of dactyloscopy.

Validity of fingerprinting for identificationThe validity of forensic fingerprint evidence has been challenged by academics, judges and the media. Whilefingerprint identification was an improvement on earlier anthropometric systems, the subjective nature of matching,despite a very low error rate, has made this forensic practice controversial.[54]

Certain specific criticisms are now being accepted by some leaders of the forensic fingerprint community, providingan incentive to improve training and procedures.

CriticismThe words "reliability" and "validity" have specific meanings to the scientific community. Reliability means thatsuccessive tests bring the same results. Validity means that these results are judged to accurately reflect the externalcriteria being measured.

"Although experts are often more comfortable relying on their instincts, this reliance does not always translateinto superior predictive ability. For example, in the popular Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, andVerification (ACE-V) paradigm for fingerprint identification, the verification stage, in which a secondexaminer confirms the assessment of the original examiner, may increase the consistency of the assessments.But while the verification stage has implications for the reliability of latent print comparisons, it does notassure their validity."—Sandy L Zabell, 2005.[6]

The few tests that have been made of the validity of forensic fingerprinting have not been supportive of the method."Despite the absence of objective standards, scientific validation, and adequate statistical studies, a naturalquestion to ask is how well fingerprint examiners actually perform. Proficiency tests do not validate aprocedure per se, but they can provide some insight into error rates. In 1995, the Collaborative Testing Service(CTS) administered a proficiency test that, for the first time, was “designed, assembled, and reviewed” by theInternational Association for Identification (IAI).The results were disappointing. Four suspect cards withprints of all ten fingers were provided together with seven latents. Of 156 people taking the test, only 68 (44%)correctly classified all seven latents. Overall, the tests contained a total of 48 incorrect identifications. DavidGrieve, the editor of the Journal of Forensic Identification, describes the reaction of the forensic community tothe results of the CTS test as ranging from “shock to disbelief,” and added:

'Errors of this magnitude within a discipline singularly admired and respected for its touted absolutecertainty as an identification process have produced chilling and mind- numbing realities. Thirty-fourparticipants, an incredible 22% of those involved, substituted presumed but false certainty for truth. Byany measure, this represents a profile of practice that is unacceptable and thus demands positive actionby the entire community.'

What is striking about these comments is that they do not come from a critic of the fingerprint community, butfrom the editor of one of its premier publications."—Sandy L Zabell, 2005.[6]

Investigations have been conducted into whether experts can objectively focus on feature information in fingerprints without being misled by extraneous information, such as context.[55] Fingerprints that have previously been

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examined and assessed by latent print experts to make a positive identification of suspects have then beenre-presented to those same experts in a new context which makes it likely that there will be no match. Within thisnew context, most of the fingerprint experts made different judgments, thus contradicting their own previousidentification decisions.[55]

Complaints have been made that there have been no published, peer-reviewed studies directly examining the extentto which people can correctly match fingerprints to one another.[56] Experiments have been carried out using naïveundergraduates to match images of fingerprints. The results of these experiments demonstrate that people canidentify fingerprints quite well, and that matching accuracy can vary as a function of both source finger type andimage similarity.[56]

DefenseFingerprints collected at a crime scene, or on items of evidence from a crime, have been used in forensic science toidentify suspects, victims and other persons who touched a surface. Fingerprint identification emerged as animportant system within police agencies in the late 19th century, when it replaced anthropometric measurements as amore reliable method for identifying persons having a prior record, often under a false name, in a criminal recordrepository.[5] The science of fingerprint identification has been able to assert its standing amongst forensic sciencesfor many reasons.

Track record

Fingerprinting has served all governments worldwide during the past 100 years or so to provide accurateidentification of criminals. No two fingerprints have ever been found identical in many billions of human andautomated computer comparisons.[57] Fingerprints are the fundamental tool for the identification of people with acriminal history in every police agency.[5] It remains the most commonly gathered forensic evidence worldwide andin most jurisdictions fingerprint examination outnumbers all other forensic examination casework combined.Moreover, it continues to expand as the premier method for identifying persons, with tens of thousands of peopleadded to fingerprint repositories daily in America alone – far more than other forensic databases. It is claimed tooutperform DNA and all other human identification systems. Fingerprints solve ten times more unknown suspectcases than DNA in most police departments.

Professional standing and certification

Fingerprinting was the basis upon which the first forensic professional organization was formed, the InternationalAssociation for Identification (IAI), in 1915.[58] The first professional certification program for forensic scientistswas established in 1977, the IAI's Certified Latent Print Examiner program, which issued certificates to thosemeeting stringent criteria and had the power to revoke certification where an individual's performance warrantedit.[59] Other forensic disciplines have followed suit and established their own certification programs.[59]

Instances of error

Brandon Mayfield and the Madrid bombing

Brandon Mayfield is an Oregon lawyer who was identified as a participant in the Madrid bombing based on a fingerprint match by the FBI.[60] The FBI Latent Print Unit processed a fingerprint collected in Madrid and reported a "100 percent positive" match against one of the 20 fingerprint candidates returned in a search response from their IAFIS — Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System. The FBI initially called it an "absolutely incontrovertible match". Subsequently, however, Spanish National Police examiners suggested that the print did not match Mayfield and after two weeks, identified another man whom they claimed the fingerprint did belong to. The FBI acknowledged their error, and a judge released Mayfield, who had spent two weeks in police custody, in May 2004.[60] In January 2006, a U.S. Justice Department report was released which criticized the FBI for sloppy work

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but exonerated them of some more serious allegations. The report found that the misidentification had been due to amisapplication of methodology by the examiners involved: Mayfield is an American-born convert[60] to Islam andhis wife is an Egyptian immigrant,[60] but these are not factors that should have affected fingerprint searchtechnology.On 29 November 2006, the FBI agreed to pay Brandon Mayfield the sum of US$2 million in compensation.[60] Thejudicial settlement allowed Mayfield to continue a suit regarding certain other government practices surrounding hisarrest and detention. The formal apology stated that the FBI, which erroneously linked him to the 2004 Madridbombing through a fingerprinting mistake, had taken steps to "ensure that what happened to Mr Mayfield and theMayfield family does not happen again."[60]

René Ramón Sánchez

René Ramón Sánchez, a legal Dominican Republic immigrant to the US was arrested on July 15, 1995, on a chargeof driving while intoxicated (Driving Under the Influence, or DUI). His fingerprints, however, were placed on a cardcontaining the name, Social Security number and other data for one Leo Rosario, who was being processed at thesame time. Leo Rosario had been arrested for selling cocaine to an undercover police officer. On October 11, 2000,while returning from a visit to relatives in the Dominican Republic, René was mis-identified as Leo Rosario at JohnF. Kennedy International Airport in New York and arrested. Even though he did not match the physical descriptionof Rosario, the erroneously-cataloged fingerprints were considered to be more reliable.[61]

Shirley McKie

Shirley McKie was a police detective in 1997 when she was accused of leaving her thumb print inside a house inKilmarnock, Scotland where Marion Ross had been murdered. Although McKie denied having been inside thehouse, she was arrested in a dawn raid the following year and charged with perjury. The only evidence theprosecution had was this thumb print allegedly found at the murder scene. Two American experts testified on herbehalf at her trial in May 1999 and she was found not guilty. The Scottish Criminal Record Office (SCRO) wouldnot admit any error, however, although Scottish first minister Jack McConnell later said it had been an "honestmistake".On February 7, 2006, McKie was awarded £750,000 in compensation from the Scottish Executive and the ScottishCriminal Record Office.[62] Controversy continued to surround the McKie case and there was an ongoing publicinquiry into the affair, as of November 2009.[63]

Stephan Cowans

Stephan Cowans was convicted of attempted murder in 1997 after he was accused of the shooting of a police officerwhilst fleeing a robbery in Roxbury, Massachusetts. He was implicated in the crime by the testimony of twowitnesses, one of whom was the victim. There was also a fingerprint on a glass mug from which the assailant haddrunk some water and experts testified that the fingerprint belonged to Cowans. He was found guilty and sent toprison for 35 years. Whilst in prison, Cowans earned money cleaning up biohazards until he could afford to have theevidence against him tested for DNA. The DNA did not match his and he was released. He had already served sixyears in prison.Stephen Cowans died on October 25, 2007.[64]

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Privacy issues

Fingerprinting of childrenVarious schools have implemented fingerprint locks or made a record of children's fingerprints. In the UnitedKingdom there have been fingerprint locks in Holland Park School in London,[65] and children's fingerprints arestored on databases.[66] There have also been instances in Belgium, at the école Marie-José in Liège,[67] [68] inFrance and in Italy. The non-governmental organization (NGO) Privacy International in 2002 made the cautionaryannouncement that tens of thousands of UK school children were being fingerprinted by schools, often without theknowledge or consent of their parents.[69] That same year, the supplier Micro Librarian Systems, which uses atechnology similar to that used in US prisons and the German military, estimated that 350 schools throughout Britainwere using such systems, to replace library cards.[69] By 2007, it was estimated that 3,500 schools were using suchsystems.[70] Under the United Kingdom Data Protection Act, schools in the UK do not have to ask parental consentto allow such practices to take place. Parents opposed to fingerprinting may only bring individual complaints againstschools.[71] In response to a complaint which they are continuing to pursue, in 2010 the European Commissionexpressed 'significant concerns' over the proportionality and necessity of the practice and the lack of judicial redress,indicating that the practice may break the European Union data protection directive.[72]

In Belgium, the practice of taking fingerprints from children gave rise to a question in Parliament on February 6,2007 by Michel de La Motte (Humanist Democratic Centre) to the Education Minister Marie Arena, who replied thatit was legal provided that the school did not use them for external purposes, or to survey the private life ofchildren.[73] At Angers in France, Carqueiranne College in the Var won the Big Brother Award for 2005 and theCommission nationale de l'informatique et des libertés (CNIL), the official organisation in charge of the protection ofprivacy in France, declared the measures it had introduced "disproportionate."[74]

In March 2007, the British government was considering fingerprinting all children aged 11 to 15 as part of a newpassport and ID card scheme and disallowing opposition for privacy concerns. All fingerprints taken would becross-checked against prints from 900,000 unsolved crimes. Shadow Home secretary David Davis called the plan"sinister".[70] An Early Day Motion which called on the UK Government to conduct a full and open consultationwith stakeholders about the use of biometrics in schools, secured the support of 85 Members of Parliament (EarlyDay Motion 686).[75] Following the establishment in the United Kingdom of a Conservative and Liberal Democraticcoalition government in May 2010, the ID card scheme was scrapped.[76]

Serious concerns about the security implications of using conventional biometric templates in schools have beenraised by a number of leading IT security experts,[77] one of whom has voiced the opinion that "it is absolutelypremature to begin using 'conventional biometrics' in schools".[78] The vendors of Biometric systems claim that theirproducts bring benefits to schools such as improved reading skills, decreased wait times in lunch lines and increasedrevenues.[79] They do not cite independent research to support this view. One education specialist wrote in 2007: "Ihave not been able to find a single piece of published research which suggests that the use of biometrics in schoolspromotes healthy eating or improves reading skills amongst children... There is absolutely no evidence for suchclaims".[80] The Ottawa Police in Canada have had to give advise to parents who fear that their children may bekidnapped to have their fingerprints taken.[81]

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Other uses

Welfare claimantsIt has been alleged that taking the fingerprints of welfare recipients as identification serves as a social stigma thatevokes cultural images associated with the processing of criminals.[82]

Log-in authentication and other locksSince 2000, electronic fingerprint readers have been introduced for security applications such as log-inauthentication for the identification of computer users. However, some less sophisticated devices have beendiscovered to be vulnerable to quite simple methods of deception, such as fake fingerprints cast in gels. In 2006,fingerprint sensors gained popularity in the notebook PC market. Built-in sensors in ThinkPads, VAIO, HP Pavilionlaptops, and others also double as motion detectors for document scrolling, like the scroll wheel.

Electronic registration and library accessFingerprints and, to a lesser extent, iris scans can be used to validate electronic registration, cashless catering, andlibrary access. By 2007, this practice was particularly widespread in UK schools,[83] and it was also starting to beadopted in some states in the US.

Fingerprints in other speciesSome other animals have evolved their own unique prints, especially those whose lifestyle involves climbing orgrasping wet objects; these include many primates, such as gorillas and chimpanzees, Australian koalas and aquaticmammal species such as the North American fisher.[84] According to one study, even with an electron microscope, itcan be quite difficult to distinguish between the fingerprints of a koala and a human.[85]

Fingerprints in fiction

Mark TwainMark Twain's novel Life on the Mississippi, published in 1883, was the first book to use fingerprints as a main plotelement.[86] Twain's later book Pudd'nhead Wilson, published in 1893, includes a courtroom drama involvingfingerprint identification.

Crime fictionThe use of fingerprints in crime fiction has, of course, kept pace with its use in real-life detection. Sir Arthur ConanDoyle wrote a short story about his celebrated sleuth Sherlock Holmes which features a fingerprint: The NorwoodBuilder is a 1903 Sherlock Holmes short story set in 1894 and involves the discovery of a bloody fingerprint whichhelps Holmes to expose the real criminal and free his client. A 1985 Granada TV adaptation of an 1893 SherlockHolmes short story set in 1891, The Adventure of the Final Problem, has a plot hole in the screenplay caused byHolmes's use of the Bertillon criminal ID system, in which he uses fingerprints to trap Moriarty's agents and recoverthe Mona Lisa. The real Bertillon system did not use fingerprints. Bertillon had added four spaces for fingerprints onhis identification cards by 1900 because of the growing popularity of fingerprinting, but the identification cards werestill based on anthropometric measurements.The British detective writer R. Austin Freeman's first Thorndyke novel The Red Thumb-Mark was published in 1907and features a bloody fingerprint left on a piece of paper together with a parcel of diamonds inside a safe-box. Thesebecome the center of a medico-legal investigation led by Dr Thorndyke, who defends the accused whose fingerprintmatches that on the paper, after the diamonds are stolen.

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MoviesThe movie Men In Black, a popular 1997 science fiction thriller, required Agent J, played by Will Smith, to removehis ten fingerprints by putting his hands on a metal ball, an action deemed necessary by the MIB agency to removethe identity of its agents. And in a 2009 science fiction movie starring Paul Giamatti, Cold Souls, a mule who is paidto smuggle souls across borders, wears latex fingerprints to frustrate airport security terminals. She can change heridentity by changing her wig, and switching latex fingerprints from the privacy of a restroom, always storing extrafingerprints in a ziploc bag, so she can always assume an alias that is suitable to her undertaking.

Other reliable identifiersOther forms of biometric identification utilizing a physical attribute that is unique to every human include Irisrecognition, the use of dental records in forensic dentistry, the tongue and DNA profiling, also known as geneticfingerprinting.

Fingerprint mutilationThere are several documented cases of people deliberately mutilating their fingerprints in an effort to avoid beingidentified from marks left on the surfaces they touch. Methods used have included burning the fingertips with acid,which John Dillinger tried (and failed; prints taken during a previous arrest and upon death still exhibited almostcomplete relation to one another), and surgical alteration.[87]

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[18] Wang, Yongchang; Q. Hao, A. Fatehpuria, L. G. Hassebrook and D. L. Lau (July 2010). "Quality and Matching Performance Analysis of3D Unraveled Fingerprints" (http:/ / vis. uky. edu/ ~realtime3d/ Doc/ Manuscripts/ Quality and matching performance analysis ofthree-dimensional unraveled fingerprints. pdf). Optical Engineering. pp. 077202 (1–10). . Retrieved Aug 2010.

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[20] comprehensive manual (http:/ / scienceandresearch. homeoffice. gov. uk/ hosdb/ fingerprints-footwear-marks/ ) of the operational methodsof fingerprint development. Published by the UK Home Office Scientific Development Branch.

[21] Swansea University (http:/ / www. swan. ac. uk/ engineering/ Research/ MaterialsResearchCentre/ ResearchAreas/ CorrosionandCoatings/ ),Materials Research Centre, Professor Neil McMurray and Dr Geraint Williams.

[22] Ward, Mark (April 2006). "Fingerprints hide lifestyle clues" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ technology/ 4857114. stm). BBC. . RetrievedMarch 2010.

[23] "Bombers Tracked By New Technique" (http:/ / news. sky. com/ skynews/ article/ 0,,31100-1218342,00. html). SkyNews. April 2006. .Retrieved March 2010.

[24] Paul Marks (18 May 2007) "New fingerprint analysis identifies smokers," (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/dn11887-new-fingerprint-analysis-identifies-smokers. html) New Scientist (on-line version).

[25] Tom Simonite (3 April 2006) "Fingerprints reveal clues to suspects' habits," (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/dn8938-fingerprints-reveal-clues-to-suspects-habits. html) New Scientist (on-line version).

[26] Everts, Sarah (December 2008). "Fingerprints Reveal Drug Use". Chemical & Engineering News 86 (51): 34.[27] Laufer, Berthold (1912). "History of the finger-print system" (http:/ / www. scafo. org/ library/ 160201. html). Smithsonian Institution

Annual Report. . Reprinted in "The Print [newsletter of South California Association of Fingerprint Officers (http:/ / www. scafo. org/The_Print/ THE_PRINT_VOL_16_ISSUE_02. PDF)"]. March/April 2000. pp. 1–13. .

[28] Ashbaugh, David (1999). Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Ridgeology. BocaRaton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. 11–19. ISBN 0849370078.

[29] Åström, Paul (2007). "The study of ancient fingerprints" (http:/ / www. ancientfingerprints. org/ nr1_lo. pdf). Journal of AncientFingerprints (1): 2–3. .

[30] Åström, Paul; Eriksson, Sven A. (1980). "Fingerprints and Archaeology". Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology series (Göteborg, Sweden:Paul Åströms Förlag) 28.

[31] "Finger prints found on pottery" (http:/ / big5. xinhuanet. com/ gate/ big5/ news. xinhuanet. com/ health/ 2010-02/ 09/ content_12956719.htm). .

[32] Reinaud, Joseph Toussaint (1845). Relation des voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans l'Inde et a la Chine dans le IX Siecle.... I.Paris: Imprimerie royale. p. 42. quoted in: Laufer (1912)

[33] Cummins, Harold (1941). "Ancient finger prints in clay". The Scientific Monthly 52: 389–402. Reprinted in Journal of Criminal Law andCriminology 34 (4): 468–481. November/December 1941.

[34] Ashbaugh (1999), page 15.[35] "千余學者摸清我國民族膚紋 “家底” 南北是一家" (http:/ / big5. xinhuanet. com/ gate/ big5/ news. xinhuanet. com/ health/ 2010-02/ 09/

content_12956719_1. htm) (in Chinese). .[36] Ashbaugh (1999), page 17; see also Laufer (1912).[37] Cole, Simon (2001). Suspect Identities: A history of fingerprinting and criminal identification. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard

University Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 0674004558.[38] Saadat, Noury M (2009-05-04). "First Iranian Record on Fingerprinting" (http:/ / www. iranian. ws/ iran_news/ publish/ printer_29065.

shtml). .[39] Grew, Nehemiah (1684). "The description and use of the pores in the skin of the hands and feet". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal

Society of London 14: 566–567.[40] Bidloo, Govard (1685). Anatomia Humani Corporis [Anatomy of the Human Body]. Amsterdam, Netherlands.[41] Malpighi, Marcello (1685). De Externo Tactus Organo Anatomica Observatio [Anatomical Observations of the External Organs of Touch].

Naples, Italy: Aegidius Longus.[42] Mayer, Johann Christoph Andreas (1783-1788). Anatomische Kupfertafeln nebst dazu gehörigen Erklärungen [Anatomical Illustrations

(etchings) with Accompanying Explanations]. Berlin, Prussia: Georg Jacob Decker. See especially the 1788 volume.[43] "The History of Fingerprints" (http:/ / www. onin. com/ fp/ fphistory. html). Onin. February 2010. . Retrieved March 2010.[44] Purkyně, Jan Evangelista (1823). Commentatio de examine physiologico organi visus et systematis cutanei [Commentary on the

physiological examination of the visual organ and the skin system]. Breslau, Prussia: University of Breslau Press. See also: Cummins,Harold; Wright Kennedy, Rebecca (September/October 1940). "Purkinje's observations (1823) on finger prints and other skin features". TheJournal of Criminal Law and Criminology 31 (3): 343–356.

[45] von Meissner, Georg (1853). Beiträge zur Anatomie und Physiologie der Haut [Contributions to the Anatomy and Physiology of the Skin].Leipzig, Saxony: Leopold Voss.

[46] Herschel, William J (1916). The Origin of Finger-Printing (http:/ / galton. org/ fingerprints/ books/ herschel/ herschel-1916-origins-1up.pdf). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1104662257. .

[47] Herschel, William James (25 November 1880). "Skin furrows of the hand" (http:/ / galton. org/ fingerprints/ herschel-1880-nature-furrows.pdf). Nature 23 (578): 76. .

[48] Faulds, Henry (28 October 1880). "On the skin-furrows of the hand" (http:/ / www. galton. org/ fingerprints/ faulds-1880-nature-furrows.pdf). Nature 22 (574): 605. .

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[49] Reid, Donald L. (2003). "Dr. Henry Faulds - Beith Commemorative Society". Journal of Forensic Identification 53 (2). See also this on-linearticle on Henry Faulds: Tredoux, Gavan (December 2003). "Henry Faulds: the Invention of a Fingerprinter" (http:/ / www. galton. org/fingerprints/ faulds. htm#herschel1880). galton.org. .

[50] Galton, Francis (1892). "Finger Prints" (http:/ / www. clpex. com/ Information/ Pioneers/ galton-1892-fingerprints-lowres. pdf). London:MacMillan and Co. .

[51] Tewari, RK; Ravikumar, KV (2000). "History and development of forensic science in India". J. Postgrad Med (46): 303–308.[52] Sodhi, J.S.; Kaur, asjeed (2005). "The forgotten Indian pioneers of finger print science" (http:/ / www. ias. ac. in/ currsci/ jan102005/ 185.

pdf). Current Science 88 (1): 185–191. .[53] Berlière, Jean-Marc (October 16, 1902). "Arrestation du premier assassin confondu par ses empreintes digitales" (http:/ / www. culture.

gouv. fr/ culture/ actualites/ celebrations2002/ empreintes. htm). Célébrations Nationales. .[54] Specter, Michael "Do Fingerprints Lie" The New Yorker (http:/ / www. michaelspecter. com/ 2002/ 05/ do-fingerprints-lie/ )[55] Dror, I.E., Charlton, D. and Péron, A.E. (2006) " Contextual information renders experts vulnerable to making erroneous identifications

(http:/ / www. fsijournal. org/ article/ S0379-0738(05)00587-6/ abstract)", Forensic Science International, Vol 156, Iss 1, pp 74-78.[56] Vokey, J.R., Tangen, J.M. and Cole, S.A, (2009), " On the preliminary psychophysics of fingerprint identification (http:/ / www.

informaworld. com/ smpp/ content~db=all?content=10. 1080/ 17470210802372987)", The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,Vol 62, Iss 5, pp 1023-1040.

[57] Penn and Teller Bullshit, 8x07, Criminal Justice[58] International Association for Identification History, retrieved August 2006 (http:/ / www. theiai. org/ history/ )[59] Bonebrake, George J. (1978) "Report on the Latent Print Certification Program" Identification News Vol28(3)[60] "U.S. Will Pay $2 Million to Lawyer Wrongly Jailed - New York Times" (article), by Eric Lichtbau, New York Times, 2006-11-30,

webpage: NYT-061130-settle (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 11/ 30/ us/ 30settle. html?em& ex=1165122000& en=0ca1f656ca46883a&ei=5087 ): on Brandon Mayfield mistaken arrest.

[61] New York Times; May 31, 2004; Can Prints Lie? Yes, Man Finds To His Dismay. In front of the immigration judge, the tall, muscular manbegan to weep. No, he had patiently tried to explain, he was not Leo Rosario, a drug dealer and a prime candidate for deportation. He wastelling the truth. He was René Ramón Sánchez, an auto-body worker and merengue singer ...

[62] "'Relief' over fingerprint verdict" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ scotland/ 4689218. stm). BBC News. February 7, 2006. .[63] "The Fingerprint Inquiry Scotland" (http:/ / www. thefingerprintinquiryscotland. org. uk/ inquiry/ CCC_FirstPage. jsp). .[64] Abel, David (2007-10-26). "Man wrongly convicted in Boston police shooting found dead" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ globe/

city_region/ breaking_news/ 2007/ 10/ man_wrongly_con. html). The Boston Globe. .[65] Empreintes digitales pour les enfants d'une école de Londres (http:/ / www. pcinpact. com/ actu/ news/

31010-Empreintes-digitales-pour-les-enfants-dune-e. htm) (French)[66] Leave Them Kids Alone (http:/ / www. leavethemkidsalone. com/ ) (English)[67] Empreintes digitales pour sécuriser l'école ? (http:/ / www. enseignons. be/ actualites/ pedagogique/ index. php/ 2007/ 02/ 06/

181-empreintes-digitales-pour-securiser-l-ecole) (French)[68] Le lecteur d'empreintes dans les écoles crée la polémique (http:/ / www. 7sur7. be/ hlns/ cache/ fr/ det/ art_370100. html?wt.

bron=homeArt6), 7 Sur 7, February 5, 2007 (French)[69] Fingerprinting of UK school kids causes outcry (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2002/ 07/ 22/ fingerprinting_of_uk_school_kids/ ), The

Register, July 22, 2002 (English)[70] Child fingerprint plan considered (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ uk/ 6417565. stm), BBC, March 4, 2007 (English)[71] Schools can fingerprint children without parental consent (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2006/ 09/ 07/ kiddyprinting_allowed/ ), The

Register, September 7, 2006 (English)[72] Europe tells Britain to justify itself over fingerprinting children in schools (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/ europe/ eu/

8202076/ Europe-tells-Britain-to-justify-itself-over-fingerprinting-children-in-schools. html) Telegraph, published 2010-12-14, accessed2011-01-13

[73] Prises d'empreintes digitales dans un établissement scolaire (http:/ / www. lecdh. be/ docparlement/ pa4896. htm), Question d'actualité à laMinistre-Présidente en charge de l'Enseignement obligatoire et de Promotion sociale (French)

[74] Quand la biométrie s'installe dans les cantines au nez et à la barbe de la Cnil (http:/ / www. zdnet. fr/ actualites/ informatique/0,39040745,39122509,00. htm), Zdnet, September 9, 2003 (French)

[75] "EDM 686 - Biometric Data Collection In Schools" (http:/ / edmi. parliament. uk/ EDMi/ EDMDetails. aspx?EDMID=32367). UKParliament. 2007-01-19. . Retrieved 2009-11-28.

[76] BBC News Channel (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ 8707355. stm), 27 May 2010.[77] Cavoukian, A and Stoianov, A. 2007. Biometric Encrypton: A Positive-Sum Technology that Achieves Strong Authentication, Security

AND Privacy (http:/ / www. ipc. on. ca/ images/ Resources/ up-1bio_encryp. pdf).[78] Kim Cameron, architect of identity and access in the Connected Systems Division at Microsoft. blog (http:/ / www. identityblog. com/

?p=733)[79] Fingerprint Software Eliminates Privacy Concerns and Establishes Success (FindBiometrics) (http:/ / www. findbiometrics. com/

press-release/ 4143)[80] 2007. Dr Sandra Leaton Gray of Homerton College, Cambridge: professional opinion (http:/ / www. leavethemkidsalone. com/ expert.

htm#fact_00).

Fingerprint 44

[81] Child Print (http:/ / www. ottawapolice. ca/ en/ crime_prevention/ child_print/ index. cfm) (Ottawa Police Service) (English)/(French)[82] Murray, Harry (March, 2000). "Deniable Degradation: The Finger-Imaging of Welfare Recipients". Sociological Forum 15 (1): 39–63.

doi:10.1023/A:1007594003722. ISSN 0884-8971[83] "Peers slam school fingerprinting" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ uk_politics/ 6468643. stm). BBC News. 19 March 2007. . Retrieved 2

September 2010.[84] "Animal fingerprints" (http:/ / www. virtualsciencefair. org/ 2004/ fren4j0/ public_html/ animal_fingerprints. htm). . Retrieved September 2,

2010.[85] Henneberg, Maciej; Lambert, Kosette M., Leigh, Chris M. (1997). "Fingerprint homoplasy: koalas and humans" (http:/ / naturalscience.

com/ ns/ articles/ 01-04/ ns_hll. html). NaturalSCIENCE.com 1. .[86] "Fingerprint history" (http:/ / www. fingerprintamerica. com/ fingerprinthistory. asp). .[87] Abel, David. "To avoid ID, more are mutilating fingerprints" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ local/ massachusetts/ articles/ 2010/ 07/ 21/

to_avoid_id_more_are_mutilating_fingerprints/ ). Boston Globe. .

Further reading• Ashbaugh, David R. 1999. Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and

Advanced Ridgeology. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.• Beavan, Colin. 2001. Fingerprints: The Origins of Crime Detection and the Murder Case that Launched Forensic

Science. New York: Hyperion.• Cowger, James C. 1992. Friction Ridge Skin: Comparison and Identification of Fingerprints. Boca Raton,

Florida: CRC Press.• Quinche, Nicolas, and Margot, Pierre. 2010. Coulier, Paul-Jean (1824–1890) : A precursor in the history of

fingermark detection and their potential use for identifying their source (1863). In Journal of ForensicIdentification (California), 60 (2), March–April 2010, pp. 129–134.

• Scheibert, J, Leurent, S, Provost, A and Debregeas, G. 2009. The role of fingerprints in the coding of tactileinformation probed with a biomimetic sensor. Science 323: 1503–1506.

External linksGeneral

• FBI Fingerprint Guide (http:/ / www. fbi. gov/ hq/ cjisd/ takingfps. html)• FBI Fingerprinting Video Lesson (http:/ / www. fbi. gov/ hq/ cjisd/ fproll. html) (4-sec Quicktime video of

rolling a single inked finger)• The Fingerprint Society (http:/ / www. fpsociety. org. uk/ ) - Society for Fingerprint Examiners• Fingerprinting.com (http:/ / www. fingerprinting. com)• Fingerprints and Human Identification (http:/ / www. bleaching-dental. com/ articles/

fingerprints_and_human_identification. html)• Fingerprint Processing Guide (http:/ / www. cbdiai. org/ Reagents/ main. html)• Fingerprint Articles at Crime & Clues (http:/ / www. crimeandclues. com/ index. php/ physical-evidence/

fingerprint-evidence)• Galton's Finger Prints (http:/ / www. mugu. com/ galton/ books/ finger-prints/ index. htm)• Henry, Faulds, and Herschel's works on fingerprints (http:/ / www. mugu. com/ galton/ fingerprints/ books/

index. htm)• Extensive bibliography (http:/ / www. scafo. org/ Online_Information/ bibliography. htm) So. Calif. Assn. of

Fingerprint Officers.Errors and concerns

• Will West as fable (http:/ / www. scafo. org/ library/ 110105. html)• Do Fingerprints Lie? [[The New Yorker (http:/ / www. michaelspecter. com/ 2002/ 05/ do-fingerprints-lie/ )]

(2002)]

Fingerprint 45

• Why Experts Make Errors (http:/ / users. ecs. soton. ac. uk/ ~id/ JFI expert error. pdf), Itiel E. Dror, DavidCharlton, Journal of Forensic Identification

• Surgeon jailed for removing fingerprints (http:/ / www. smh. com. au/ news/ world/surgeon-jailed-for-removing-fingerprints/ 2008/ 02/ 14/ 1202760429686. html) - Sydney Morning Herald(news article)

Science and statistics• Fingerprint research and evaluation (http:/ / fingerprint. nist. gov/ ) at the U.S. National Institute of Standards

and Technology.• Fingerprint pattern distribution statistics (http:/ / www. dse. nl/ ~frvc/ handresearch/ derm. htm)• The Science of Fingerprints (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 19022) at Project Gutenberg

Forensic footwear evidenceForensic footwear evidence can be used in legal proceedings to help prove the identities of persons at the crimescene. Footwear evidence is often the most abundant form of evidence at a crime scene and in some cases can proveto be as specific as a fingerprint. Initially investigators will look to identify the make and model of the shoe or trainerwhich made an impression. This can be done visually or by comparison with evidence in a database both methodsfocus heavily on pattern recognition and brand or logo marks. Information about the owner of any footwear can begained from the analysis of wear patterns which are dependent on angle of footfall and weight distribution. Detailedexamination of footwear impressions can help to link a specific piece of footwear to a footwear imprint as each shoewill have unique wear characteristics.

Types of footwear evidenceFootwear evidence can come in at least three forms, footwear outsole impressions, footwear insole impressions andfootwear trace evidence.

Footwear outsole impressionsFootwear outsole impressions are impressions left on an object that was caused by contact with a piece of footwear.These can left on the ground or raised surface by persons treading over it, left on doors or walls by personsattempting to kick or climb over a wall or even left on other persons after being kicked or stomped on.There can also be latent impressions not easily visible to the naked eye, on many different surfaces such as floortiles, concrete or even carpet. Detection may require the use of additional specialized light sources such as portableultraviolet lighting. Recovery typically includes photography as well as lifting with "gel" or "electrostatic" dustlifters.

Footwear insole imprintsFootwear insole imprints are imprints left in the inside of footwear caused by contact from the person’s foot.Analysis of the insole imprints can be used to link a person(s) to a piece of footwear.

Footwear trace evidenceFootwear trace evidence is trace evidence that is recovered from footwear. Types of trace evidence that could berecovered include skin, glass fragments, body hair, fibres from clothing or carpets, soil particles, dust and bodilyfluids. The study of this trace evidence could be used to link a piece of footwear to a location or owner. dna can beone of the contributing factors in forensic footwear evidence.

Forensic footwear evidence 46

Detection of footwear evidence

Shoeprints left on a dusty surface.

Footwear impressions can be detected with a variety of methodsincluding:• Using artificial light sources to provide oblique,coaxial, and

polarized light for detection of visible and latent impressions.• Using electrostatic lifting devices to lift dusty impressions.• Using physical or chemical enhancement methods to develop or

enhance faint impressions.

Recovery of footwear impression evidenceFootwear evidence occurs most often as either footwear impressions left in a soft surface, such as mud or as dustdeposits, which are difficult for the human eye to detect. At violent crimescenes footmarks can be left as a result of aperson standing in blood and subsequently trailing it as they move around the scene.

LiftingFootwear impressions can be lifted from surfaces with tools such as adhesive lifters, gelatin lifters or electrostaticlifting devices.

CastingEvidence left via impressions can generally be recovered utilizing a plaster cast. Initially the impression is isolatedby framing the area with a solid boundary. Following this a plaster mix can be gently poured inside the frame, it isgenerally considered not best practice to pour directly onto the impression. In some cases where the surface is notideal for casting prior techniques can be utilised to gain a better cast of the impression. Sand can often be fixed inplace by applying an aerosol resin or glue although hair spray is often used. Wet mud impressions can be dried usinga combination of pipetting water from the surface and applying hot air, often in the form of a hair dryer.

Examination of footwear impressions evidenceFootwear impression can be used by examiners to obtain information the following information:Footwear manufacturer, model and size: Examination of footwear impression for "Class Characteristics" such as general outsole patterns and shapes, footwear design features and feature markings can help examiners identify the manufacturer , model and size of the footwear. This information can be used to help profile the suspect and provide leads on who may have bought or worn the footwear which created the impression. Approximate height and wearer: Measurements of footwear impression dimensions can be used to provide the approximate height of a suspect. With shoeprint size information, investigators can refer to statistical data to approximate the height of the person since shoeprint vs. height relationship follows a normal distribution. Height can also be approximate by stride length which could be measured from a set of footwear impressions. Activity of wearer when imprint was made: Analysis of a plastic footwear impression can also be used help determine the activity of the wearing when the imprint was made. The footwear imprint left by person is different when they are walking, running or carry heavy loads. A footwear impression left by running person will typically deeper in the heel and toe sections of the shoeprint. A person carrying a heavy load such as a body will cause deeper prints than a person not carrying anything. Establish link between footwear impression and specific piece of footwear: A specific piece of footwear can be

Forensic footwear evidence 47

linked to a specific footwear impression with careful analysis. Every piece of footwear will show different amountsof tread wear, different amounts of damage in the form of tiny cuts and nicks. These unique characteristics will alsoshow on the impression left by the footwear.

Shoeprints left at a crimescene.

Detailed photo of shoeprintsleft at a crime scene.

Photo of a suspect's shoes. Test impressions of made witha suspect's shoes.

Limitations of footwear evidenceThe Unabomber, Theodore Kaczynski, was known to keep shoes with smaller soles attached to the base in order toconfuse investigators about the size of the suspect's feet.[1]

Footwear databasesForensic investigators can use computerized footwear databases to quickly compare the class characteristics betweenfootwear impression and outsole profile of footwear outsoles stored in the database. This greatly reduced the timerequired to match shoemarks found at crime scenes and those from criminals in custody or those stored on thedatabase.By far the best system available is SICAR, marketed by Foster + Freeman Ltd, Worcestershire, England andcurrently used by Police departments in the UK, Europe, and USA. Others are available such as the FootwearIntelligence Technology (FIT) launched by the Forensic Science Service (FSS) in February 2007 and TreadMark.

References[1] "FOXNews.com - Newly Released Unabomber Evidence Offers New Insights" (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/ story/ 0,2933,232738,00. html).

Fox News. 2006-11-29. . "To evade authorities chasing him, Unabomber Theodore Kaczynski kept shoes with smaller soles attached to thebottom in his reclusive Montana cabin, according to evidence released 10 years after his capture"

External links• Scientific Working Group on Shoeprint and Tire Tread Evidence (SWGTREAD) (http:/ / www. theiai. org/

guidelines/ swgtread/ index. php/ ), from the International Association for Identification

Forensic toxicology 48

Forensic toxicologyForensic toxicology is the use of toxicology and other disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology andclinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. The primary concern forforensic toxicology is not the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation or the technology utilised, but ratherthe obtaining and interpreting of the results. A toxicological analysis can be done to various kinds of samples.A forensic toxicologist must consider the context of an investigation, in particular any physical symptoms recorded,and any evidence collected at a crime scene that may narrow the search, such as pill bottles, powders, trace residue,and any available chemicals. Provided with this information and samples with which to work, the forensictoxicologist must determine which toxic substances are present, in what concentrations, and the probable effect ofthose chemicals on the person.Determining the substance ingested is often complicated by the body's natural processes (see ADME), as it is rare fora chemical to remain in its original form once in the body. For example: heroin is almost immediately metabolisedinto another substance and further to morphine, making detailed investigation into factors such as injection marksand chemical purity necessary to confirm diagnosis. The substance may also have been diluted by its dispersalthrough the body; while a pill or other regulated dose of a drug may have grams or milligrams of the activeconstituent, an individual sample under investigation may only contain micrograms or nanograms.

Samples

UrineA urine sample is urine that has come from the bladder and can be provided or taken post-mortem.

BloodA blood sample of approximately 10 ml (0.35 imp fl oz; 0.34 US fl oz) is usually sufficient to screen and confirmmost common toxic substances. A blood sample provides the toxicologist with a profile of the substance that thesubject was influenced by at the time of collection; for this reason, it is the sample of choice for measuring bloodalcohol content in drunk driving cases.

Hair sampleHair is capable of recording medium to long-term or high dosage substance abuse. Chemicals in the bloodstreammay be transferred to the growing hair and stored in the follicle, providing a rough timeline of drug intake events.Head hair grows at rate of approximately 1 to 1.5 cm a month, and so cross sections from different sections of thefollicle can give estimates as to when a substance was ingested. Testing for drugs in hair is not standard throughoutthe population. The darker and coarser the hair the more drug that will be found in the hair.If two people consumedthe same amount of drugs, the person with the lighter and coarser hair will have more drug in their hair than thedarker haired person when tested. This raises issues of possible racial bias in substance tests with hair samples. [1]

Oral fluidOral fluid is the proper term, however saliva is used commonly. Saliva is a component of oral fluid. Oral fluid iscomposed of many things and concentrations of drugs typically parallel to those found in blood. Sometimes referredto as ultra filtrate of blood, it is thought that drugs pass into oral fluid predominantly through a process known aspassive diffusion. Drugs and pharmaceuticals that are highly protein bound in blood will have a lower concentrationin oral fluid. The use of oral fluid is gaining importance in forensic toxicology for showing recent drug use, e.g. inclinical settings or investigation of driving under influence of substances.

Forensic toxicology 49

OtherOther bodily fluids and organs may provide samples, particularly samples collected during an autopsy. A commonautopsy sample is the gastric contents of the deceased, which can be useful for detecting undigested pills or liquidsthat were ingested prior to death. In highly decomposed bodies, traditional samples may no longer be available. Thevitreous humour from the eye may be used, as the fibrous layer of the eyeball and the eye socket of the skull protectsthe sample from trauma and adulteration. Other common organs used for toxicology are the brain, liver, and spleen.The inspection of the contents of the stomach must be part of every postmortem examination if possible because itmay provide qualitative information concerning the nature of the last meal and the presence of abnormalconstituents. Using it as a guide to the time of death, however, is theoretically unsound and presents many practicaldifficulties, although it may have limited applicability in some exceptional instances. Generally, using stomachcontents as a guide to time of death involves an unacceptable degree of imprecision and is thus liable to mislead theinvestigator and the court. Characteristic cell types from food plants can be used to identify a victim's last meal;knowledge about which can be useful in determining the victim's whereabouts or actions prior to death (Bock andNorris, 1997). Some of these cell types include (Dickison, 2000):• sclereids (pears)• starch grains (potatoes and other tubers)• raphide crystals (pineapple)• druse crystals (citrus, beets, spinach)• silica bodies (cereal grasses and bamboos)In a case where a young woman had been stabbed to death, witnesses reported that she had eaten her last meal at aparticular fast food restaurant. However, her stomach contents did not match the limited menu of the restaurant,leading investigators to conclude that she had eaten at some point after being seen in the restaurant. The investigationled to the apprehension of a man whom the victim knew, and with whom she had shared her actual final meal(Dickison, 2000). Time since death can be approximated by the state of digestion of the stomach contents. Itnormally takes at least a couple of hours for food to pass from the stomach to the small intestine; a meal still largelyin the stomach implies death shortly after eating, while an empty or nearly-empty stomach suggests a longer timeperiod between eating and death (Batten, 1995). However, there are numerous mitigating factors to take intoaccount: the extent to which the food had been chewed, the amount of fat and protein present, physical activityundertaken by the victim prior to death, mood of the victim, physiological variation from person to person. All thesefactors affect the rate at which food passes through the digestive tract. Pathologists are generally hesitant to base aprecise time of death on the evidence of stomach contents alone.

Other organismsBacteria, maggots and other organisms that may have ingested some of the subject matter may have also ingestedany toxic substance within it.

Detection and ClassificationDetection of drugs and pharmaceuticals in biological samples is usually done by an initial screening and then aconfirmation of the compound(s), which may include a quantitation of the compound(s). The screening andconfirmation are usually, but not necessarily, done with different analytical methods. Every analytical method usedin forensic toxicology should be carefully tested by performing a validation of the method to ensure correct andindisputable results at all times. A testing laboratory involved in forensic toxicology should adhere to a qualityprogramme to ensure the best possible results and safety of any individual.The choice of method for testing is highly dependent on what kind of substance one expects to find and the material on which the testing is performed. Biological samples are more complex to analyze because of factors such as the

Forensic toxicology 50

matrix effect and the metabolism and conjugation of the target compounds.

Gas chromatographyGas-liquid chromatography is of particular use in examining volatile organic compounds.

Detection of MetalsThe compounds suspected of containing a metal are traditionally analyzed by the destruction of the organic matrixby chemical or thermal oxidation. This leaves the metal to be identified and quantified in the inorganic residue, and itcan be detected using such methods as the Reinsch test, emission spectroscopy or X-ray diffraction. Unfortunately,while this identifies the metals present it removes the original compound, and so hinders efforts to determine whatmay have been ingested. The toxic effects of various metallic compounds can vary considerably.

Nonvolatile organic substancesDrugs, both prescribed and illicit, pesticides, natural products, pollutants and industrial compounds are some of themost common nonvolatile compounds encountered. Screening methods include thin-layer chromatography,gas-liquid chromatography and immunoassay. For complete legal identification, a second confirmatory test is usuallyalso required. The trend today is to use liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, predeced with sampleworkup as liquid-liquid extraction or solid phase extraction. Older methods include: spot test (see Pill testing),typically the Marquis Reagent, Mecke Reagent, and Froehde's Reagent for opiates, Marquis Reagent and Simon'sreagent for amphetamine, methamphetamine and other analogs, like MDMA, the Scott's test for cocaine, and themodified Duquenois reagent for marijuana and other cannabinoids. For compounds that don't have a common spottest, like benzodiazepines, another test may be used, typically mass spectrometry, or spectrophotometry.

References[1] The Further Mismeasure: The Curious Use of Racial Categorizations in the Interpretation of Hair Analyses (http:/ / www. criminology. fsu.

edu/ journal/ mismeasure. html) Tom Mieczkowski, Ph.D., The University of South Florida

External links• http:/ / www. all-about-forensic-science. com/ forensic-toxicology. html

Article Sources and Contributors 51

Article Sources and ContributorsBloodstain pattern analysis  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=411207662  Contributors: Ale jrb, Andy120, Anibar E, Asyndeton, AzaToth, BD2412, Bgs022, Bobanny,Bobblewik, Boing! said Zebedee, Branddobbe, CliffC, Denton Kreg, Doctorfluffy, Drzhotstuff13, E Wing, EMT1871, Eekerz, Eisnel, EnglishDude, Epbr123, Esprit15d, Evans1982, Ewen, GaiusCornelius, HenrikMidtiby, I dream of horses, Insanity Incarnate, Jjcasalo, Karafias, Kevin Maloney, Khayman, KoopaZtar, Louis L. Akin, LPI, Macdonja, Matt Fitzpatrick, Mild Bill Hiccup,Notinasnaid, OlEnglish, Palfrey, Philip Trueman, Policarp, Postdlf, Pottedlemming112, Pseudomonas, Psychobabble, R'n'B, RHaworth, Raidon Kane, Sandstein, Senseitaco, Shalom Yechiel,Skysmith, Snoyes, Tamfang, TexasAndroid, Tierlieb, TimOertel, Useight, Welsh, Why Not A Duck, Xiphoris, Yossarian, Zzuuzz, 188 anonymous edits

Ballistics  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=409361552  Contributors: *drew, Achoacho, Alansohn, Algebra, AliveFreeHappy, Allstarecho, Andonic, Anonymi, Antandrus,Asianpig, Asyndeton, Beetstra, Bighitta1234, Bob Burkhardt, Bobo192, Bogey97, Bucketsofg, Buster2058, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CardinalDan, CharlesC, Christian75, Chuckhoffmann,Ciaccona, ComputerGeezer, Cryptic, Crzrussian, Cyrillic, DMcMPO11AAUK, DanMP5, Dave2, DickClarkMises, Docu, Dolphin51, Dottydotdot, Edgepedia, Editme5, Epastore, ErrantX,Fluzwup, Francis Flinch, Gerbrant, Gilliam, Gjs238, GuntherDyckmans, Hans Moravec, Henrygb, Hertz1888, Hohum, In fact, Ixfd64, JarlaxleArtemis, Jbarta, Jj137, Johnscyee, Jrdioko, Kaiba,Karada, Karol Langner, Kelly Martin, Kenyon, Khoikhoi, Kingpin13, LeaveSleaves, Lenticel, Loudfish, MBisanz, MacGyverMagic, Mandarax, Matthew Yeager, Mentifisto, Mikeblas,NewEnglandYankee, Nifky?, NuclearWarfare, Oliphaunt, Onco p53, Opelio, OverlordQ, Patrick, Paul August, Pilotguy, Piplicus, Pleasantville, Rama, Ray Van De Walker, ReallyNiceGuy,Reedy, Riddley, Rigby27, Rockyabq, Rogper, Rotational, Sandstein, Sannse, Securiger, Shaddack, SirIsaacBrock, Snoyes, Sohmc, Sp, Stephenb, Superstar-david, Support.and.Defend, Symon,The Anome, The Founders Intent, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thunderboltz, Tide rolls, Tom harrison, Vgranucci, Vifsm, Wikipelli, Wiknerd, Wolfkeeper, XJamRastafire, Xezbeth, Yatesdr,ZimZalaBim, 204 anonymous edits

Ballistic fingerprinting  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407220913  Contributors: Alandholder, AliveFreeHappy, Allen3, Alxeedo, Appraiser, Avoided, B222, Beetstra,Benstown, Bmeasia, Boojum, Calm, Capper13, Danglingdiagnosis, Deathbunny, Denton Kreg, Dmurph22250, ESkog, ErrantX, Fluzwup, Fratrep, Hmains, Jedlink, Jeff3000, Mtloweman,Mudwater, Nailedtooth, Osndok, Patrick, Raymondwinn, Rockyabq, Sandstein, Sbeath, Spellmaster, Thernlund, Tom harrison, Trevor MacInnis, Vifsm, Yaf, 59 anonymous edits

DNA profiling  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=410761049  Contributors: 123imran, 168..., 5 albert square, 7434be, 808OG33, ABF, Abb615, Abberley2, Abeg92, Abrahami,Abune, Acegikmo1, Aerternum8, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajraddatz, Akendall, Alansohn, Alexbrewer, AlistairMcMillan, Allstarecho, Alphachimp, Angelo De La Paz, Anikin3, Anneman,Anonymous editor, Anyo Niminus, Ap, Apers0n, Appraiser, ArchonMagnus, Arcturus, Asyndeton, Aude, Avoided, Awostrack, AxelBoldt, AzaToth, BW95, Baconchopface, Banej,BarretBonden, Bastiche, Beetstra, Bidgee, Blaaake, BloodGrapefruit2, Bluerasberry, Bobo192, Boing! said Zebedee, BorisTM, Branddobbe, Brumski, Bugg42, Bungle, CHallam, CIreland,CNicol, Cacycle, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Capricorn42, Captain Obvious and his crime-fighting dog, CardinalDan, Catgut, Ceoil, CharlesBrenner, Charm, Chaser, Chasingsol, Christhe speller, Chrislk02, Christopherlin, Click23, Cmcnicoll, Courcelles, Ct2288, Curps, DJ Clayworth, DMacks, Dan100, Danorton, DavidWBrooks, DeadEyeArrow, Debresser, Dharmabum420,Discospinster, Dkropf, Dnalabsindia, DocWatson42, Dolovis, Domikins, Don.doe, Doom7987, DougsTech, DragonflySixtyseven, Drunken Pirate, Dubitante, Duncharris, Dungodung, DéRahier,E Wing, ElectricLemon, Emperorbma, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Eperotao, Everyking, Ewawer, F-451, FJPB, Fastfission, Feedmecereal, Fieldday-sunday, Figma, Flowanda, Fordmadoxfraud,Freechild, Funkboy3, GIR, GRBerry, Gabbe, Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Gill110951, Gilliam, Ginsengbomb, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, GraemeL, GreaterWikiholic, Ground Zero, Gurch, Gwernol,HalJor, HalfShadow, HamburgerRadio, Hardware Hank, HarringtonSmith, Hephaestos, Hoomanator, Hotrodizfilthy, Hugo999, Hyper84, Iapetus, Icarus3, Imzadi1979, InspectorSands, Inter,Iridescent, IronGargoyle, Islaammaged126, Ixymapoe, J.delanoy, J04n, JBarno, JForget, JMS Old Al, JNW, Jake Wartenberg, James Callahan, Jamesontai, Jefffire, Jengod, Jenwen28, Jetjaxon5,Jimokay, John Quincy Adding Machine, Johnuniq, Jonathan Haas, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh Parris, Jovianeye, Jpbowen, Junger01, Justin, Justpassin, Karada, Keepmytubes, Keimzelle,Kembangraps, Kingpin13, KnightRider, Koffieyahoo, Ksyrie, Kubigula, Kupirijo, Kuru, Kvdveer, L Kensington, LachlanA, Lateg, Lcamtuf, LedgendGamer, Lexor, Lightmouse, Linmhall,LizardJr8, Lldancer91, Lonesomefighter, MER-C, MONGO, MacsBug, Macy, Madeleine Price Ball, Mandarax, Manuel Yayo, Marandbon, MarcoTolo, Markbenecke, Marketing250,Martin.Budden, Marysunshine, Masem, Materialscientist, Mattisse, Mav, Maverick Leonhart, Maximus Rex, McPavement, MelchiorZ, Mercury, Mervyn, Mgalle, Mgummess, Michael Devore,Michael Hardy, Michal Nebyla, Michaplot, Mikael Häggström, Mindmatrix, Momoricks, Motor.on, NHRHS2010, Naive cynic, Nightscream, Nitroshockwave, Noahsachs, North Shoreman,Nuggetboy, Obli, Olegwiki, OllieFury, Oore, Overstreets, Pakaran, PaleWhaleGail, Paternity Test, Patrick, Patstuart, Paulbrock, Pengo, Personman, Peruvianllama, Peter johnson4, Petiatil, Pgk,Phantomsteve, Phil Boswell, Phil Holmes, Philbarker, Piccadilly, PleaseStand, Poindexter Propellerhead, Prodego, Propaniac, PseudoOne, Puchiko, Pv86, Quadell, Qwyrxian, Qxz, RadioFan2(usurped), RashersTierney, RattusMaximus, Ravichandar84, Red Director, Reinyday, Rettetast, Rich Farmbrough, Richwales, Rjwilmsi, Robth, Ron Barker, Ronhjones, Rorro, RoyBoy, Rsanaie,Rugbyboroughman, Russ47025, S-MorrisVP, Sandstein, Sarah00001, Sardanaphalus, Schutz, Scubafish, Sekiyu, Sens08, Serpens, Severa, Shaddack, ShakingSpirit, Shimeru, Shumdw,Skidude9950, Skipper500, Skyk98, SlowJog, Smartse, Smor4860, Snicklefritzdee, SnowsCode, SoLando, Soarhead77, Someguy1221, Someone else, SpaceFlight89, Spencer BOOTH,Spongeboblover124, Steinsky, Stepa, Steven Zhang, StuartMcIntyre, Stubblyhead, SunCreator, SyntaxError55, Syrthiss, TBadger, TaintedMustard, Tameeria, Tamoxidiva, Tanthalas39,Tazmaniacs, TedE, Teksus, TenOfAllTrades, TexasAndroid, Thatguyflint, The Baroness of Morden, The undertow, The wub, TheFreeloader, Theda, Thincat, Think outside the box, Tiddly Tom,Tide rolls, TimVickers, Titoxd, Tizio, Toytown Mafia, Tresiden, Tstrobaugh, Twang, Twilsonb, Ucucha, Uksam88, Uncke Herb, Uncle Dick, Universalgenetics, VernoWhitney, Versus22,Vicenarian, Vifsm, Viriditas, Vsmith, WLRoss, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, Werdan7, Whiner01, Wiki alf, Wikid77, Wilsonchas, Wjcollier07, Woohookitty, Wwc93, Xavierschmit, Yahel Guhan,YanWong, Yerpo, Zashaw, Zophra, Zé da Silva, Þjóðólfr, आशीष भटनागर, 929 anonymous edits

Fingerprint  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=410396967  Contributors: 2D, 4insix, AK Auto, Academic Challenger, Acebulf, Addshore, AdjustShift, Adrian, Aervanath,Aitias, Ajdonnison, Alansohn, Alexf, Alkarex, Almodabber, Alouden, AlphOmegGuy, Alpha plus (a+), Alphachimp, Amniarix, Anaxial, Andonic, Andreworkney, Anil1956, Ank329,AnnaJGrant, AnonUser, Ant, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Apers0n, Arodb, Arrataz, Arvindn, Asyndeton, AubreyEllenShomo, Aunt Entropy, Auric, AzaToth, Azazell0, BD2412, Baa, Balln1,BananaFiend, Banandar123, BeckyAnne, Belfunk, BinaryTed, Bitf05a015, Blufflimbo, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Borgx, Bornhj, Brandonm0720, Brankow, Brentdax, Brianga, BrownHairedGirl,Bry9000, Bucketsofg, Bulbtree, CLPEandFFS, COMPFUNK2, CWii, Calmypal, Canterbury Tail, Cappelle, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Casper2k3, Cassandra B, Celendin, Chairman S.,Chaosdruid, Chillum, Christopher Connor, ClairSamoht, Cmcnicoll, CobraWiki, Colombiano21, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Comrade009, Cool Blue, Corvus cornix, Courcelles, Cryptic,CryptoDerk, Crystallina, Ctrl build, Cwkmail, CyrilThePig4, Cyrus XIII, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DGG, DGZxYo, DVD R W, Dalgspleh, Daniel Olsen, Daniel olcorn, Daniel5127, Danzach2, DaviMedrade, David Shankbone, Dchall1, Dcoetzee, Decltype, Deconstructhis, Deli nk, Delirium, Delldot, Deor, DerHexer, Deutschgirl, Diddy88888, Diderot, Difu Wu, Dinomite, Discospinster,Dmol, DocWatson42, Doczilla, Dodger, Doug757, Doyley, DragonflySixtyseven, Dreadatticus, Ductapedaredevil, Duffman, DustFormsWords, Dylan Lake, E23, ESkog, Earthlyreason, Edcolins,Edgar181, EditorInTheRye, Ekedolphin, Ellywa, Eloquence, EmielMols, Empath, Emperorbma, Epbr123, Eritain, ErrantX, Etaoin, Etxrge, Euchiasmus, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Excirial,Falcon8765, Fama Clamosa, Fastfission, Fastily, Favonian, Fingersx12, Finn-Zoltan, Fjianjiang, Flamma, Flewis, Frank.ZKH, Frap, FreelanceWizard, Freethron, FreplySpang, FrozenUmbrella,Fusionmix, Fvasconcellos, GLaDOS, GainLine, Gaius Cornelius, GangstaEB, Geneb1955, Geni, Georgy90, Geppyp, Gilliam, Gimboid13, Glane23, Gogo Dodo, Goodtimber, Grafen, Graham87,GregorB, Gustronico, HYC, Halfvind, HamburgerRadio, HarryHenryGebel, Hasek is the best, Hbachus, Hefiz, Heron, Heyitspeter, Hobartimus, Honeycake, Hooperbloob, HundredManSlayer,Hut 8.5, I dream of horses, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, ISC PB, Icarus3, Ida Shaw, ImperatorExercitus, Inter, Intgr, Ipsissimus, Iridescent, Irishguy, IronChris, Isnow, Ixfd64, J Di, J-Star, J-Wiki,J.delanoy, JForget, JHMM13, JMPerez, JMS Old Al, Jack008, JamesAM, JasonAQuest, Javier Jelovcan, Jdlh, Jeeny, Jeffrey Mall, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Jepmatt, Jh51681, Jiggajigga52,Jimlaw512, Jivee Blau, Jkelly, Jmlk17, JoeSmack, John, John Fader, JohnWittle, Jojhutton, Jose.canedo, Josephcn, Josh3736, Jovianeye, Jpgordon, Jshadias, Jumping cheese, Jusdafax,Justarandomgeek, Justinfr, Jwoodger, KC Panchal, Kafziel, Kartano, Karunyans, Keegan brown, Ken Saladin, Kevin Maloney, Koba-chan, Kuru, L Kensington, La goutte de pluie, Larry V, Lesacre, LeaveSleaves, Lee Flailmarch, Leffanie, Leszek Jańczuk, Liftarn, Lisatwo, Lithis7, Liucougar, LokiClock, Loonymonkey, LovesMacs, Ltka, Lukobe, Lupo, Lusitana, M-hwang, MP 12,MacGyverMagic, Mad Max, Madhero88, Mais oui!, Malekhanif, Mandaglione, Mandsford, Marek69, Marssociety, Martijn van Mensvoort, Martinevans123, Master Jay, Master of Puppets,MasterSlowPoke, Matt Gies, Mattyl34, Maulsull, Maurice Carbonaro, Mckaysalisbury, Meelar, Mel Etitis, Methegreat, Metodicar, Microchip08, Mike Rosoft, Milominderbinder2, Mindmatrix,MisfitToys, Misza13, Mobit, Mohiuddinahmed, Mohsens, Mokailleet, Monedula, Mr0t1633, MrDude23, Mrh30, Muslim Editor, Mysid, Mythsearcher, NYKevin, Nappymonster, NawlinWiki,Necrothesp, Neilc, Nhekman, Nick Sbr, Nicolas1981, Nilfanion, Nimur, Nohomers48, Noonaj, Nothingofwater, Nunziapr, Nydas, Ohnoitsjamie, OlEnglish, Old Moonraker, Olly150, Omer88f,Omicronpersei8, Oneiros, Orlady, OwenBlacker, OwenX, Ozzmosis, PJHaseldine, PL290, PabloP, Patrick, Paul Richter, Paul W, Pax:Vobiscum, Pearle, Persian Poet Gal, Peterlewis, Pewwer42,Phase4, Philip Trueman, Pi Guy 31415, Pinethicket, Pingveno, Possum, Psiphiorg, Purplepong, Qqzzccdd, Quintote, Quuxplusone, Qwell the pell, Qwerty671, RJHall, RJaguar3, RL0919,Rachmaninoff, Rama, Randall00, Rangek, Raymondwinn, Red Director, Reedy, Reikat705, Reinyday, Remindmelater, Remote2, Res2216firestar, RexNL, Rgrg, Rhobite, Riana, RichFarmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Richard asr, Rick MILLER, Ridgididgi, Rjwilmsi, Rl, Robartin, Robertwest100, Rod57, Rodrigue, Romanm, Ronny corral, Ronz, Rossumcapek,Rostowicz, Roux, Rrburke, Runningonbrains, Ruzulo, Salaribio, Samuel Blanning, Samuel Pepys, Sandstein, Sangeethsajilal97, SchuminWeb, Scientizzle, Sciurinæ, Seabhcan, Seb az86556,Secfan, Sendura, Septegram, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Shaddack, Shadowjams, Shshme, Sixxgrand, Skarebo, Smalljim, Smerus, Snookumz, Solipsist, Someguy1221, Sortior, SpecialCases, Spettro9, Spitfire, Steel, Stephenb, Stimpy, Strawfair, SuaveArt, SunCreator, Swerdnaneb, Switchercat, Syvanen, TBadger, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, THINMAN, Tabletop,Tazmaniacs, Tcncv, Tegrenath, The Anome, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheGrimReaper NS, Thebiggnome, Thebigone45, Thingg, Think outside the box, Tholly,Thunderboltz, Tillman, Tim1988, Tisane, Tokek, Tom harrison, Tom.k, Tom08, Tom239, Tombomp, Treisijs, Tristanb, Tsob, TurkishHorde, TutterMouse, Twirligig, Ubardak, Ucanlookitup,Uirauna, Ulric1313, Underleger, VanGoldfish, Versus22, Vervin, Vianello, Virtualphtn, Vishnava, Vrenator, WPjcm, Wamelculi, Well, girl, look at you!, Werdan7, West.andrew.g, Wikid77,Wilfredor, Winchelsea, Wireless friend, Wtmitchell, Ww, Xavier Giró, Xgllo, Xobster, Yashgaroth, Yashkochar, Zocky, Zsero, Zumbo, 1207 anonymous edits

Forensic footwear evidence  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=399759995  Contributors: 7, Aerolin55, AllynJ, Arthena, Asyndeton, Boobys2.0, Cmichael, CommonsDelinker,Cst17, D6, Discospinster, FirefoxRocks, Groink, IceUnshattered, Marek69, Michal Nebyla, Mthibault, Paulerob, PranksterTurtle, PrestonH, Qmercier, Rjwilmsi, Sandstein, Snigbrook,Stechondanet, Stephenb, Toliar, Tom Meakin, Woohookitty, Zalman992, 58 anonymous edits

Article Sources and Contributors 52

Forensic toxicology  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=409392353  Contributors: (;D- hymyilevä takapiru, 97iheartchocolate97, Ahoerstemeier, Akhran, Alansohn, Ascura,Asyndeton, Auntof6, Bacchiad, Banquo132, Bayerischermann, Beetstra, Bento00, Biwhite2, Bsherr, Bucketsofg, CanisRufus, Catgut, Closedmouth, Dr Smith, ESkog, Eilthireach, Epbr123,Ewen, Favonian, Floaterfluss, FlyingToaster, Galaxiaad, Gary King, Gene Nygaard, Hannah9, Hannes Röst, Harley peters, Herd of Swine, Hooperbloob, Hqb, Inomyabcs, Itub, Jahiegel, Jcw69,JoJan, Kenkoo1987, Ktotam, Leon3289, Lord Dagon, MadScientist80, Maddiekate, Markhurd, Masterpjz9, Mia Legato, Mr Stephen, Mufka, No Guru, Onionmon, Pcholakis, PeteX, Peterlewis,PetterBudt, Philip Trueman, PrinceoftheDawn, R3m0t, Reedy, Rjwilmsi, Saehrimnir, Sandstein, Sango123, Scottalter, Sekiyu, Shumdw, SimonFr, Smalljim, SpuriousQ, Synicalbanlist,Tangotango, Tim1357, Totakeke423, Trusilver, Tunicle, Ulric1313, Urod, Uthbrian, Xenaa, 190 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 53

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:BPA ellipse example.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BPA_ellipse_example.png  License: unknown  Contributors: User:BetacommandBot, User:Bkell,User:Kevin MaloneyImage:BPA AOI.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BPA_AOI.png  License: unknown  Contributors: User:BetacommandBot, User:Bkell, User:Kevin MaloneyImage:BPA POC.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BPA_POC.png  License: unknown  Contributors: User:BetacommandBot, User:Bkell, User:Kevin MaloneyImage:BPA AOC.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BPA_AOC.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:BetacommandBot, User:Bkell, User:Kevin Maloney,User:PNG crusade bot, User:Remember the dotImage:BPA Origin.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BPA_Origin.gif  License: unknown  Contributors: Kevin MaloneyImage:CE399side.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CE399side.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Gamaliel at en.wikipediaImage:Expertise-ballistique-p1030169.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Expertise-ballistique-p1030169.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: User:RamaImage:8digit NanoTest.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:8digit_NanoTest.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: MicrostamperImage:D1S80Demo.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:D1S80Demo.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: PaleWhaleGail, uploadedto Wikimedia by CharvosiImage:Fingerprint.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fingerprint.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Pi Guy 31415Image:Fingerprint picture.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fingerprint_picture.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:WilfredorFile:Fingerprint Arch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fingerprint_Arch.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Secfan at en.wikipedia. Laterversion(s) were uploaded by Smurrayinchester, Candyman92486, GuildNavigator84, Toomers57, Lupo at en.wikipedia.File:Fingerprint Loop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fingerprint_Loop.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Secfan at en.wikipedia.Later version(s) were uploaded by Lupo at en.wikipedia.File:Fingerprint Whorl.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fingerprint_Whorl.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NIST databaseImage:Tented arch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tented_arch.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Choster, Liftarn, Lupo, Monkeybait, 1 anonymous editsFile:Fingerprint scanner in Tel Aviv.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fingerprint_scanner_in_Tel_Aviv.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: David ShankboneFile:Fingerprint scanner identification.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fingerprint_scanner_identification.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0  Contributors: User:RachmaninoffFile:FingerPrintReader.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FingerPrintReader.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Georgy90File:3DFingerprint.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3DFingerprint.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:WamelculiImage:fingerprint cartridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fingerprint_cartridge.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Choster, MaulsullImage:fingerprint surfer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fingerprint_surfer.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Choster,LilHelpa, MaulsullFile:Fingerprinting 1928.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fingerprinting_1928.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: unknown Los Angeles Daily News staffphotographerImage:Shoeprint dusty.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shoeprint_dusty.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Zalman992Image:Crime scene shoeprint.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crime_scene_shoeprint.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:Zalman992Image:Impressions_scene.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Impressions_scene.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Zalman992Image:Known_shoes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Known_shoes.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Zalman992Image:Test_impressions_known.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Test_impressions_known.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:Zalman992

License 54

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/