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8/11/2019 Creating and Using Photographs as Archivial Evidence
1/20
8/11/2019 Creating and Using Photographs as Archivial Evidence
2/20
CREATING
AND
USING
PHOTOGRAPHS
AS
HISTORICAL EVIDENCE
Robert
Papstein
Introduction
The
use of
photographs
as research
data is
becoming
of
increasing
interest
to
historians of
Africa. The School
of
Oriental
and African Studies'
Workshop
on
"Photographs
as
sources
for
African
history"
is
only
the most recent
example
of
this
emerging
concern.1
This
paper
is
designed
to discuss some
of the
conceptual
problems one might meet when attemptingto understandphotographsas data. It
also discusses
making
photographs
as a
systematic
part
of field research.
Lastly,
it
provides
a brief
primer
on
the
type
of
photographic equipment
best
suited for
fieldwork.
Historians
of Africa
are
used to
thinking
of
themselves as
dwelling
at the
very
cutting
edge
of
methodological
and
theoretical
nnovation,
but
in
the use
of
visual
data we
lag
behind our
colleagues
in
ethnology, anthropology,
and
sociology.2
Fieldwork
historians,
virtually
all of whom
take
photographs,
have
rarely
accepted
photography
as
an
integral
part
of their field research data.3
Nor has
readily
available visual data been
widely
used
by
historians:
compare
the extensive
historical use of conventional
anthropological
data
with
the
almost total
neglect
of
visual anthropology.
Although
the
eye
is our most
important
nformation-gathering
ense,
we find
it
surprisingly
difficult to
agree
about
the
meaning
of
images.
Ironically,
one of
the attractions of the
photograph,
its
apparent accessibility
(and
implied
objectivity),
dissolves into
subjectivity
when
closely
'read.' Since
we cannot
readily
agree
about
photography's meaning
and content we
tend to discard or
marginalize
its
use as data.
Obviously
I
am
overstating
the case
somewhat. We
have of course
learned to 'read'
photographs;
his is
the reason
we can
recognize
a
tree as
a tree. But
compared
o the
way
we
have learned o read
text,
we
read
images
in
haphazard
and
non-systematic
ways.
Outside art
history
and
cinema
courses,
image
reading
s
rarely
taughtsystematically.4We areall aware of
the
power
of
images-how
images help
structure
behavior.
Advertising
photography
s based on
this
principle.
Liquors,
tobacco
products,
and
cosmetics are sold almost
entirely
on
'image'
without
any
serious
attempt
o assert
inherent
differences between
obviously
similar
products.
Without
images
the
staggering suffering
of the African
famine
of
1984/85
would never
have
touched
us
in
the
same
way.
The famine
only
'existed'
(outside
the
Sahel)
once
it
had been
photographed
rather
han
described)
in
the
media.
The South African
government
understands
his
power very
well
and
ensures that
photojournalists
and
television
camera teams
are
subjected
o even
more
rigorous
censorship
han
word
journalists.
Still,
there
are vast
areas,
historical and
contemporary,
where we do
not know
-or at least cannotagree-about the meaningof images. The SOAS Workshop,
which began
by assuming that
"colonial"
photographywas a useful
category for
History
in
Africa
17
(1990),
pp.
247-65.
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248
ROBERT
PAPSTEIN
describing
certain
types
of
photographs,
ound
it
increasingly
difficult to
apply
the
concept.
For
research
purposes
a
more
supple
and
nuanced
approach
to the
interpretation f photographs n Africa(andelsewhere for thatmatter)needs to be
developed
by
taking
into account the
prevailing
technical
limitations of
making
photographs,
how
photography
was used
in
a
wider,
non-colonial
sense
in
the late
nineteenth and
early
twentieth
centuries,
and
the
evolving
conceptual
and
commercialmilieus
which
influenced
composition
and
style.
Our ambivalence about the
meaning
of
images
is
mirrored in the
ongoing
debate
about whether violent television
images
contribute
o
violent
behavior. It is
usually
claimed that the scientific studies
suggest
there
is no
correlation.
Somehow
it
strains
credulity
(if
not
common
sense)
to
argue
that
one
type
of
image,
especially
the
powerful imagery
of
violence,
has
no
effect when
advertising
imagery
is
universally accepted
as
behavior-molding. Images
not
only modify
behavior
and skew
understanding,
hey
also are the
single greatest
reinforcer of
stereotypes
about Africa. There is not much
to be
done
about
the
commercial
pressures
within the media
which limit
news
coverage
to
a
very
narrow
spectrum
of
African
society
and
which
tend to
support,
often
unconsciously,
racial and
cultural
tereotypes
and a
longstandingemphasis
on exotica.
Presumably
unfettered
by
these
constraints,
scholars
are
in
a
unique position
to
use
images
and words to describe
the
rapid
and
profound
social,
political,
and
economic transformations
aking
place
in
Africa.
Historical
photographs,by
which
we
tend to mean colonial
photographs,
are
increasingly
recognized
as
useful to
understanding
hese
processes,
but because the
changes
in
every
part
of
Africa
are
taking place at such a rapid rate, even the photographs of contemporary
fieldworkers
(if
made
systematically)
will
soon become valuable
sources of
historical information.
In
my
research on the
precolonial history
of
the
Upper
Zambezi,
photographs
have
helped
date the
introductionof new
political symbols
and the
traditions
which
explain
them.5
Photographs
help
indicate
changing
commercial and economic
relationships by
showing
when
European
manufactures-pots,
pans,
containers, cloth,
clothes-began
to
replace
local
products.
Photographs
of
retailing
taken as
recently
as
1972
in
northwestern
Zambia,
when
compared
with
photographs
aken in
1988,
are
part
of
the
evidence
showing
the
impoverishment
of
rural Zambia over
the interim. Not
only
do the
photographs
illustrate
general
economic
decline,
they
indicate one
of
the
ways
mission influence has affected retailing. The shops owned by Christians,
recognizable
by
the
biblical
quotations
painted
on
the
facades,
were
by
far
the best-
stocked and
prosperous
n
1972,
not because
Christianity
necessarily
made
better
businessmen, but,
as
I
later
discovered,
because Christian
businessmen could
rely
on
loans,
supplies,
and
transport
made
available
through
their mission whereas
other
traderscould
not.
As the
infrastructure f the state
declined
throughout
he
1980s,
retailers
without access
to the informal networks of
capital, regular
transportation,
nd
supplies
of
the missions
found
it
difficult
to
manage.
Without
doubt one
of
the most
important
of
these
changes,
which
photography
an describe
particularly
well,
is the
development
of
popular
culture.6
Historical
photographs,
as well as the
photographs
taken
by
fieldworkers,
could
also increase
understanding
f class
development,changing
gender
relationships,
the
process
of
bureaucratization,
gricultural
hange,
the
penetration
of
capitalism,
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PHOTOGRAPHSAS HISTORICAL
EVIDENCE
249
and the
myriad
of other
transformations
taking
place
in Africa.
Whether
photographs
will
allow us
broader
insights
into African
societies
unobtainable
throughother data is a debate which is only beginning. For a start we need to be
able to view
existing
historical
photographs, many
of which
lie
neglected
and
forgotten.7
But we should
also consider the
equally important
question
of
producing
photographs-of
creating
a
visual
archive
alongside
fieldwork
tapes
and
notes.
II
Planning
Fieldwork
Photography
Organizing
and
conceptualizing
fieldwork
photography requires
the
same
forethought
and
planning
needed for
developing
the
original
research
plan.
Professional
photojournalists
work
systematically,
breaking
down
events
into
parts
and
making up
shooting
schedules
in
advance.
One
of
the first
questions
a
photojournalist
sks
is: "Can
the essence of
the
story
be
converted into
images?"
As
any
weekly
newsmagazine
demonstrates,
t
is
far easier to
make
riveting
photographs
of
violence
and
tragedy
than to
photograph
more
subtle
changes
in
social
attitudes or
political
ideas.
Photojournalists
usually
work
deductively,
beginning
with an
opening
"establishing"
mage
and
becoming
ever more
detailed.
The
camera is
omnivorous;
our
eye
unconsciously
selective. The
process
of
making
photographshelps
to
structure
perception.
Many
fieldworkers
will
find
in
the planningand systematic makingof photographsa new way of understanding
events and
of
creating
an
unprecedented
ntensity
of
observation.
Photographs
always
contain a
subjective
message
in
addition to
the
seemingly
objective
record,
and all
photographic
data
reflect
not
only
the
photographers'
nterests
but
also their
biases
and
assumptions.
Every
fieldworker
has to
come
to
terms with
this.
Compare,
for
example,
Paul
Strand
and
Basil
Davidson's
book
about Ghana
and Leni
Riefenstal's
hugely
successful
books
about
the
Nuba.8 Strand,
one
of
the
great
photographers
of the
twentieth
century,
photographed
a
society
which
incidentally
happened
o be
in
Africa.
Nevertheless,
the book
is
clearly
a
product
of its time
(the
1960s),
and of
Davidson's
concern
to
enhance our
understanding,
n
basic
human
evels,
of
African
societies,
which
had
often appeared so strange and "other" to westerners. Whatever their intent,
Riefenstal's
hugely
popular
pseudo-anthropological
coffeetable
books
emphasize
the
exoticism
and
"otherness"
f
the
Nubians.
Nuba
is
exotic
by
western
standards
and
Riefenstal's
photographs
capitalize
on
this.
Conceptually they
are
rather
old
fashioned
"ethnographic"
photographs,
regardless
of
their
stunning
use
of
color.
We
might
find
Strand'sblack
and
white
photographs
ormal and
overly
stylized
by
today's
photographic
esthetics,
but
they
are
conceptually
far
more
sophisticated
than
Riefenstal's
because
they
are
photographs
of
human
beings
rather han
people
as
cultural
artifacts.
Fieldworkers
need to think
consciously
through
what
they
are
trying
to
say
with
photographs. Photographs
can
document
in
the
simplest sense; they
can
reveal
something
unknown
(which
is
surprisingly
difficult to
articulate)
or
they
can
be rather
imple
supplements
o
other
data.
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250 ROBERT PAPSTEIN
III
Making
Pictures
Researchers
who
will
ask about
anything, including
the most detailed and
intimate
aspects
of
peoples'
lives,
are
often reluctant o
photograph
even the
most
banal
public
situation.
It
is
rarelypossible
to make
good
documentary
photographs
by 'stealing'
them:
effective
photographs
require
the
cooperation
of
the
subjects.
Social
skills are
far more
important
han
photographic
equipment.
Here it
is
vital
to be
prepared
to
'waste'
film
by
making
photographs
until
people
eventually
ignore
the camera.
A
fieldworker,
who
spends
months with the
same
people,
is
in
an
excellent
position
to
photograph
rom the "inside out." The
often-quotedadage
from
photojournalist
Robert
Capa,
whose
photographs
of
the
Spanish
Civil War
are still
among
the most
powerful
war
photographs
ever
taken-"If
your
photographs
aren't
good enough; you're
not close
enough"-also
applies
to
fieldwork
photography.
Establishing
a
social
relationship
is
the basis for
good
documentary hotography.
IV
Types
of
photographs
Fieldworkphotographscan be divided into four types of photographswhich I
will
term
Authentic, Historical,
Representative,
and
Interpretative.
The
"ethnographically
authentic"
attempts
to document
"features"of
a
society,
often
material culture.
In
the
past
these included
photographs
of
"physical types,"
or
examples
of how to
do
something.
While
such
documentscan be valuable
(usually
not for the reason
they
were
taken)
there are also cautions for
making
such
photographs today.
The desire of
people
to show the
"authentic" form
of
something
easily
leads to
distortions. One
of
the essential
problems
of
photography
of
this
kind
is that
"authentic"
can too
easily
be
assumed
to mean
"ancient."
Also,
photographs
of
cultural eatures which are
often the most
visually
compelling-ritual,
for
example-can
be distortive
if
not
placed
in
a wider
visual
social context.
A
fieldworker
needs to
develop
a
visual sense
of
the banal.
If
one looks
closely
at what
photojoumalists
call
the
photographic ssay
(in
Europereportage)-telling
a
story
in
a series of
photographs-it
is
striking
how
many photographs
are of
very
common situations.
Perhaps
the best
example
of this to American readers is
the
National
Geographic Magazine
(Which
is
mostly
about
people
and
only
occasionally
about
geography). European
readers
can find
a
similar
approach
in
German
and
French Geo.
Photojournalists
doing
editorial work seek to make
photographs
which
reveal essential elements
of
a
situation
or a
society;
fieldworkers
will
be
tempted
o
try
to
make "authentic" nes.
The second type of photograph s consciously historical.When anthropology
and
history
were
guided
by
static models of
'primitive'
societies,
photography
was
assumed
to
be
a look
into the
past
as well as the
present.
As scholars have
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PHOTOGRAPHS
AS HISTORICALEVIDENCE
251
developed
more
dynamic
models
of
African
societies,
the use of
photographs
has
became
less
comprehensively
explanatory.
Fieldworkers,
aware that most
elements
of African(and other)societies have both an ancientand a modem historywill be
sceptical
about
making
photographs
f "ancient"artifactsas
representing
historical
reality.9 Many
genuinely
ancient
political symbols,
for
example,
have been
recently
borrowed
by
one
society
from another.10Here and there
it is
perhaps
possible
to
photograph
"the
past,"
but
mostly
we are
photographing
he
present
for
ourselves
and futurescholars.
The third
type
of
photograph
is
"representative."
These
photographs
are
consciously
of the
present
and do not
purport
to
represent
the
past.
Often
these
photographsattempt
to
portraysociety "objectively"
at the time of their
making,
although
we
realize
that
they
are not
"objective" any
more than
a written
document
is
objective.
In
fact,
W.
Eugene
Smith
wrote
many years ago
that the
first word which needs to be struck from our discussion of
photography
is
"objectivity.""1
Bearing
in
mind
that
photographs,
and
especially
photographic
essays,
are
always
the
photographer'snterpretation
f
a
situation,
the
documentary
photograph
can
still
be an
important
ource of information.As
with
other
sources,
we
need
to establish
the
provenance
of
historical
photographs,
as well
as
knowing
something
about the motivations which
produced
them.
Obviously
we would
not
want to
accept any longer
the notion that
a
particularphotograph
of
a
person
is
"typical"
of one "tribe" or
another,
but we
certainly
can
glimpse
elements of
African societies
through
he same
photographs.
The fourth
type
of
photograph
is
consciously
interpretative.
These
often
evocative photographsare intendedto have an editorialmeaningandthey aremost
commonly
found
in
the
media,
though
fieldworkers
will
inevitably
also
make such
images.
In
April
1988
I
was
in
Tigre
covering
the
Tigre
People's
Liberation
Front's
(TPLF)
capture
of some
towns.
In
Axum
I
went to visit
the
shambles of a
hospital
overflowing
with sick and war
wounded
and,
perhaps
most
tragically,
children who
had lost
hands
and
arms
playing
with
undetonated hells.
One
boy
of
about
seven walked
up
to me
silently
and
held
up
the
stump
of
his
right
arm. This
confrontation
with his
mutilation
brought
the
tragic
side
of the
Tigrean
struggle
together
for me and
I
made a series of
photographs
of the
boy.
The first
showed
him
as
he had
presented
himself
to
me,
looking
directly
at the
camera
holding
up
his
bandaged
stump.
The next included
the front of a
hospital
wall full of
governmentslogans in Amharic.For the next I included more of the wall which
had
larger
than
life-size stencils of
Marx,
Lenin,
and
Engels.
Then
I
included
yet
more of the
wall to
include as well a
stencil
of
Mengistu
Haile
Mariam,
the
head
of
the
Ethiopian
government,
and
finally
a frame
which included
only
the
boy
and
the
Mengistu
stencil.
Through
the
juxtaposition
of
the
boy
with other
symbols
of
the
Ethiopian
central
government,
each of the
frames has a
somewhat
different
message.
Each is true
in
its own
way,
but each also
contains its
own
distortions.
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252
ROBERT
PAPSTEIN
V
The Choice
of
Equipment
and
Materials
Great
photographs
can be
made
with
very
simple
equipment.
Henri Cartier-
Bresson,
one
of
the
great
photojournalists
of this
century,
worked
almost
exclusively
with
one camera and
a
standard ens. EdwardWeston and Paul Strand
used
fifty-year-old
wooden cameras.
Equipment
is
secondary
to vision and
technique.
As
obvious as
it
seems,
it
is worth
emphasizing
that fieldworkers need
to
practice
with their cameras
prior
to
entering
the
field.
Every
serious
photographer
owes his
subject
a measure of
technical
competence
which
permits
efficient
work.12This means
being
able to
compose, adjust
the
camera,
and
focus
quickly.
The new
generation
of electronic autofocus camerasdo all of
these
things
automatically.
With a
minimum
of
practice
it is
possible
to master the
camera.
Putting
a
roll of
film in
the camera
quickly
and
taking
it
out
again
twenty-five
consecutive times
teaches a skill which serves for a
photographic
ifetime.
The choice
and use of
equipment
s
personal,
often
eclectic,
and
depends
on
the
project.
There
has never been
more
photographicequipment
on the market
than
now.
I
am interested
in
images:
my
knowledge
of
equipment
is restricted.What
I
have tried to do below is discuss some
categories
of
equipment
with
fieldwork
in
mind.
Photographic echnology
is
changing
so
rapidly
through
the
application
of
microprocessors,
onar, asers,
and
computer-designed
nd
manufactured
ptics,
that
it is not sensible to recommend he "best."13
Cameras
For
this
discussion
we
can
say
there
are two
types
of
35mm cameras. One is
the
rangefinder
"point
and
shoot"
camera
which is
usually inexpensive
and
fully
automatic.14
With this
type
of camera one looks
through
a viewer to
adjust
distance
(increasingly
done
by
autofocus)
and
frame the
picture;
a
separate
lens
takes the
picture.
These cameraswork
very
well
and
are
becoming
bettereach
year,
but
they
are limited
in
the kinds of
pictures
they
can
take.
They
are
designed
for
users who wish to make
prints
(rather
than
slides)
and
who want maximum
convenience.For casualphotography hey are excellent;many fieldworkerswould
need
nothing
more. On the other hand
they
tend to have "slow" lenses-that
is,
they
are
not usable
(without flash)
in low
light
conditions,
do not
have
interchangeable
enses,
are limited
in
the
types
of films
they
can
use,
and have
automatic features
that
cannot
be
overridden
by
the
user.
A
further
potential
disadvantage
s the
discrepancy
between what
you
see
through
the viewfinder and
what the
taking
lens
puts
on the
film,
especially
when
used
at
very
close
distances.15
Depending
on
the
design
of
the
camera
and
the
camera-subject
istance,
this
discrepancy
can
be considerable.
For
normal
photography
his
is
usually
not
noticed
and
manufacturers ssume
that
you
won't realize
the
edges
of the frame
(as
seen in the
viewfinder)
have been cut
off or
added to.
For
photographing
documents,whichevery fieldworker hould be equipped o do, a few simple tests in
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PHOTOGRAPHSAS HISTORICALEVIDENCE
253
advance
will establish
how much of the frame
(if
any)
is cut off and the user
can
frame
the
document
accordingly.
The second type of camera is the very popularsingle lens reflex (SLR). With
this
type
of
camera
one views the
subject
directly
through
he
lens and
what is
seen
in
the viewfinder
is what
appears
on the film.16
Many
SLRs
are automatic
and
many
automatic
SLRs also
permit
manual use
of
the camera-the
best
of
both
worlds.
They
also allow
interchangeable
enses
and
the use
of
very
fast
special-
purpose
films,
and
accept
a
wide
range
of
specialized
accessories. Most now
offer
Through
The Lens
(TTL)
flash
metering,
which makes
using
the flash
as
easy
as
the
"point
and
shoot"
cameras. SLR cameras
also offer "faster"
lenses-lenses
which transmitmore
light
and allow
photographs
n
situationswhere slower
lenses
require
artificial
ight. Although
there are measurabledifferences
between lenses
of
different
manufacturers,
o most
viewers there is no
noticeable difference to
the
naked
eye
between
the
quality
of
photographs
aken with the lenses of
the
major
manufacturers.
Measuring Light
Every light
meter-built
into
the cameraor hand
held-uses the same
standard
calibration or
measuring ight.17
All
have the same
"defect"
for
photographing
n
Africa-they
are
calibrated
n
a
way
which
correctly
exposes
caucasian skin
tones
but
often rendersblack
faces too darkand
sometimes as
unrecognizable
mudges.
It
is
essential to know how
your
camera
measures
light.
There are
essentially
four
types of metering systems for cameras: averaging, center-weighted, spot, and
integrated.
An
averaging system
(older
SLR
cameras;
some
"point
and
shoot"
cameras)
looks at the whole
viewfinder and
gives
an
average
light-reading
of
the
entire scene.
Obviously
a
black face
surrounded
y
a
lighter
area
will
be
drastically
underexposed.
A
center-weighted
exposure
system
(most
better-quality
SLR
cameras)
places
about 60% of
the
exposure
value
in
the
center of
the frame
(where
the
designers
assume
the faces
will
be)
and
thus
will
give
better
exposures
than an
averaging system.
A
spot-meteringsystem
will
put
80
to 90% of
the
value of
the
exposure
in
a
spot
perhaps
1
to
5%
of
the frame
and
thus offers a
great
deal of
control over
exposures
but it is slower
to use than a
center-weighted system
and
requires
more
judgment
on
the
part
of
the
photographer.
Quite sophisticated "integrated"exposure systems are now appearing on
middle-
to
upper-range
SLR
cameras,
which to some
degree
compensate
for
this
problem by
taking
a
variety
of
light
readings
at the
same time and
integrating
hem
into a
single
lens
setting.
Most
cameras
will
require adjustments
o
expose
black
faces
properly.
More
exposure
is
required-especially
when
the
surrounding
rea is
very
bright-than
the meter of
the camera
is calibrated
to
give.
A
simple
way
to
compensate
for
this is
to
increase
exposure
about
1/3
to
1/2
of
an
f
stop.18
Unfortunately, many
"point
and
shoot" cameras do
not allow
you
to
make
these
adjustments.
The
only way
to
know
how
your
camera
works and
which
adjustments
an
be made is to
read the
instructionsand
especially experiment.
Other
ways
to solve
the
problem
of
contrast
in
the
picture
is to
move
people
out of the direct sun and into the shade where the contrast is less or to use a
technique
called
fill-flash,
a
combination
of
natural
ight
and
electronic
flash. When
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254 ROBERT PAPSTEIN
this
is done
correctly,
it is
hardly
noticeable
and
allows
proper exposure
of
the
lightest
and darkest
parts
of
the
picture.
It is a standard
professional
technique
which can be learned by consultingan introductoryphotographicbook. Many of
the
new electronic cameras
include automatic fill-flash
in
their
options,
a
considerable
advantage
for
fieldworkers. To have the widest
range
of fill-flash
possibilities,
the
SLR
should have the
highest
flash
synchronization
speed
possible.19
With most
cameras,
eyeglass
wearers
cannot
see the entire frame
because the
eye
is
physically
too far
away
from
the
viewfinder.20
Eyeglass
wearerswho do not
want to wear
glasses
while
making pictures
can
purchase diopters (eyepiece
correctors)
which screw into the viewfinderof the
camera,
but this is a
compromise
solution
and its effectiveness
depends
on
individual
eye
problems.
A
more
elegant
solution
is to
have the
focusing eye prescription
made
up,
which then can be
screwed ntotheviewfinder.
Batteries
Electronic
cameras are
by
definition
battery-dependent
cameras:
when
the
battery
fails the camera
no
longer operates. Many photojournalists
who
regularly
work
in
remote areas
carry
at least one non-electroniccamera.
In
recent
years
there
has
been a
revolution
in
battery design
which has
resulted
in
longer
life,
less
leakage
and
better
storage
life. These
changes
are
continuing;
at
the moment
lithium camera batteries
are
widely
used
by professionals.
They
are
long
lasting
and have a
very long
shelf
life, allowing
them
to be
stored,
even at
relativelyhigh
temperatures,
or
up
to
five
years
before use. Some cameras use older
mercury-
silver
batteries.
While
effective
(and
expensive),
they
are
very dangerous
if
swallowed or
if
broken
open.
In
the
field,
where
every
discard is
someone else's
treasure,
all batteries hould be
disposed
of in a
way they
cannotbecome a
hazard.
Cameras:
Motor Drives
and Winders
More
and
more
cameras are
offering
built-in
automatic
film
advance and
rewind. Left
eyed
photographers,
who
have
to
contend with
moving
the camera
away
from
the
viewing
eye
for
each
exposure,
ind automatic
ilm
advancea decided
boon. The majordisadvantageof motor drives is the noise.
Cameras: data backs
In
recent
years
scientists have made extensive
use
of the "data
back,"
which
replaces
the normal back
of
the camera. This contains a
microprocessor-driven
liquid crystal display
which
imprints
he time and date
on
the corner of the
picture.
Nikon's
top-of-the-line
F4
cameraallows data
(including
sequential
rame
numbers)
to
be
printed
on
the
film
between
the
frames.
Camera:
cases
and
bags
Ironically,
one of the most difficult
things
to find is a
good
camera
bag.
Fieldworkers
need a
bag
for
tape
recorder,
cassettes,
camera,
perhaps
extra
lens,
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PHOTOGRAPHSAS
HISTORICALEVIDENCE
255
film, flash,
notebook, batteries,
and
sundrypersonal
items. A camera
bag
is
often
a
good
solution
for
all
this. Some of the
best,
no-nonsense
bags
are
made
by
Jim
Domke, a formerpress photographer.Domke bags are strong, durable,versatile,
protect
the
equipment,
come
in
various
sizes-and,
most
important,
can
be
"worked"
using
only
one hand
(they
don'thave
zippers).Carrying
a few
camera-size
zip-loc
plastic bags
and one
large
plastic garbage bag
to
protect everything
in
extreme dust or rain
makes them the most versatile
bags
available.
Electronic Flash
Electronic flash
units made
by
the camera manufacturer
usually
offer the
greatest compatibility
with the camera.
However,
a numberof other
manufacturers,
such as Vivitar and
Sunpak,
make flashes
offering compatibility,
versatility,
and
very
good
value. Most
important
s that the flash will work with the automatic
TTL
metering
in
the camera
(in
all its
modes)
and
that
its
angle of
coverage
matches the
angle of your
widest
angle
lens.
Most flashes
will
cover the
angle
of
view
of
a 35mm lens
and,
with an
accessory
diffuser
(usually
included),
a
24mm
lens.
Of
secondary
consideration,
but
nevertheless
very
important,
s
the
numberof
batteries
a flash
requires,
how
many
flashes
per
set of
batteries,
and the
time it
takes
to
recycle.
Almost all
flashes use
AA
type
batteries,
which
will
also fit
tape
recorders,
flashlights,
and
radios.
Only
fresh
alkaline
type
batteries
designed
for
heavy duty
use should be
considered. It is
increasingly
unlikely
that
such batteries
(especially fresh ones) will be available in the field or even in some countries.
Built
in
rechargeable
batteries
are,
generally speaking,
not a
good
idea
because
they
are
problematic,
but
rechargeable
nickel cadmium
batteries
can be an
excellent
investment;
he
newest
types
are
very
reliableand trouble
ree.21
Flash
pictures
are
often harsh and
unpleasant
and the use of
the flash
usually
destroys
the
atmosphere
of the
event.
Sometimes it is
unavoidable,
though,
and
there
are
a few
simple ways
to
improve
the
quality
of
pictures
taken
by
flash.
A
piece
of
white
shower
curtain
taped
over
the flash
head
(or
the
use of a 24mm
diffuser)
will
help
soften the
light.22
"Bouncing"
the
light
off a
ceiling
or wall is
also
especially
useful,
creating
a
softer,
more
natural,
ight.
Most
electronic flashes
swivel
to allow
this,
while the
TTL
system
of the
camera
will
automatically
adjust
the exposure.
Lenses
A
lens has
two
characteristics
important
for this
discussion;
its
angle
of
view-how
much it
sees,
and its
speed-the ability
to
transmit
light.
A
fast lens
will
be
able
to
take
pictures
when
a slow lens
cannot or
must
resort to
flash.
A
standard
lens with
a maximum
f
stop
of
3.5 or 2.8
(most
"point
and shoot"
cameras)
would
be
considered slow
while one
of 1.8 or 1.4
would be
considered
fast.
A
lens
able
to
take
in
more
than a
"normal"
view,
and
which also
allows
photographs
at low
light
levels,
is a
great
advantage.
Unfortunately,
many
fieldworkersbuy just the opposite-a telephoto zoom lens, often in the popular
70-210,
range
which
is
inherently
slow.
A
far
better choice for a zoom
lens is a
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256
ROBERT PAPSTEIN
wide-angle
to
moderate
telephoto
in
the
28-85mm
range.
The inherent
"slowness"
of
zoom lenses can
be
partially compensated
by using
faster
films
(see
below,)
with consequent oss of quality.
Single
lens reflex cameras
are
usually
sold with 50mm normal lenses.
Most
photojournalists
use a
35mm
or
28mm as
standard.
An
ultra violet filter
on
each
lens
protects
the front
glass
element
against
scratches.
A
lens
hood,
no
longer
necessary
against
reflections,
now
protects
against
rain,
bumping,
and other
physical
hazards.
Film
If
photographs
are
regarded
as
a
part
of the research
archive,
the choice
of
film
is critical. There are
three basic
types
of film:
slides,
color
prints,
and black and
white.
Virtually
all
magazine photography
is done on slide film. The standard
professional
slide
film
is Kodachrome
ISO
25,
ISO
64,
or the new ISO 200.
Most
photojournalists
use
ISO 64.
For
quality,
color
fidelity
and
stability
there is
nothing
better
than
Kodachrome;
everything
else is a
compromise.
Kodak
estimates
that,
given proper
storage,
Kodachrome
will not
begin
to fade
or
deteriorate,
or
at
least 100
years.23
All
other slide films
are
called
E6 films
(from
the
process
used to
develop
them).
This includes Kodak Ektachrome
ilms,
Fujichrome
an
excellent
E6
film),
Agfachrome,
Sakura,
3M,
and others.
E6 films
are the standardwhenever
speed
is
more
important
han
quality
and
permanence.
E6
films can
be
developed
at home
or
in
an hourby a laboratoryusingrelatively simple equipment.
A
second advantage
is their
speed.
Some
E6 films are available
in
ISO
400,
800,
1600
and can be
force-developed
(with
loss
of
quality)
to
ISO 3200.
Virtually
all
photojournalists
carry
one of the fast
E6 films for
very
low
light
conditions or when
the
situation
requiresvery
fast shutter
peeds.
E6 films
do
not
have
the
color saturation
of
Kodachromeand
they
have more
"grain"-when
enlarged
he structure f the
film is more
apparent.
The
dyes
used
in
E6
are
not as stable
as
in
Kodachrome.Kodak
estimates the
longevity
of their E6
films at
fifty
years
before deterioration
could
begin.
Other films
can
begin
to
deterioratewithina
few
years
after
development
see
Appendix
1).
Color
films
are
designed mostly
for
snapshots.
The
film,
and
especially
the prints, are considered to be non-permanent and subject to fairly rapid
deterioration
and
fading,
compared
to
Kodachrome
(see
Appendix
1).
A
further
problem
with
prints
is that
virtually
all
prints
are made on automatic
machines,
which
often
underexpose
black
faces even
when
the
negative
has been
correctly
exposed.24
An
exception
to the
impermanence
of color
prints
are
prints
made
using
the
comparatively expensive
Cibachrome
process.
Not
only
is
it
stable but it is
very
beautiful. The
prints
are made
directly
from
slides,
not
negatives.
Ilford,
the
manufacturer
of
Cibachrome,
estimates
that
prints
should
last
at
least
100
years
before
beginning
to fade. Other
companies, including
Kodak,
now offer similar
direct
printing
rom slides.
The only permanentimage is black and white, assuming that the film and
prints
have been
archivally processed.
The
photojournalist's
tandardblack and
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13/20
258
ROBERT
PAPSTEIN
around
the
cassette,
which is
then
placed
back in
the canister.
Once film rolls
are
exposed,
the leader
is wound back
into the
cassette
in
order to
prevent
running
a
roll through he camera wice.
Preparing
the Cameras
for Field Use:
Assuming
I
am
using
three
films,
each
camera
has three
pieces
of
different
colored
tape
stuck to the
left hand side
of
the
back,
as above. The
orange
tape
is
stuck to the
pentaprism
n
the
camera(s)
loaded with
Kodachrome
so
I
see
in
an
instant which
film is
loaded. Each
time a
new
role
of
film
is
put
in
the
camera
I
automatically
heck
that the
tape
is accurateand ISO dial is set
correctly.
On the
right
side back of each camera
is
a
piece
of duct
tape.
As each film is
removed from the canister
I
remove the label which
I
earlier
placed
on the
cassette
and stick it to the piece of tape. (The tape is there only to give the sticker a
bondable
surface)
On this sticker
I
write brief
captions.
If
necessary,
I
write more
detailed
captions
in
a
notebook carried
n
the
camera
bag.
When the
roll is
finished
the
sticker
is
removed
and
placed
around he
cassette
(if
there is
a
separatecaption
sheet that
is
also
wrapped
around
the
cassette when the
film
is
shipped).
As
the
cassette is
placed
in
one of
the
empty
canisters
in
the
stick,
I
cross the
top
of
the
cap
to
indicate
the roll has been used.
This
way
I
can see
immediately
how
many
rolls have been used.
When the
film is
sent
to the
laboratory
or
development,
I
remove the
sticker
with
the
captions
from
the
cassette and
put
each roll
in
a
developing envelope,
noting
the number
of the
developing envelope
on the
sticker.
When
the
film is
returned can
match
the roll with
the
captions
and
then
caption
each slide on the
mount.
Accessories
There are
literally
thousands of
photographic
accessories for
sale,
most of
them
unnecessary.
A
small set
of
jeweler's
screwdrivers
(one
handle,
different
blades)
will
take care
of
loose
screws.
A
small
"lipstick"
brush-the kind
that
retractsand
has a cover-is
necessary
to
keep
lenses clean.
This
type keeps
itself
clean
whereas others
do not.
A
plastic
bottle
of
lens
cleaning
fluid and
a
couple
of
packsof lens cleaningtissue is about all one needs.27
VII
Conclusion
While
we are
only
beginning
to
investigate
the use
of
visual materials
for
historical
research,
there
is no
doubt that
photographic
archives
will
offer future
historians
a
valuable
new source of data.
However,
making
fieldwork
photographs
is
also valuable
to researchers who
might
need to
interpret
old
pictures.
If
researchers
participate
n
the
process
of
visually interpreting
society
to
outsiders,
they will almost certainly be able to gain a greater understanding into the
intentions and limitations
of earlier
photographers.
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PHOTOGRAPHS
AS
HISTORICAL
EVIDENCE
259
The most
effective
way
to
understand
how
photographs
an be used is
to
study
existing
work.
I have
appended
a
bibliography
of
significant
photographic
studies.
Some of them are specific attempts to use photographyin fieldwork situations,
others are
outstanding examples
of
the
"photographicessay,"
and still others
are
specifically
concerned
with Africa. A last section includes
some
introductory
itles
for
those interested
n
technique.
Not
everyone doing
fieldwork
will
be
interested
n
making
photographs
a
part
of their
research. But those who have the interest
and
take the
trouble
to
integrate
photography
nto
the
archive
of their
fieldwork
data
will
leave a
legacy
of
yet
undetermined
ignificance
for
the
future.
Appendix
1
Stability of Photographic Materials
Relative dark
stability
of
35mm color films
(Class
1
is
best,
5
is
worst)
Class 1
Current
Kodachrome
all
speeds)
Class
2
CurrentEktachromeE-6
films28
Current
Fujichrome
E-6
films
Agfachrome
200
(E-6)
Class 3
Fujichrome
R100
(E-4)
Class
4
Agfachrome
64
and
10029
GAF color slide
films
Class 5
Old
Ektachromes
E-1, E-2,
E-3 sheet
film
and E-4
duplicating
ilm.
Relative
Fading
in Slide
Projection
(Class
1
is
best,
4
worst)
Class 1
Fujichrome
50
and 100 Professional
Class
2
Ektachrome
E-6
films,
including
E-6
duplicating
ilm
Fujichrome
100
and 400
Agfachrome
200
(E-6)
Class 3
Kodachrome
25,
64
and
40,
type
A. Kodachrome
200,
not available
during
the
testing,
can also be assumed to fall into this
category.
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260
ROBERT PAPSTEIN
Agfachrome
64
and
100
Class 4
All
GAF
color
slide films
To maintain
maximum
color
fidelity
for slides
which are to be
reproduced
a
total
projection
time of not more
than
twenty
minutes
for
Kodachromes and
one
hour for
Ektachromes
is recommended.
If
slides
are to be used
in
prolonged
projections
or
repeatedprojections,
duplicate
slides shouldbe
used.
Estimated
Time Before
Perceptible
Color
Change
n Dark
Storage
(in
Years)
Current
Kodachromes-100+
Earlier
Kodachromes-up
to 50
E-6
Ektachromes-up
to
50
High
Speed
Ektachrome
E-4-about
20
Ektachrome
E-3 sheet
film-about
6
Vericolor
II,
type
S
and
Kodacolor
VR-about
25
OtherVericolors-3 to 6
Color
Prints
Inexpensive
"Drugstore" rints:
1
to
5
Cibachrome,
polyester
base-100+
(expensive
but
affordable)
AgfachromeSpeed-100+
Dye
transfer
prints-100-300
(these
are
very expensive)
Black
and White Prints
Archivallyprocessed
black
and
white
prints
printed
on
a
paper
base
(rather
hana
plastic
"RC"
base)
will
last
indefinitely.
There is
no
way
to know how
long
normal,
commerciallyprocessed,
black and
white
prints
will
last
since
it
is
impossible
to know how
they
were
processed-
how well
the
image
was fixed
and,
especially,
how
thoroughly
the
prints
were
washed
clean of residual
chemicals.
Appendix
2
Sources of
Materials for
Storing
and
Preserving
Photographs
Light
Impressions
439 Monroe
Avenue
Rochester,
New York
14607-5717
U.S.A.
Producesa catalog
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PHOTOGRAPHS
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261
The
Maine
Photographic
esource
2
Central treet
Rockport,Maine04856
U.S.A.
Notes
1.
Organized by
Andrew Roberts and
David
Killingray,
12-13
May
1988.
See
also
Andrew
Roberts, ed.,
The
Use
of Photographs
as Sources
for
African History
(London,
1989).
2.
See for
example,
John Collier
Jr. and Malcolm
Collier,
Visual
Anthropology: Photography as Research Method, (Albuquerque, 1986); Bruce
Jackson,
Fieldwork
(Urbana, 1987);
the new
journal
Visual
Anthropology
(especially
vol.
1,
no.
1,
November
1987);
Gregory
Bateson,
Balinese Character: A
Photographic Analysis
(New
York,
1962).
Many anthropologists explored
film
making
with limited success in the
1950s and
1960s.
See,
for
example,
Claude
Meillassoux's
films
"Bamako,
I Ni
Tye"
(1965)
and
"Goumbou du Sahel"
(1965)
and
Luc
de
Heusch, "Ruanda,
tableaux d'une
feodalite
pastorale"
(1955).
A more
recent
statement of the
uses
of film
can be found in the new
series "Visual
Anthropology,"
Jack
R.
Rollwagen
ed.,
Anthropological Filmmaking: Anthropological
Perspectives
on
the Production
of
Film and
Video
for
General
Public Audiences
(New
York,
1988).
3.
I
am
sorry
to have
to
say
that
this is a case of do as I
say,
not do as I
did. During my fieldwork in the Upper Zambezi during the early 1970s I did not fully
integrate
visual
data
into
my
research-to
my present regret.
See
also Lonna
M.
Malmsheimer,
"Photograhpic
Analysis
as
Ethnohistory:
Interpretive
Strategies,"
Visual
Anthropology
1
(1987),
4.
Edmund
Carpenter
has
briefly
described the
problems
of
teaching image-
reading
(and
its
devastating
effects)
in
Papua
New
Guinea,
as the
newly-independent
government
prepared
to use
photographs
to
communicate with the
large
number of
linguistically
different,
non-literate
people
who had
never seen
a
photograph.
When
shown a
polaroid
photograph
taken
only
seconds
before,
people initially
failed to
recognize
themselves or the
everyday
things
which
appeared
with
them. See
Edmund
Carpenter,
Oh,
What a Blow
That Phantom
Gave
Me
(St.
Albans,
1976),
112-13,
118-21 ex
passim.
5. See
Robert
Papstein,
"From Ethnic
Identity
to
Tribalism:
The
Upper
Zambezi
of
Region
of
Zambia 1830-1981" in
Leroy
Vail, ed.,
The
Creation
of
Tribalism in
Southern
Africa
(Berkeley,
1989),
372-94.
6.
For
three
widely
different
examples
see Martinus
Daneel,
Southern Shona
Independent
Churches
(2
vols.: The
Hague,
1971-74);
Margaret
Courtney-Clarke,
Ndebele
(New
York,
1987);
Nadine Gordimer and David
Goldblatt,
Lifetimes
Under
Apartheid
(New
York,
1987).
7.
Archivists
at
the
SOAS
workshop vididly
described
how
underfunded and
under
equipped
they
are to
deal
with
photographs
which often take a
great
deal
of
time to identify and catalog.
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262
ROBERT PAPSTEIN
8. Paul
Strand and
Basil
Davidson,
Ghana: An
African
Portrait
(Millerton,
N.Y.,
1976);
Leni
Riefenstahl,
The Nuba
(New
York,
1974);
idem.,
The
People
of
Kau (New York, 1976).
9.
See,
for
example,
Eric
Hobsbawm
and Terence
Ranger,
eds.,
The Invention
of
Tradition
(London,
1981)
and
Vail,
The Creation
of
Tribalism.
10.
Papstein,
"Ethnicity."
11.
W.
Eugene
Smith,
Minamata: The
Story
of
the
Poisoning
of
a
Village
and
the
People
Who
Bore
the Burden
of Courage
(New
York,
1975),
7.
12.
Fieldworkers
should consult
African
Arts 18
(1985),
for an extensive
discussion
of
photographic
techniques
and
quality
standards
required
by
this
beautifully-produced
journal.
13.
Some 70%
of
professional photojournalists
use Nikon SLR
cameras,
mostly
because
Nikon makes
virtually
every
lens and
accessory imaginable
and
it
provides
very good
professional
support
services. The current
models of Nikon
used
extensively by
professional
photographers
are the
top
of the line
(new
and
very
expensive)
F4,
the
workhorse F3
and the "bottom
of
the
line" FM-2.
The F4 and
F3s
are
fully
electronic
cameras.
The FM-2
is a
rugged,
manual camera which
Nikon
makes
in
response
to
professional
demands for a camera which
can be used
in
extreme
conditions and
which
is not
battery-dependent.
14. An
exception
to this
is the
very expensive,
excellent
M-series
Leica
cameras.
Some
photojournalists
consider them the ultimate
camera;
others
feel
they
have been
superseded
by
the
Nikon
system. Setting
aside their
staggering
expense,
for
quiet operation
in
very
low
light
situations the
M Leicas with
the Summilux
and
Noctilux lenses are unsurpassed.
15.
Many
of these cameras
will not
focus
closer
than three
feet
(1 meter),
a
potentially
serious
disadvantage.
See the discussion
of
photographing
documents
below.
16.
Strictly
speaking,
this is
actually
not true.
Compared
to
the
rangefinder-
type
cameras,
the
discrepancy
is
very
small,
but
varies
by
camera manufacturer
and
even within models
of the same manufacturer.
The Nikon
F3 model-the standard
professional
camera-is,
I
believe,
the
only
camera
where 100% of what
is
seen
through
the viewfinder
appears
on
the film.
Other cameras
usually
cut off
a small
proportion
(2%
to
10%),
which means
that
the
photographer
must
leave
a
slight
border around
the frame if the
edges
are
crucial
to
the
picture.
17. Professional photographers tend to prefer an independent handheld
"incident"
light
meter,
which has what
appears
to
be a half
of
a
ping-pong
ball
over
the
light
receptor.
Camera
meters measure
the
light
reflected
by
the
subject;
incident
meters
measure
the
light
falling
on the
subject.
Pointed at
snow,
a
reflected
meter
reading
will render
the snow
grey;
an incident
reading
will render
snow
white.
Anyone
who is serious about
obtaining optimal
results
should
investigate
the
use of
incident
light
measurement.
All
light
meters
only
give
indications
of
the
proper
exposure-experience
determines the
correct
exposure
for
the situation.
When the
photograph
is
particularly
important
and
the
exposure
questionable,
bracketing
(making
exposures
over and under the
meter
reading)
is the
best answer.
18.
The
sensitivity
of film
used
to be rated
by
ASA
(American
Standards
As,ciation)
or DIN
(Deutsche
Industrie
Normen),
but
recently
has
changed
to a new
name ISO
(International
Standards
Organization). Only
the name is
new;
the numbers
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264
ROBERT PAPSTEIN
27. The
best lens
cleaning
fluid
is made
by
Kodak,
simply
a weak
detergent
in
distilled water. Solvent
type
cleaners can
damage
lens
coating(s)
and
seep
into
the
lens mount, dissolving lubricants. Lenses should be cleaned as seldom as possible.
To
clean a lens first brush
it
lightly,
put
a
drop
or
two
of
fluid
on
the
special
lens
cleaning
tissue
(not
eyeglasses
cloths which
contain
silicon),
not
on
the lens
itself,
and clean
away smudges, wiping
with
a
clean
dry
tissue.
Many
photojournalists
prefer
a chamois
for lens
cleaning.
28. E-6
refers to the
type
of
processing
necessary
to
develop
the
film.
Virtually
all
slide films
today
use
E-6
processing except
for
Kodachrome. E-4 is the
predecessor
to
E-6
and
is still
occasionally
used.
29.
Agfa
and Ansco films are
particularly
sensitive to
high
relative
humidity
and
their
lives can
be
greatly
extended
by storing
them
at
low
(30
to
45%)
relative
humidity.
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In the American West. New
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1986.
Carpenter,
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What
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Stange
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20/20
PHOTOGRAPHS
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HISTORICAL
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