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1
Course
Introduction to Research Methodology
Lecturer: Mr BARAKAT
Private International Institute of Management and Technology
American University of Leadership
Executive Education Center
Spring term
Academic year 2012-2013
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OUTLINE
I. Meaning of ResearchII. Objectives of ResearchIII. Motivation in ResearchIV. Significance of ResearchV. Research and the Scientific MethodVI. Types of ResearchVII. Research ApproachesVIII. Examples of Past Research ProjectsIX. Research Methods and MethodologyX. The Research ProcessXI. Criteria of Good ResearchXII. Ethical Considerations in Research
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I. WHAT IS RESEARCH?
A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic
Research is an academic activity, and as such the term should be used in a technical sense
It is “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.” (D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson. The Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. IX)
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II. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
Research objectives fall into four components:
o To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into ito To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a groupo To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something elseo To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
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III. MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
The motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
oA desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
oA desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems
oA desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
oA desire to be of service to societyoA desire to get respectability
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IV. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention” (Hudson Maxim)
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships, and in seeking answers to various social problems
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V. RESEARCH AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method is the same in all branches of science, and that method is the method of all logically trained minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material (Karl Pearson)
The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. The scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates, and a combination of these three in varying proportions
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates
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VI. TYPES OF RESEARCHThe basic types of research are as follows:
o Descriptive vs. Analyticalo Applied vs. Fundamentalo Quantitative vs. Qualitativeo Conceptual vs. Empiricalo Deductive vs. Inductiveo Some Other Types of Research
One-time or longitudinal Field-setting, laboratory or simulation Clinical or diagnostic Exploratory or formalized Historical Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented
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VII. RESEARCH APPROACHES
In light of the above description, there are two basic approaches to research:
o Quantitative (Positivistic Perspective)
Inferential (Survey research) Experimental (greater control over the environment) Simulation (artificial environment)
o Qualitative (Phenomenological Perspective)
Focus group and in-depth interviews Projective Techniques
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Surveys
Experimental Studies
Longitudinal Studies
Cross-sectional Studies
Case Studies
Action Research
Ethnography (Participant Observation)
Participative Inquiry
Feminist Perspectives
Grounded Theory
POSITIVIST PHENOMENOLOGICAL
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VIII. EXAMPLES OF PAST RESEARCH PROJECTS
Title Approach Methodology
How do financial adviceservices market to the‘youth market’?
Positivistic Cross-sectional study
Impact of IT developments on financial services
Positivistic Cross-sectional study and in-depth survey of one company
Disability awarenesstraining within leisureorganisations
Phenomenological Participant observation
Age discrimination in the workplace
Positivistic and phenomenological/Feminist perspective
Survey and case study
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VIII. EXAMPLES OF PAST RESEARCH PROJECTS
Title Approach Methodology
Personality Testing: isthis a valid tool in therecruitment and selection process?
Positivistic and phenomenological
Survey and participant observation
Impact of in-storemarketing campaign
Positivistic and phenomenological
Participant observation and survey
Competitor strategiesin the mortgage market
Positivistic approachmainly, but somephenomenologicalelements included
Cross-sectional study and focus groupSurvey/discussion among consumers
The use and applicationof purchasing within an organization
Phenomenological Participative Enquiry
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IX. RESEARCH METHODS VS. METHODOLOGY
Methods are techniques used for the conduct of research. They break down into three groups:
Data collection Statistical techniques determining relationships Tools used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained
Methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem and of studying how research is done scientifically (the steps and logic behind them)
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Type Methods Techniques
Library Research
o Analysis of historical records
o Analysis of documents
o Recording of noteso Content analysiso Tape and film listening
and analysis
o Statistical compilationso Reference and
abstract guides
Field Research o Participant/Non-participant observation
o Mail questionnaire
o Personal Interview
o Focused interview
o Observational behavioral scales, use of score cards, interactional recording, photographic techniqueso Identification of background of respondentso Use of a detailed schedule with closed and open questionso Focus on a given experience and its effects
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Type Methods Techniques
Field research
o Group interview
oTelephone survey
o Case study and life history
o Small groups interviewed simultaneously
o Used for information, and for discerning opinion
o Cross-sectional collection of data for intensive analysis
o Longitudinal collection of data of intensive character
Laboratory research
Small group study of random behavior, play and role analysis
Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of observers, etc.
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X. THE RESEARCH PROCESSIt consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research. (Actions overlap continuously, and steps are neither mutually exclusive nor distinct)
(1) Formulating the research problem(2) Extensive literature survey(3) Developing the hypothesis(4) Preparing the research design(5) Determining sample design(6) Collecting the data(7) Analysis of data(8) Hypothesis testing(9) Generalizations and interpretation(10) Preparation of the report or presentation of the
results
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FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
There are two types of research problems:
Related to states of nature Related to relationships between variables
A potential solution must be considered before a research problem is formulated. Two steps are involved:
oUnderstanding the problem thoroughly (a realistic preview)
oRephrasing the problem into meaningful analytical and operational terms
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EXTENSIVE LITERATURE SURVEY
To get himself acquainted with the selected problem, a researcher may review two types of literature:
A conceptual literature: The concepts and theories
An empirical literature: Studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed
The outcome: The knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposesA good library will be a great help at this stage:
1. Published or unpublished bibliographies2. Academic journals, Conference proceedings, and
Government reports3. Scholarly books
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DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis
o Is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences
o Provides the focal point for researcho Affects the manner in which tests must be conducted in the
analysis of datao Should be very specific, and limited to the piece of current
research because it has to be tested.o Affects the quality of data which is required for the analysis,
and indicates the type of methods of data analysis to be used
A hypothesis arises as a result of:
o A-priori thinking about the subjecto An examination of the available data and material including
related studies o An advice from experts and interested parties
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PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design: Facilitates research to be as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information Provides for the collection of relevant evidence
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money
But this depends on the research purpose
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories:
Exploration: Provides the opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem
Description, Diagnosis and Experimentation: Provide an accurate description of a situation, or of an association between variables
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DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’
Quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute a sample
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population
Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples
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DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN
With probability samples, each element has a known probability of being included in the sample
o Simple random samplingo Systematic samplingo Stratified samplingo Cluster/area sampling
The non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability
o Convenience samplingo Judgment samplingo Quota sampling
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COLLECTING THE DATA
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. In the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
o By observationo Through personal or telephone interviewo By mailing of questionnaireso Through schedules
The choice of these methods largely depends on the nature of the investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.
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ANALYSIS OF DATA
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations:
o Editing: The procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding which transforms data into symbols that may be tabulated and counted
o Establishment of categories and their application to raw data
o Tabulation: The classified data are put in the form of tables
o Computation of various percentages and coefficients, and drawing of statistical inferences
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HYPOTHESIS TESTINGDo the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary?
Various statistical tests have been developed for the purpose:
o Chi square testo F-testo T-test o Z-test
Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it (Alternative vs. Null hypothesis)If there are no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches
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GENERALIZATIONS AND INTERPRETATION
o The real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations
o If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at a generalization, i.e., to build a theory
o If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation
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The layout of the report should be as follows:
o The preliminary pageso The main texto The end matter
o The preliminary pages: The title, the date, acknowledgements, a table of contents, a list of tables, and a list of graphs and charts
o The main text: Introduction, summary of findings, the main report and a conclusion
o The end matter: Appendices in respect of all technical data, bibliography, a list of books, journals and reports consulted, and index
Preparation of the report or presentation of the results
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XI. CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
Scientific research must satisfy the following criteria:
The goal should be clearly defined (systematic) The research should be repeatable (replicable) The procedural design should be carefully planned The researcher should report any flaws in design
and estimate their effects upon the findings (empirical)
Data analysis should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance
Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the research data
Greater confidence is warranted if the researcher is experienced and righteous
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XII. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
Ethical concerns may emerge at all stages of research. In this respect, the main issues for a researcher to consider are:
The rights of privacy of individuals (no intrusion) The voluntary nature of participation (no coercion) Maintenance of the confidentiality of data provided by
individuals, or identifiable participants and their anonymity
Reactions of participants to the ways in which researchers seek to collect data
Effects on participants of the way in which data is analyzed and reported
Copyright protection Behavior and objectivity of the researcher