Cossacks

Not to be confused with Kazakhs. For other uses, seeCossack (disambiguation)Cossacks (Ukrainian: козаки́, koza'ky; Russian: ка-

Italian map of «European Tartaria» (1684). Dnieper Ukraineis marked as «Ukraine or the land of Zaporozhian Cossacks(Vkraina o Paese de Cossachi di Zaporowa)». On the east thereis «Ukraine or the land of Don Cossacks, who are subjects ofMuscovy (Vkraina ouero Paese de Cossachi Tanaiti Soggetti alMoscouita)» .

заки́ pronounced [kəzɐˈkʲi] or каза́ки [kɐˈzakʲɪ]), kazakiare a group of predominantly East Slavic people who be-came known as members of democratic, semi-militarycommunities,[1] predominantly located in Ukraine and inRussia.[2][3] They inhabited sparsely populated areas andislands in the lower Dnieper,[4] Don, Terek, and Ural riverbasins and played an important role in the historical andcultural development of both Russia and Ukraine.[5]

The origins of the first Cossacks are disputed, thoughthe 1710 Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk claimed Khazarorigin.[6][7] The traditional post-imperial historiographydates the emergence of Cossacks to the 14th or 15thcenturies, when two connected groups emerged, theZaporozhian Sich of the Dnieper and the Don CossackHost.[8]

The Zaporizhian Sich were a vassal people of Poland–Lithuania during feudal times. Under increasing socialand religious pressure from the Polish–Lithuanian Com-monwealth, in the mid-17th century the Sich declared anindependent Cossack Hetmanate, initiated by a rebellionunder Bohdan Khmelnytsky. This uprising, that had beenpreceded by genocide, enslavement, and major depreda-tion of the Ukrainian population, culminated in purgingand pogroms against Polish and Jewish communities.[9]

Afterwards, the Treaty of Pereyaslav (1659) broughtmost of the Ukrainian Cossack state under Russianrule.[10] The Sich with its lands became an autonomousregion under the Russian-Polish protectorate.[11]

The Don Cossack Host, which had been established bythe 16th century,[12] allied with the Tsardom of Russia.Together they began a systematic conquest and colonisa-tion of lands in order to secure the borders on the Volga,the whole of Siberia (see Yermak Timofeyevich), and theYaik and the Terek Rivers. Cossack communities had de-veloped along the latter two rivers well before the arrivalof the Don Cossacks.[13]

By the 18th century, Cossack hosts in the Russian Em-pire occupied effective buffer zones on its borders. Theexpansionist ambitions of the Empire relied on ensuringthe loyalty of Cossacks, which caused tension given theirtraditional exercise of freedom, democratic self-rule, andindependence. Cossacks such as Stenka Razin, KondratyBulavin, Ivan Mazepa, and Yemelyan Pugachev, led ma-jor anti-imperial wars and revolutions in the Empire inorder to abolish slavery and odious bureaucracy and tomaintain independence. The Empire responded by ruth-less executions and tortures, the destruction of the west-ern part of the Don Cossack Host during the Bulavin Re-bellion in 1707–1708, the destruction of Baturyn afterMazepa’s rebellion in 1708,[14] and the formal dissolutionof the Lower Dnieper Zaporozhian Host in 1775, afterPugachev’s Rebellion.[15]

By the end of the 18th century, Cossack nations had beentransformed into a special military estate (Sosloviye), “amilitary class”.[16] Similar to the knights of medieval Eu-rope in feudal times or the tribal Roman Auxiliaries,the Cossacks came to military service having to obtaincharger horses, arms, and supplies at their own expense.The government provided only firearms and supplies forthem.[17] Cossack service was considered the most rigor-ous one.Because of their military tradition, Cossack forces playedan important role in Russia’s wars of the 18th–20th cen-turies such as the Great Northern War, the Seven Years’War, the Crimean War, Napoleonic Wars, Caucasus War,numerous Russo-Persian Wars, numerous Russo-TurkishWars, and the First World War. In the late 19th andearly 20th centuries, the Tsarist regime used Cossacks ex-tensively to perform police service (for example, both toprevent pogroms and to suppress the revolutionary move-ment, especially in 1905–7).[18] They also served as bor-der guards on national and internal ethnic borders (as was

1

2 2 EARLY HISTORY

the case in the Caucasus War).During the Russian Civil War, Don and Kuban Cossackswere the first nations to declare open war against the Bol-sheviks. By 1918, Cossacks declared the complete in-dependence of their nations and formed the independentstates, the Ukrainian State, the Don Republic, and theKuban People’s Republic. The Cossack troops formedthe effective core of the anti-Bolshevik White Army, andCossack republics became centers for the Anti-BolshevikWhite movement. With the victory of the Red Army, theCossack lands were subjected to Decossackization andthe man-made famine of 1932–33 (Holodomor). Afterthe dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Cossacks madea systematic return to Russia. Many took an active partin Post-Soviet conflicts and Yugoslav Wars. In Russia’s2010 Population Census, Cossacks have been recognizedas an ethnicity.[19] There are Cossack organizations inRussia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Poland, and the UnitedStates.[20][21][22]

1 Etymology

Max Vasmer's etymological dictionary traces the nameto the Old East Slavic word козакъ, kozak, a loanwordfrom Cuman, in which cosac meant “free man”.[23] Theethnonym Kazakh is from the same Turkic root.[24][25][26]

In written sources the name first attested in CodexCumanicus from the 13th century.[27] [28]

In English, “Cossack” is first attested in 1590. (False eyt-mologies have sometimes linked it to the Irish surnameCossack, which is an unrelated homonym: a variant ofthe Norman Irish surname Cusack.)

2 Early history

Main article: History of the CossacksIt is not clear when new Slavic people apart from

Brodnici and Berladniki started settling in the lowerreaches of major rivers such as the Don and the Dnieperafter the demise of the Khazar state. It is unlikely itcould have happened before the 13th century, when theMongols broke the power of the Cumans, which had as-similated the previous population on that territory. It isknown that new settlers inherited a lifestyle that persistedthere long before, such as those of the Turkic Cumansand the Circassian Kassaks.[29] However, Slavic settle-ments in Southern Ukraine started to appear relativelyearly during the Cuman rule, with the earliest ones, likeTsiurupynsk, dating back to 11th century.Early “Proto-Cossack” groups are generally reported tohave come into existence within the present-day Ukrainein the mid-13th century as the influence of Cumans grewweak, though some have ascribed their origins to as earlyas the tenth century.[30] Some historians suggest that the

Cossack Mamay – the ideal image of Cossack in Ukrainian folk-lore.

Cossack people were of mixed ethnic origins, descend-ing from Russians, Ukrainians, Moldavians, Poles, Turks,Tatars, and others who settled or passed through the vastSteppe.[31] However some Turkologists argue that Cos-sacks are descendants of native Cumans of Ukraine, wholived there long ago before the Mongol invasion.[32]

In the midst of the growing Moscow and Lithuanian pow-ers, new political entities had appeared in the region suchas Moldavia and the Crimean Khanate. In 1261 someSlavic people living in the area between the Dniester andthe Volga were mentioned in Ruthenian chronicles. His-torical records of the Cossacks before the 16th centuryare scant as the history of the Ukrainian lands in that pe-riod for various reasons.In the 15th century, the Cossack society was describedas a loose federation of independent communities, of-ten forming local armies, entirely independent from theneighbouring states (of, e.g., Poland, the Grand Duchyof Moscow or the Khanate of Crimea).[33] Accordingto Hrushevsky the first mention of Cossacks could befound already in the 14th century; however, they wereeither of Turkic or of undefined origin.[34] Hrushevskystates that Cossacks could have descended from the longforgotten Antes, or groups from the Berlad territory inpresent-day Romania, then a part of the Grand Duchy ofHalych, Brodniki. There, Cossacks may have served asself-defense formations, organized to defend against raidsconducted by neighbors. By 1492, the Crimean Khancomplained that Kanev and Cherkasy Cossacks attackedhis ship near Tighina (Bender), and the Grand Duke ofLithuania Alexander I promised to find the guilty amongthe Cossacks. Sometime in the 16th century there ap-peared the old Ukrainian Ballad of Cossack Holota abouta Cossack near Kiliya.[35][36]

2.1 Zaporozhian Cossacks 3

By the 16th century these Cossack societies merged intotwo independent territorial organisations as well as othersmaller, still detached groups:

• The Cossacks of Zaporizhia, centered on the lowerbends of Dnieper, inside the territory of modernUkraine, with the fortified capital of ZaporozhianSich. They were formally recognised as an indepen-dent state, the Zaporozhian Host, by a treaty withPoland in 1649.

• The Don Cossack State, on the river Don. Thecapital of the Don Cossack State was initially Raz-dory, then moved to Cherkassk, later moved toNovocherkassk.

In addition to these two, one finds mention of the lesswell-known Tatar Cossacks such as Nağaybäklär andMeschera (mishari) Cossacks, of whom Sary Azman wasthe first Don ataman and which not only were assimilatedby Don Cossacks, but had their own irregular Bashkirand Meschera Host up to the end of the 19th century.[37]

Kalmyk and Buryat Cossacks should be mentioned aswell.[38] The Gypsy Cossacks are the least known onesnow.

2.1 Zaporozhian Cossacks

Main article: Zaporozhian CossacksThe Zaporozhian Cossacks, who lived on the Pontic-

Caspian steppe below the Dnieper Rapids (Russian: zaporohamy;), became a well-known group. Cossack num-bers increased greatly between the 15th and 17th cen-turies. Cossacks were usually organized by Russian(Ruthenian) boyar or princes of the nobility, especiallyvarious Lithuanian starostas. Merchants, peasants andrunaways from the Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth,Moscow state, and modern Moldova and Romania alsojoined the Cossacks. The first recorded Zaporizhian Hostprototype was formed when the cousin of Ivan the Ter-rible, Dmytro Vyshnevetsky built a fortress on the islandof Little Khortytsia on the banks of the Lower Dnieperin 1552. The Zaporozhian Host adopted a lifestyle thatcombined the ancient Cossack order and habits with thatof the Knights Hospitaller.The Zaporozhian Cossacks played an important role inEuropean geopolitics, participating in a series of conflictsand alliances with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,Russia, and the Ottoman Empire. As a result of theKhmelnytsky Uprising in the middle of the 17th century,the Zaporozhian Cossacks briefly established an indepen-dent state, which later became the autonomous CossackHetmanate (1649–1764). It was a suzerainty under pro-tection of the Russian Tsar from 1667 but ruled by thelocal Hetmans for a century.The Zaporozhian Sich had its own authorities, its own“Nizovy” Zaporozhsky Host, and its own land. In the later

A Zaporozhian Cossack, 17th-18th century traditional clothing.

half of the 18th century, Russian authorities destroyedthis Zaporozhian Host and gave its lands to landlords.Some Cossacks moved to the Danube delta region, wherethey formed the Danubian Sich under Ottoman rule. Toprevent further defection of Cossacks, the Russian gov-ernment restored the special Cossack status of the major-ity of Zaporozhian Cossacks. This allowed them to unitein the Host of Loyal Zaporozhians, and later reorganizeinto other hosts, of which the Black Sea host was mostimportant. They eventually moved to the Kuban region,due to the distribution of Zaporozhian Sich lands amonglandlords, and the resulting scarcity of land.The majority of Danubian Sich Cossacks had moved firstto the Azov region in 1828, and later joined other for-mer Zaporozhian Cossacks in the Kuban region. KubanCossacks of Zaporozhian origin and their descendantsdid not identify as Ukrainians; they called themselvesRuskie (which is translated as "Руские" in Russian andwas translated as Ruthenians in German in the 19th cen-tury only).[39] Groups were generally identified by faithrather than language in that period, and most descen-dants of Zaporozhian Cossacks in the Kuban region arebilingual, speaking both Russian and the local Kubandialect of central Ukrainian. Their folklore is largely

4 2 EARLY HISTORY

Ukrainian.[40] A lot of Ukrainians moved to the Kubanregion as well.[41][42][43]

The Zaporozhians gained a reputation for their raidsagainst the Ottoman Empire and its vassals, although theysometimes plundered other neighbors as well. Their ac-tions increased tension along the southern border of thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Low-level warfaretook place in those territories for most of the period ofthe Commonwealth (1569–1795).

Bohdan Khmelnytsky's entry to Kiev. Painted by MykolaIvasiuk,[44][45] end of the 19th century

In 1539, the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificentasked Grand Duke Vasili III of Russia to restrain the Cos-sacks; the Duke replied: “The Cossacks do not swear al-legiance to me, and they live as they themselves please.”In 1549 Tsar Ivan the Terrible replied to the Suleiman’srequest that he stop the attacks by the Don Cossacks, say-ing, “The Cossacks of the Don are not my subjects, andthey go to war or live in peace without my knowledge.”The major powers tried to exploit Cossack warmonger-ing for their own purposes. In the 16th century, withthe power of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ex-tending south, the Zaporozhian Cossacks were mostly,if tentatively, regarded by the Commonwealth as theirsubjects.[46] Registered Cossacks formed a part of theCommonwealth army until 1699.

Victorious Zaporozhian Cossack with the head of a Tatar, 1786print

Around the end of the 16th century, relations between the

Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire were strainedby increasing Cossack aggression. From the second partof the 16th century, Cossacks started raiding Ottomanterritories. The Polish government could not control theCossacks, but was held responsible as the men were nom-inally their subjects. In retaliation, Tatars living underOttoman rule launched raids into the Commonwealth,mostly in the southeast territories. In retaliation, Cos-sack pirates started raiding wealthy trading port-citiesin the heart of the Ottoman Empire, as these were justtwo days away by boat from the mouth of the DnieperRiver. By 1615 and 1625, Cossacks had razed suburbsof Constantinople, forcing the Ottoman Sultan to flee hispalace.[47]

Consecutive treaties between the Ottoman Empire andthe Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth called for the gov-ernments to keep the Cossacks and Tatars in check,but neither enforced the treaties strongly. The Polishforced the Cossacks to burn their boats and stop raid-ing by sea, but they did not give it up entirely. Duringthis time, the Habsburg Empire sometimes covertly hiredCossack raiders to go against the Ottomans to ease pres-sure on their own borders. Many Cossacks and Tatarsdeveloped longstanding enmity due to the losses of theirraids. The ensuing chaos and cycles of retaliation oftenturned the entire southeastern Polish-Lithuanian Com-monwealth border into a low-intensity war zone. It cat-alyzed escalation of Commonwealth-Ottoman warfare,from the Moldavian Magnate Wars (1593–1617) to theBattle of Cecora (1620) and campaigns in the Polish-Ottoman War of 1633–1634.

An officer of the Zaporozhian Cossacks in 1720

Cossack numbers expanded when the warriors were

2.3 Black Sea, Azov and Danubian Sich Cossacks 5

joined by peasants escaping serfdom in Russia and depen-dence in the Commonwealth. Attempts by the szlachta toturn the Zaporozhian Cossacks into peasants eroded theCossacks’ formerly strong loyalty towards the Common-wealth. The government constantly rebuffed Cossackambitions for recognition as equal to the szlachta, andplans for transforming the Polish-Lithuanian two-nationCommonwealth into a Polish-Lithuanian-Rus’ Common-wealth made little progress due to the idea’s unpopularityamong the Rus’ szlahta of the Rus’ Cossacks being equalto Rus’szlahta. The Cossacks’ strong historic allegianceto the Eastern Orthodox Church also put them at oddswith officials of the Roman Catholic-dominated Com-monwealth. Tensions increased when Commonwealthpolicies turned from relative tolerance to suppression ofthe Eastern Orthodox church after the Union of Brest.The Cossacks became strongly anti-Roman Catholic, inthis case an attitude that became synonymous with anti-Polish.

2.2 Registered Cossacks

Main article: Registered Cossacks

The waning loyalty of the Cossacks and the szlachta'sarrogance towards them resulted in several Cossack up-risings against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth inthe early 17th century. Finally, the King’s adamant re-fusal to cede to the Cossacks’ demand to expand theCossack Registry was the last straw that prompted thelargest and most successful of these: the Khmelnytskyuprising that started in 1648. Some Cossacks, includingPolish schlahta, converted to Eastern Orthodox, dividedthe lands of Russian szlahta in Ukraine, and became theCossack szlahta. The uprising became one of a series ofcatastrophic events for the Commonwealth known as TheDeluge, which greatly weakened the Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth and set the stage for its disintegration100 years later.The influential relatives of Russian and Lithuanianschlahta in Moscow helped to create the Russian-Polishalliance against Khmelnitsky’s Cossacks as rebels againstany order and the private property of Russian Orthodoxschlahta, Don Cossack raids on Crimea leaving Khmel-nitsky without the aid of his usual Tatar allies. But inRussian opinion, the rebellion ended with the 1654 Treatyof Pereyaslav in which Khmelnitsky’s Cossacks so that todestroy the Russian-Polish alliance against them pledgedtheir loyalty to the Russian Tsar with the latter guaran-teeing Cossacks his protection, recognition of Cossackstarshyna (nobility) and their property and autonomy un-der his rule, freeing the Cossacks from the Polish sphereof influence and land claims of Russian schlahta.[48] Onlysome part of the Russian schlahta of the Chernigov re-gion, being of the Moscow state origin, saved their landsfrom division among Cossacks and became the part of theCossack schlahta. After this, Russian schlahta refrained

from its plans to have a Moscow tsar the king of the Com-monwealth, its own Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki be-came the king later. The last, ultimately unsuccessful,attempt to rebuild the Polish-Cossack alliance and cre-ate a Polish-Lithuanian-Ruthenian Commonwealth wasthe 1658 Treaty of Hadiach, which was approved by thePolish King and Sejm as well as by some of the Cos-sack starshyna, including Hetman Ivan Vyhovsky.[49] Thestarshyna were, however, divided on the issue and thetreaty had even less support among rank-and-file Cos-sacks; thus it failed.Under Russian rule, the Cossack nation of the Za-porozhian Host was divided into two autonomous re-publics of the Moscow Tsardom: the Cossack Het-manate, and the more independent Zaporizhia. These or-ganisations gradually lost their autonomy, and were abol-ished by Catherine II by the late 18th century. The Het-manate became the governorship of Little Russia, and Za-porizhia was absorbed into New Russia.In 1775 the Lower Dnieper Zaporozhian Host was de-stroyed. Later, its high-ranking Cossack leaders were ex-iled to Siberia, the last chief becoming the prisoner of theSolovetsky Islands, for the establishment of a new Sich inthe Ottoman Empire by the part of Cossacks without anyinvolvement of the punished Cossack leaders.[50]

2.3 Black Sea, Azov and Danubian SichCossacks

See also: Black Sea Cossack Host, Azov Cossack Hostand Danube Cossack HostWith the destruction of the Zaporozhian Sich, many Za-porozhian Cossacks, especially the vast majority of OldBelievers and other people from the Greater Russia, de-fected to Turkey and settled in the area of the Danuberiver, founding a new Sich there. Part of these Cossackssettled on Tisa river in Austrian empire to have a new Sichthere as well. Some Ukrainian-speaking Eastern Ortho-dox Cossacks however ran away across the Danube (ter-ritory under the control of the Ottoman Empire) togetherwith Cossacks of the Greater Russia origin to form a newhost before rejoining the others in the Kuban. And a lotof Ukrainian peasants and adventurers joined the Danu-bian Sich afterwards. Ukrainian folklore remembers theDanubian Sich, while new siches of Loyal Zaporozhianson Bug and Dniester are not famous ones. The major-ity of Tisa Sich and Danubian Sich Cossacks returned toRussia in 1828 and settled in the area north of the AzovSea and became known as the Azov Cossacks. But themajority of Zaporozhian Cossacks, especially Ukrainian-speaking Eastern Orthodox, remained loyal to Russia inspite of the Sich destruction and became known as theBlack Sea Cossacks. Both Azov and Black Sea Cossackswere resettled to colonise the Kuban steppe which was acrucial foothold for Russian expansion in the Caucasus.During Cossack stay in Turkey, a new host was founded

6 3 RUSSIAN COSSACKS

Cossack wedding. Painting by Józef Brandt.

Kozacy (Cossacks), drawing by Stanisław Masłowski, ca 1900(National Museum in Warsaw)

which by the end of 1778 numbered around 12,000 Cos-sacks. Their settlement at the border with Russia was ap-proved by the Ottoman Empire after the Cossacks offi-cially vowed to serve the Sultan. Yet the conflict insidethe new host of the new loyalty, and the political ma-noeuvres used by the Russian Empire, led to splits in theCossacks. After a portion of the runaway Cossacks re-turned to Russia they were used by the Russian army toform new military bodies that also incorporated Greek

Albanians, Crimean Tatars and Gypsies. However, afterthe Russo-Turkish war of 1787–1792, most of them wereincorporated into the Black Sea Cossack Host togetherwith Loyal Zaporozhians. The Black Sea Host moved tothe Kuban steppes. Most of the remaining Cossacks thatstayed in the Danube delta returned to Russia in 1828 andcreated the Azov Cossack Host between Berdyansk andMariupol. In 1860 all of them were resettled to the NorthCaucasus and merged into the Kuban Cossack Host.

3 Russian Cossacks

Imperial Russian Cossacks (left) in Paris in 1814

The native land of the Cossacks is defined by a line ofRussian/Ruthenian town-fortresses located on the borderwith the steppe and stretching from the middle Volga toRyazan and Tula, then breaking abruptly to the south andextending to the Dnieper via Pereyaslavl. This area wassettled by a population of free people practicing varioustrades and crafts.These people, constantly facing the Tatar warriors onthe steppe frontier, received the Turkic name Cossacks(Kazaks), which was then extended to other free people inRussia. Many Cumans, who had assimilated Khazars, re-treated to the Ryazan Grand principality (Grand Duchy)after the Mongol invasion. The oldest reference in theannals mentions Cossacks of the Russian principality ofRyazan serving the principality in the battle against theTatars in 1444. In the 16th century, the Cossacks (pri-marily those of Ryazan) were grouped in military andtrading communities on the open steppe and started tomigrate into the area of the Don.[51]

Cossacks served as border guards and protectors oftowns, forts, settlements and trading posts, performedpolicing functions on the frontiers and also came to repre-sent an integral part of the Russian army. In the 16th cen-tury, to protect the borderland area from Tatar invasions,Cossacks carried out sentry and patrol duties, guardingfrom Crimean Tatars and nomads of the Nogai Horde inthe steppe region.The most popular weapons used by Cossack cavalrymenwere usually sabres, or shashka, and long spears.

3.1 Don Cossacks 7

Ural Cossacks, 1799

Russian Cossacks played a key role in the expansion ofthe Russian Empire into Siberia (particularly by YermakTimofeyevich), the Caucasus and Central Asia in theperiod from the 16th to 19th centuries. Cossacks alsoserved as guides to most Russian expeditions formed bycivil and military geographers and surveyors, traders andexplorers. In 1648 the Russian Cossack Semyon Dezh-nyov discovered a passage between North America andAsia. Cossack units played a role in many wars in the17th, 18th, and 19th centuries (such as the Russo-TurkishWars, the Russo-Persian Wars, and the annexation ofCentral Asia).

Semirechye Cossack, Semirechye (present-day Kyrgyzstan andKazakhstan), 1911

Western Europeans had a lot of contacts with Cossacksduring the Seven Years’ War and had seen Cossack pa-trols in Berlin.[52] During Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia,Cossacks were the Russian soldiers most feared by theFrench troops. Napoleon himself stated “Cossacks arethe best light troops among all that exist. If I had them inmy army, I would go through all the world with them.”[53]

Cossacks also took part in the partisan war deep insideFrench-occupied Russian territory, attacking communi-cations and supply lines. These attacks, carried out byCossacks along with Russian light cavalry and other units,were one of the first developments of guerrilla warfare

tactics and, to some extent, special operations as we knowthem today.Frenchmen had had few contacts with Cossacks beforethe Allies occupied Paris in 1814. As the most exotic ofthe Russian troops seen in France, Cossacks drew a greatdeal of attention and notoriety for their alleged purity dur-ing Napoleon’s wars. Bistrots appeared after the Cossackoccupation of Paris. Stendhal had, that “Cossacks werepure as children and great as Gods”.

3.1 Don Cossacks

Main article: Don CossacksThe Don Cossack Host (Russian: Всевеликое Вой-

A Cossack from Don area 1821. An illustration from FyodorSolntsev, 1869

ско Донское, Vsevelikoye Voysko Donskoye) was eitheran independent or an autonomous democratic republic inthe present day Southern Russia from the end of the 6thcentury until the early 20th century. In the year of 948Byzantine Emperor Constantine mentioned of trade ofgoods, between the Don Cossacks in their home capital.Don Cossacks had a rich military tradition, playing an im-portant part in the historical development of the RussianEmpire and successfully participating in all of its majorwars.The exact origins of Don Cossacks are unknown. In mod-ern view, Don Cossacks are descendants of both Slavicpeople and Khazars, which assimilated Slavs, Goths,Alans,[54] and possibly of Rugii, Roxolans, Alans and

8 3 RUSSIAN COSSACKS

even Goths-Alans of the Black Sea Rus[55] New Slavicpeople have come from Dnepr and Taman, and fromNovgorod Republic and Principality of Ryazan, both be-fore and after their violent occupation and subjugation bythe Muscovite Tsardom.[56]

The majority of Don Cossacks are either Eastern Ortho-dox or Christian Old Believers (старообрядцы);[57][58]

and prior to the Civil War in Russia, there were numer-ous religious minorities, including Muslims, Subbotniks,Jews and others.[59]

3.2 Kuban Cossacks

Main article: Kuban CossacksKuban Cossacks are Cossacks who live in the Kuban

Kuban Cossacks, late 19th century.

region of Russia. Although numerous Cossack groupscame to inhabit the Western Northern Caucasus most ofthe Kuban Cossacks are descendants of the Black SeaCossack Host, (originally the Zaporozhian Cossacks) andthe Caucasus Line Cossack Host.A distinguishing feature from other Russian Cossacks isthe Chupryna or Oseledets hairstyle, a roach haircut pop-ular among some Kubanians. This is due to their tradi-tional roots, going back to the Zaporizhian Sich.

3.3 Terek Cossacks

Main article: Terek Cossacks

The Terek Cossack Host was a Cossack host created in1577 from free Cossacks who resettled from the Volga tothe Terek River. Aboriginal Terek Cossacks joined thishost later. In 1792 the Host was included in the CaucasusLine Cossack Host and separated from it again in 1860,with the capital of Vladikavkaz. In 1916 the populationof the Host was 255,000 within an area of 1.9 milliondesyatinas. Many of the members of the Terek Cossacksin 1916 were Ukrainians, Ossetians, Circassians, and Ar-menians. The genocide of Sunzhensky Cossacks duringthe Civil war in Russia implemented under the leadershipof Sergo Orjonikidze was part of the genocide of Circas-sians.

3.4 Yaik Cossacks

Main article: Ural CossacksTheUral Cossack Hostwas formed from theUral Cos-

A group of Yaik (Orenburg) Cossacks from Sakmara settlement(1912). Standing on the left side is Pogadayev Alexander Marte-myanovich

sacks, who had settled along the Ural River. Their al-ternative name, Yaik Cossacks, comes from the formername of the river, which was changed by the governmentafter the Pugachev’s rebellion. The Ural Cossacks spokeRussian and identified as having primarily Russian an-cestry, but they also incorporated many Tatars into theirranks.[60] Twenty years after Moscow had conquered theVolga from Kazan to Astrakhan, in 1577,[61] the govern-ment sent troops to disperse pirates and raiders along theVolga (one of their number was Ermak). Some escapedto flee southeast to the Ural River, where they joined YaikCossacks. In 1580 they captured Saraichik. By 1591 theywere fighting on behalf of the government in Moscow.During the next century, they were officially recognizedby the imperial government.

3.5 Razin and Pugachev Rebellions

The Cossacks, as an autonomous group, had to defendtheir liberties and traditions against the ever-expandingRussian government. The Cossacks tended to act in-dependently of the central government, increasing fric-tion between the two. The government’s power began togrow in 1613 with Mikhail Romanov's ascension to thethrone after the Time of Troubles, when dynastic con-flicts constantly presented themselves and inconsistencyreigned with the lack of a single, competent ruler. Thegovernment began attempting to assimilate the Cossacksinto the Russian culture and political system by grantingelite status and enforcing military service, thus creatingdivisions within the Cossacks themselves as they foughtto keep their own traditions alive. The government’s ef-forts to alter the traditional nomadic lifestyle of the Cos-sacks caused the Cossacks to be involved in nearly all themajor disturbances in Russia over a 200-year period, in-

3.5 Razin and Pugachev Rebellions 9

cluding the rebellions led by Stenka Razin and EmilianPugachev.[62]

Stenka Razin Sailing in the Caspian Sea by Vasily Surikov, 1906

As Muscovy regained stability under Mikhail Romanovafter the Time of Troubles beginning in 1613, discon-tent steadily grew within the serf and peasant populations.The Code of 1649 under Alexis Romanov, Mikhail’s son,divided the Russian population into distinct and fixedhereditary categories.[63] This law tied peasants to theland and forced townsmen to take on their fathers’ oc-cupations. The Code of 1649 increased tax revenue forthe central government and stopped wandering to stabi-lize the social order by fixing people in the same landwith the same occupation of their families. The increasedtaxes fell mainly on the peasants as a burden and contin-ued to widen the gap between the wealthy and the poor.As the government developed more military expeditions,human and material resources became limited, putting aneven harsher strain on the peasants. War with Poland andSweden in 1662 led to a fiscal crisis and riots across thecountry.[64] Taxes, harsh conditions, and the gap betweensocial classes drove peasants and serfs to flee, many ofthem going to the Cossacks, knowing that the Cossackswould accept refugees and free them.The Cossacks experienced difficulties under Tsar Alexisas the influx of refugees grew daily. The Cossacks re-ceived a subsidy of food, money, and military suppliesfrom the tsar in return for acting as border defense.[65]

These subsidies fluctuated often and provided a sourceof conflict between the Cossacks and the government.The war with Poland diverted necessary food and mili-tary shipments to the Cossacks as the population of theHost, the unit of Cossacks identified by the region inwhich they resided, grew with the fugitive peasants. Theinflux of these refugees troubled the Cossacks not onlybecause of the increased demand for food but also be-cause the large number of these fugitives meant the Cos-sacks could not absorb them into their culture through thetraditional apprenticeship way.[66] Instead of taking thesesteps of proper assimilation into Cossack society, the run-away peasants spontaneously declared themselves Cos-sacks and lived beside true Cossacks, laboring or workingas barge-haulers to earn food.As conditions worsened and Mikhail’s son Alexis took thethrone, divisions among the Cossacks began to emerge.

Stenka Razin by Ivan Bilibin

Older Cossacks began to settle and become prosper-ous, enjoying the privileges they earned through obey-ing and assisting the Muscovite system.[67] The old Cos-sacks started giving up their traditions and liberties thathad been worth dying for to obtain the pleasures of anelite life. The lawless and restless runaway peasants thatcalled themselves Cossacks looked for adventure and re-venge against the nobility that had caused them suffering.These Cossacks did not receive the government subsidiesthat the old Cossacks enjoyed and thus had to work harderand longer for food and money. These divisions betweenthe elite and lawless would lead to the formation of a Cos-sack army beginning in 1667 under Stenka Razin as wellas to the ultimate failure of that rebellion.Stenka Razin was born into an elite Cossack family andhad made many diplomatic visits to Moscow before orga-nizing his rebellion.[68] The Cossacks were Razin’s mainsupporters and followed him during his first Persian cam-paign in 1667, plundering and pillaging Persian cities onthe Caspian Sea. They returned ill and hungry, tiredfrom fighting but rich with plundered goods in 1669.[69]

Muscovy tried to gain support from the old Cossacks, ask-ing the ataman, or Cossack chieftain, to prevent Razinfrom following through with his plans. However theataman, being Razin’s godfather and swayed by Razin’spromise of a share of the wealth from Razin’s expeditions,replied that the elite Cossacks were powerless against the

10 3 RUSSIAN COSSACKS

band of rebels. The elite did not see much threat fromRazin and his followers either, although they realized hecould cause them problems with the Muscovite system ifhis following developed into a rebellion against the cen-tral government.[70]

Razin and his followers began to capture cities at thestart of the rebellion in 1669. They seized the towns ofTsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Saratov, and Samara, implement-ing democratic rule and releasing peasants from slaveryas they went.[71] Razin envisioned a united Cossack re-public throughout the southern steppe in which the townsand villages of the area would operate under the demo-cratic, Cossack style of government. These sieges oftentook place in the runaway peasant Cossacks’ old towns,leading them to wreak havoc on their old masters and getthe revenge for which they were hoping. The rebels’ ad-vancement began to be seen as a problem to the elder Cos-sacks, who, in 1671, decided to comply with the govern-ment in order to receive more subsidies.[72] On April 14,ataman Yakovlev led elders to destroy the rebel camp andcaptured Razin, taking him soon afterward to Moscow.Razin’s rebellion marked the beginning of the end to tra-ditional Cossack practices. In August 1671, Muscoviteenvoys administered the oath of allegiance and the Cos-sacks swore loyalty to the tsar.[73] While they still hadinternal autonomy, the Cossacks became Muscovite sub-jects, a transition that would prove to be a dividing pointyet again in Pugachev’s Rebellion.

Emelian Pugachev in prison

For the Cossack elite, a noble status within the empire

came at the price of their old liberties in the 18th cen-tury. An advancement of agricultural settlement beganforcing the Cossacks to give up their traditional nomadicways and to adopt new forms of government. The govern-ment steadily changed the entire culture of the Cossacks.Peter the Great increased service obligations for the Cos-sacks and mobilized their forces to fight in far-off wars.Peter began establishing non-Cossack troops in fortressesalong the Iaik River and in 1734 constructed Orenburg,a fortress of government power on the frontier that gaveCossacks a subordinate role in border defense.[74] Whenthe Iaik Cossacks sent a delegation to Peter to explaintheir grievances, Peter stripped the Cossacks of theirautonomous status and subordinated them to the WarCollege rather than the College of Foreign Affairs, so-lidifying the change in the Cossacks from border pa-trol to military servicemen. Over the next fifty years,the central government responded to Cossack grievanceswith arrests, floggings, and exiles. Among the ordinaryCossacks, hatred of the elite and central governmentboiled and by 1772, an open state of rebellion ensuedfor six months between the Iaik Cossacks and the cen-tral government.[75]

Under Catherine the Great in 1762, the Russian peasantsand Cossacks once again faced increased taxation, heavymilitary conscription, and grain shortages that had char-acterized the land before Razin’s rebellion. In addition,Catherine did not spread one of Peter III's acts, relevantto economy peasants, or the former church serfs livingon the former church lands, freeing from their obliga-tions and payments to church authorities, to other peas-ants freeing them from serfdom thus.[76] In 1767, theempress refused to accept grievances directly from thepeasantry.[77] Peasants fled once again to the land of theCossacks; in particular, the fugitive peasants set their des-tination for the Iaik Host, whose people were committedto the old Cossack traditions. The changing governmentburdened the Cossacks as well, extending its reach to re-form the Cossack traditions.

Don Cossack in the early 1800s

Emelian Pugachev, a low-status Don Cossack, arrived inthe Iaik Host in late 1772.[78] Pugachev’s claim to be PeterIII stemmed from the expectations the Cossacks held for

3.6 In the Russian Empire 11

the late ruler, believing that Peter III would have been aneffective ruler after freeing not only church serfs, but theserfs of landlords as well had he not been assassinated bya plot of his wife Catherine II.[79] Many Iaik Cossacksbelieved Pugachev’s claim, though those closest to himknew the truth. Others that may have known the truth butdid not support Catherine II, due to her disposal of PeterIII, still spread Pugachev’s claim to be the late emperor.The first of the three phases of Pugachev’s Rebellionbegan in September 1773.[80] The elite-supporting Cos-sacks constituted the majority of the first prisoners takenby the rebels. After a five-month siege of Orenburg, amilitary college became Pugachev’s headquarters.[81] Pu-gachev began envisioning a Cossack tsardom, similar toRazin’s vision of a united Cossack republic. The peas-antry across Russia stirred with rumors and listened tomanifestos issued by Pugachev. However, Pugachev’sRebellion soon came to be seen as an inevitable failure.The Don Cossacks refused to help the rebellion in the lastphase of the revolt because they knew military troops fol-lowed Pugachev closely after lifting the siege of Orenburgand following Pugachev’s flight from defeated Kazan.[82]

In September 1774, Pugachev’s own Cossack lieutenantsturned him over to the government troops.[83]

The Cossacks’ opposition to centralization of polit-ical authority led them to participate in Pugachev’sRebellion.[84] Their defeat led the Cossack elite to acceptgovernment reforms in the hope of obtaining status in thenobility. The ordinary Cossacks had to follow and give uptheir traditions and liberties.

3.6 In the Russian Empire

From the start, relations of Cossacks with the Tsardomof Russia were varied; at times they supported Russianmilitary operations, and at others conducted rebellionsagainst the central power. After one of those uprisingsat the end of the 18th century, Russian forces destroyedthe Zaporozhian Host. Many of the Cossacks who choseto stay loyal to the Russian Monarch and continue theirservice later moved to the Kuban. Others choosing tocontinue a mercenary role escaped control by taking ad-vantage of the large Danube delta.

Conquest of Siberia by Yermak, painting by Vasily Surikov.

By the 19th century, the Russian Empire had annexedthe territory of the hosts and controlled them by provid-

ing privileges for their service. At this time the Cos-sacks served as military forces in many wars conductedby the Russian Empire. Cossacks were considered ex-cellent for scouting and reconnaissance duties, as well asundertaking ambushes. Their tactics in open battles weregenerally inferior to those of regular soldiers such as theDragoons. In 1840 the hosts included the Don, Black Sea,Astrakhan, Little Russia, Azov, Danube, Ural, Stavropol,Mesherya, Orenburg, Siberia, Tobolsk, Tomsk, Yeni-seisk, Irkutsk, Sabaikal, Yakutsk and Tartar voiskos. Bythe 1890s the Ussuri, Semirechensk and Amur Cossackswere added; the last had a regiment of elite mountedrifles.[85]

By the end of the 19th century, the Cossack communitiesenjoyed a privileged tax-free status in the Russian Em-pire, although they had a 20-year military service com-mitment (this was reduced to 18 years from 1909). Theywere on active duty for five years, but could fulfill their re-maining obligation with the reserves. In the beginning ofthe 20th century, the Russian Cossacks counted 4.5 mil-lion. They were organized as independent regional hosts,each comprising a number of regiments.

Cossack patrol near Baku oil fields, 1905

Wiosna roku 1905 (Spring of 1905) – Cossacks patrol atUjazdowskie Avenue in Warsaw, picture of 1906 by StanisławMasłowski (National Museum in Warsaw)

Treated as a separate and elite community by the Tsar,the Cossacks rewarded his government with strong loy-alty. His administration frequently used Cossack units tosuppress domestic disorder, especially during the Russian

12 3 RUSSIAN COSSACKS

Revolution of 1905. The Imperial Government dependedheavily on the perceived reliability of the Cossacks. Bythe early 20th century, their decentralized communi-ties and semi-feudal military service were coming to beseen as obsolete. The Russian Army Command, whichhad worked to professionalize its forces, considered theCossacks as less well disciplined, trained and mountedthan the hussars, dragoons, and lancers of the regularcavalry.[86] The Cossack qualities of initiative and rough-riding skills were not always fully appreciated. As a re-sult, Cossack units were frequently broken up into smalldetachments for use as scouts, messengers or picturesqueescorts.

3.6.1 Cossacks in World War I and February Rev-olution

At the outbreak of World War I the mounted Cossacksmade up 38 regiments, plus some infantry battalionsand 52 horse artillery batteries. By 1916 their wartimestrength had expanded to 160 regiments plus 176 inde-pendent sotnias (squadrons), the latter employed as de-tached units.[87] While about a third of the regular Rus-sian cavalry was dismounted in 1916 to serve as infantry,the Cossack arm remained essentially unaffected by mod-ernization.During the initial stages of the February Revolution of1917, the three Cossack regiments stationed in Saint Pe-tersburg proved in the words of a senior officer to be “ex-tremely slack and indecisive” when deployed in support ofthe overstretched police. While less than three thousandCossack reservists and new recruits from the poorer re-gions of the Don and Kuban regions were involved, theirinaction (and that of the primarily ceremonial Konvoi)came as a psychological blow to the Tsarist authorities inthe city and encouraged defections from other units.[88]

3.7 Civil War, Decossackization andHolodomor of 1932–33

In the Russian Civil War that followed the October Rev-olution, various Cossacks supported each side of the con-flict. Cossacks formed the core of the White Army, butmany also fought with the Red Army. Some Cossackunits in the Ukraininan service participated in pogromsagainst Jews in Ukraine[89] Following the defeat of theWhite Army, the new Communist regime instituted a pol-icy of harsh repressions, the so-called Decossackization,which took place on the surviving Cossacks and theirhomelands. In 2003, historian Shane O'Rourke an-nounced finding documentary evidence that the Sovi-ets had issued orders for exterminating the Cossacks,and that “ten thousand Cossacks were slaughtered sys-tematically in a few weeks in January 1919.”[90] Hesays this “was one of the main factors which led to thedisappearance of the Cossacks as a nation.”[90] During

Decossackization, the new regime also divided traditionallands of Cossack Hosts among new Soviet republics andvarious autonomous republics of non-Cossack peoples.Cossacks were banned from serving in the Red Army.Histories of the 21st century document that hundreds ofthousands of Cossacks were killed by the Soviet Gov-ernment during Decossackization. According to MichaelKort, “During 1919 and 1920, out of a population of ap-proximately 3 million, the Bolshevik regime killed or de-ported an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Cossacks”,[91]

including 45 thousand Terek Cossacks.[92] The Denikinregime alleged that in 1918–19, 5,598 were executedin the provinces of the Don; 3,442 in the Kuban; and2,142 in Stavropol. Historian Leonid Futorianskiy dis-putes these recent claims. He argues that during the pre-ceding White Terror of the Krasnov regime, between 25and 40 thousand Cossacks were killed.[93] The Cossackhomelands were often very fertile. During the Soviets’1930s collectivisation campaign, many Cossacks werekilled or died of starvation, as did the kulaks.The Soviet famine of 1932–33, called Holodomor byCossacks,[94] impacted the people very hard. Ukraine,lower Volga, Don, Kuban, and Terek territories(the Northern Caucasus) had high fatalities fromstarvation.[94] The famine caused a population declineof about 20–30% in these territories (the population de-cline in the rural areas, populated largely by ethnic Cos-sacks, was even higher, since urban areas were less af-fected by the famine); Robert Conquest estimates thenumber of famine-related deaths in the Northern Cau-casus to be about 1 million.[95] Government officials ex-propriated grain and other produce from rural Cossackfamilies, leaving them to starve and die.[96] Many fam-ilies were forced from their homes in the severe winterand froze to death[96] — Mikhail Sholokhov's letters toJoseph Stalin document the conditions and widespreaddeaths,[97] as do eyewitness accounts.[94][96]

In 1936, under pressure and appeals from Cossack com-munities, the Soviet government lifted the ban on Cos-sacks serving in the Red Army.[98]

3.8 Second World War

During the Second World War, ethnic Cossacks foughton both sides of the conflict. Cossacks who had emi-grated to the UK and the USA served with their militaryforces. Many Cossacks joined the Resistance. Thoughsome Cossacks joined German armed forces, they didso usually to defect either to the western allies or to theResistance, to liberate their co-patriots and family mem-bers from Nazi work and Nazi concentration camps.[99]

The vast majority of the ethnic Cossacks fought againstthe Nazis in the ranks of the Red Army and of theRed Navy on all war theatres. Their service was cru-cial on the Southern theatre of the Eastern Front. Theywere used for frontal patrols and logistics on the open

3.8 Second World War 13

Kuban Cossacks during the Moscow Victory Parade of 1945

Konstantin I. Nedorubov, a Don Cossack, Hero of the SovietUnion and the full Knight of St. George Order. When WWII be-gan, he did not qualify for the regular draft due to his advancedage (52), but he volunteered to serve in the 41st Don Cossack Cav-alry division. He was awarded the title of the Hero of the SovietUnion for his heroic fight against Nazi invaders. In particular,he was credited with killing approximately 70 Nazi combatantsduring the defence of Maratuki village in 1942.

prairies (steppes), which they knew well. The first Cos-sacks units were formed as early as 1936; by 1942 therewere 17 Cossack corps units in the Red Army (as op-posed to two in the German forces). Later these corpsunits were increased in size and reduced to eight. Theirdistinction in battle eventually led all to be merited asGuards. Oka Gorodovikov formed 49 Cossack cavalrydivisions during the war. Many ethnic Cossacks servedin other divisions of the Red Army and in the Navy,including Boris Shaposhnikov, Markian Popov, Aksel

Berg, Arseniy Golovko, Oka Gorodovikov, Lev Dovator,Pavel Belov, General Dmitry Karbyshev, Dmitry Lavri-nenko, pilot Grigory Bakhchivandzhi and engineer FedorTokarev. A Cossack detachment of the 4th Guards Corpsmarched in Red Square during the Moscow Victory Pa-rade of 1945.A substantial number of Cossacks served with the Ger-mans, in response to the harsh repressions and genocidethat their families had suffered under the policies pur-sued by Joseph Stalin. Like other people of the SovietUnion who suffered persecution under Stalin, some Cos-sacks greeted the advancing German army as liberatorsfrom Stalinism.[31][100][101]

Commanding officer Major Ivan Denisovich Frolov (center) withthe officers of Russian National Liberation Army (RONA) duringthe Warsaw Uprising

While some Cossacks in German service were formerWhite Army refugees or related to them,[102] many So-viet citizens, including rank-and-file Cossacks, defectedfrom the Red Army to join the “Cossack units” of Ger-man armed forces. Native Cossacks usually served as of-ficers. As early as 1941, the German leadership formedthe first Cossack detachments from prisoners of war, de-fectors and volunteers. The Dubrovski Battalion formedof Don Cossacks in December 1941 was reorganised onJuly 30, 1942 into the Pavlov Regiment, numbering up to350 men. The Germans used Cossacks for anti-partisanactivity in the rear of the German army.[31]

The Cossack National Movement of Liberation hopedto gain an independent Cossack state, to be calledCossackia, after the war.[103] In 1943, after the 1st Cos-sack Division was formed under the command of GeneralHelmuth von Pannwitz, Cossack émigrés such as AndreiShkuro and Pyotr Krasnov took leading positions in themovement. The 2nd Cossack Division, under the com-mand of Colonel Hans-Joachim von Schultz, formed in1944, existed for a year. Both Cossack divisions weremade part of the XV Cossack Cavalry Corps, totallingsome 25,000 men. They wore regular Wehrmacht uni-forms and not Waffen-SS ones, as has occasionally beenincorrectly alleged. Although in 1944 General von Pan-nwitz accepted loose affiliation with the Waffen-SS in or-

14 4 CULTURE AND ORGANIZATION

der to gain access to their supply of superior arms andequipment, together with control over Cossack units inFrance, no pagan SS features had ever been implementedto respect the Christianity of Cossacks and the Corpscommand, structure, uniforms, ranks, etc. remainedfirmly Wehrmacht.[104][105][31][106]

The Corps contained regiments of different Cossackgroups, who were Don, Kuban, Terek and Siberian Cos-sacks who had been fighting Tito’s guerrillas, the Ustashiand Domobranci in the former Yugoslavia. At the end ofthe war in 1945, they conducted a fighting retreat north-eastwards over the Karavanken Mountains into Carinthia,where they surrendered to the British Army in Allied-administered Austria. They hoped to join the British tofight Communism. At the time the Cossacks were seen asNazi collaborators and they were reported to have com-mitted atrocities against resistance fighters in Eastern Eu-rope. As part of Operation Keelhaul, the British returnedCossack prisoners of war to Russia.[107]

On 28 May 1945, told they would be resettled in Canadaor Australia, the Cossacks were transferred to SMERSHcustody at the Soviet demarcation line at Judenburg. Alsoincluded in the transfer were civilian members of theKazachi Stan, consisting of old folk, women, and chil-dren, as well as about 850 German officers and non-commissioned officers of the Corps. At the end of thewar, the British repatriated between 40 to 50 thousandCossacks, including families of military, to the SovietUnion. Many of those were reported as never having beenSoviet citizens. An unknown number were subsequentlyexecuted or imprisoned. This episode is widely known asthe Betrayal of the Cossacks.

3.9 Modern times

Following the war, Cossack units, along with cavalry ingeneral, were rendered obsolete and released from the So-viet Army. In the post-war years many Cossack descen-dants were thought of as simple peasants, and those wholived inside an autonomous republic usually gave way tothe particular minority and migrated elsewhere (particu-larly, to the Baltic region).During the Perestroika era of the Soviet Union of the late1980s, many descendants of the Cossacks became enthu-siastic about reviving their national traditions. In 1988the Soviet Union passed a law which allowed formationof former hosts and the creation of new ones. The ata-man of the largest, the All-Mighty Don Host, was grantedMarshal rank and the right to form a new host.Simultaneously, many attempts were made to increase theCossack impact on Russian society and throughout the1990s many regional authorities agreed to hand over somelocal administration and policing duties to the Cossacks.According to 2002 Russia’s population census, thereare 140,028 people who currently self-identify as eth-

nic Cossacks,[108] while at the same time, between 3.5 to5 million people associate themselves with the Cossackidentity in Europe and across the world.[109][110]

Cossacks have taken an active part in many of the con-flicts that have taken place since the disintegration of theSoviet Union: the War of Transnistria,[111] the Georgian–Abkhazian conflict, the Georgian–Ossetian conflict, theFirst Chechen War and the Second Chechen War, as wellas the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine and subsequentWar in Donbass.[112][113]

4 Culture and organization

Cossack on duty (portrayal of 16th-17th century), painting byJózef Brandt.

In early times an ataman (later called hetman) com-manded a Cossack band. He was elected by the tribemembers at a Cossack rada, as were the other importantband officials: the judge, the scribe, the lesser officials,and the clergy. The ataman’s symbol of power was a cere-monial mace, a bulava. Today, Russian Cossacks are ledby Atamans, and Ukrainian Cossacks by Hetmans.After the split of Ukraine along the Dnieper River by thePolish-Russian Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667, UkrainianCossacks were known as Left-bank and Right-bank Cos-sacks.The ataman had executive powers, and at time of war,he was the supreme commander in the field. Legislativepower was given to the Band Assembly (Rada). The se-nior officers were called starshyna. In the absence ofwritten laws, the Cossacks were governed by the “Cos-sack Traditions” - the common, unwritten law.Cossack society and government were heavily milita-rized. The nation was called a host (vois’ko, or viys’ko,translated as 'army'). The people and territories were sub-divided into regimental and company districts, and vil-lage posts (polky, sotni, and stanytsi). A unit of a Cossacktroop could be called a kuren.[114]

Each Cossack settlement, alone or in conjunction withneighbouring settlements, formed military units and reg-

4.3 Popular image 15

iments of light cavalry (or mounted infantry in the caseof Siberian Cossacks). They could respond to a threat onvery short notice.

4.1 Settlements

Russian Cossacks founded numerous settlements (calledstanitsas) and fortresses along troublesome borders.These included forts Verny (Almaty, Kazakhstan)in south Central Asia; Grozny in North Cauca-sus; Fort Alexandrovsk (Fort Shevchenko, Kaza-khstan); Krasnovodsk (Turkmenbashi, Turkmenistan);Novonikolayevskaya stanitsa (Bautino, Kazakhstan);Blagoveshchensk; and towns and settlements along theUral, Ishim, Irtysh, Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Amur, Anadyr(Chukotka), and Ussuri Rivers. A group of AlbazinCossacks settled in China as early as 1685.Cossacks interacted with nearby peoples, and exchangedcultural influences (for example, the Terek Cossacks wereheavily influenced by the culture of North Caucasiantribes). They also frequently married local residents (non-Cossack settlers and natives), regardless of race or origin,sometimes setting aside religious restrictions.[115] Warbrides brought from distant lands were also common inCossack families. General Bogaevsky, a commander inthe Russian Volunteer Army, mentions in his 1918 mem-oir that one of his Cossacks, Sotnik Khoperski, was a na-tive Chinese who had been brought back as a child fromManchuria during the Russian-Japanese War 1904–1905;a Cossack family adopted and raised him.[116]

4.2 Family life

Siberian Cossack family in Novosibirsk

Cossack family values as expressed in 21st century Rus-sia are simple, rigid, and seem very traditional comparedto those of contemporary Western culture. In theory menbuild the home and provide an income; the women takecare of the family and provide for the children and house-hold. Traditional Russian values, culture and OrthodoxChristianity form the bedrock of their beliefs.[117]

Cossacks, particularly those in rural areas, tend to havemore children than most other people in Russia. RuralCossacks often have traditional kinship systems; they livein large clans of extended family. These are led by anelder patriarch, usually a grandfather, who often has thetitle of Ataman.Historically, when male Cossacks waged permanent warsat a great distance from their homes, the women tookover the role as family leaders. They were also called onto physically defend their villages and towns from enemyattacks. In some cases, they raided and disarmed neigh-bouring villages composed of other ethnic groups. Thewriter Leo Tolstoy described such Cossack female chau-vinism in his Cossacks novel.Sergei Korolev's mother was the daughter of a leader ofthe civil estate of the Zaporozhian Sich. She reportedlymade jokes that men could be real Cossack family lead-ers in outer space only. When Malorossian Cossack regi-ments had been disbanded, those Cossacks who were notpromoted to nobility or did not join other estates wereunited into a civil Cossack estate, like Korolev’s mother’sfamily.[118]

4.3 Popular image

A Ukrainian Cossack (Ostap Kindrachuk) playing the banduraand wearing traditional clothing.

Cossacks have long appealed to romantics as idealisingfreedom and resistance to external authority, and theirmilitary exploits against their enemies have contributedto this favorable image.

16 4 CULTURE AND ORGANIZATION

For others, Cossacks have become a symbol of repres-sion because of the role of various horsemen crying “Cos-sacks” to frighten people, and in suppressing popular up-risings in the Russian Empire, as well as their actionsduring the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–1657. SomeCossack groups exhibited virulent anti-Semitism and par-ticipated in pogroms against the Jews. In Ukraine in1919 Cossacks in Petlura's Ukrainian People’s Repub-lic army and those headed by Ataman Semosenko per-petrated pogroms.[119]

Literary reflections of Cossack culture abound inRussian, Ukrainian and Polish literature, particularlyin the works of Nikolai Gogol (Taras Bulba), TarasShevchenko, Mikhail Sholokhov, Henryk Sienkiewicz(With Fire and Sword). One of Leo Tolstoy's first novel-las, The Cossacks, depicts their autonomy and estrange-ment from Moscow and from centralized rule. Most ofPolish Romantic literature deals with themes about theCossacks. (Roman Catholics, especially Poles, could beZaporozhian Cossacks up to 1635. A lot of landless Pol-ish Schlahta converted to Eastern Orthodoxy to divide thelands of Ruthenian Schlahta together with Cossacks dur-ing the Khmelnitsky uprising. After this Cossacks used toconvert Poles, especially Polish children, to Eastern Or-thodoxy to turn them into Cossacks. Many Polish andPolish Jewish children were adopted into Cossack fami-lies. All Poles captured with arms by Russian forces inthe 1812–1814 campaign were enlisted in Cossack Hostsfor 25 years, though without the obligation to convert toEastern Orthodoxy. However, those who converted toEastern Orthodoxy might escape from the Cossack ser-vice and from any other exile. Thus “Polish Cossack” be-came synonymous with a Polish Roman Catholic patriotfrom 1814.[120] Even Marshal Rokossovsky commandeda Kuban Cossack brigade in the Soviet Army.)In the literature of Western Europe, Cossacks appear inLord Byron's “Mazepa”, Tennyson’s poem "The Chargeof the Light Brigade", and Richard Connell's short story"The Most Dangerous Game". In many of the stories byadventure writer Harold Lamb, the main character is aCossack.Historiography can interpret Cossackdom in imperial andcolonial terms.[121][122]

In Ukraine, where Cossackdom represents historical andcultural heritage, some people have started attemptingto recreate the images of Ukrainian Cossacks. Tradi-tional Ukrainian culture is often tied in with the Cos-sacks, and the Ukrainian government actively supportsthese attempts. The traditional Cossack bulawa serves asa symbol of the Ukrainian presidency, and the island ofthe Khortytsia, the origin and center of the ZaporozhianSich, has been restored.Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, manyhave begun seeing Russian Cossacks as defenders of Rus-sian sovereignty. Cossacks have not only reestablishedall of their hosts, they have also taken over police and

even administrative duties in their homelands. The Rus-sian military also took advantage of the patriotic feelingsamong the Cossacks and as the hosts become larger andmore organised; it has in the past turned over some of itssurplus technology to them. On par with that, the Cos-sacks also play a large cultural role in the South of Russia.Since the rural ethnic Russian inhabitants of the Rostov-on-Don, Krasnodar and Stavropol territories, as well asof the Autonomous republics of the Northern Caucasus,regard themselves as consisting almost exclusively of atleast spiritual Cossack descendants, the region has hada reputation, even in the Soviet times, for its high disci-pline, low crime and conservative views. Such areas havehigh rates of religious attendance and of literacy.

4.4 Ranks

Modern Kuban Cossack armed forces patch of the Russian mili-tary

The Russian Empire organised its Cossacks into severalvoiskos (hosts), which lived along the Russian border, orinternal borders between Russian and non-Russian peo-ples. Each host originally had its own leadership and re-galia as well as its own uniforms and ranks. However, bythe late 19th century the latter were standardized follow-ing the example of the Imperial Russian Army. Followingthe 1988 law, which allowed the hosts to reform and the2005 one that legally recognised the hosts as a combatservice, the ranks and insignia were kept, but on all mil-itary tickets that are standard for the Russian Army theyare given below.*Rank presently absent in the Russian Army*The application of ranks polkovnik and general is only stablefor small hosts. Large hosts are divided into divisions and con-

17

sequently the Russian Army sub-ranks general-mayor, general-leitenatant and general-polkovnik are used to distinguish the ata-mans ' hierarchy of command, with the supreme ataman havingthe highest rank available. In such a case, the shoulder insigniahas a dedicated one-, two- and three-star alignment, as normalin the Russian Army; otherwise it will be blank.

The same can be said about the colonel ranks as they aregiven to atamans of regional and district status. The low-est group, stanitsa, is commanded by Yesaul. If the re-gion or district lacks any other stanitsas, then the rankpolkovnik is applied automatically but with no stars on theshoulder. As the hosts continue to grow, starless shoulderpatches are becoming increasingly rare.In addition, the supreme ataman of the largest Don Cos-sack Host is officially titled as marshal, and so wears in-signia derived from the Russian/Sovietmarshal ranks, in-cluding the diamond Marshal Star. This is because theDon Cossack Supreme Ataman is recognized as the offi-cial head of all Cossack armies (including those outsidethe present Russian borders). He also has the authority torecognize and dissolve new hosts.

4.5 Uniforms

A Cossack officer from Orenburg, with a shashka at his side,early 1900s

Cossacks were expected to provide their own uniforms.While these were sometimes manufactured in bulk by

factories owned by the individual host, families oftenhanded down garments or made them within the house-hold. Individual items might accordingly vary from thoselaid down by regulation or be of obsolete pattern. EachHost had distinctive uniform colourings.For most hosts, the basic uniform consisted of the stan-dard loose-fitting tunics and wide trousers typical of Rus-sian regular troops during the period 1881–1908. TheCaucasian Hosts (Kuban and Terek) wore the very long,open fronted, cherkesska coats with ornamental cartridgeloops and coloured beshmets (waistcoats). These havecome to epitomize the popular image of the Cossacks.Most hosts wore fleece hats with coloured cloth tops infull dress, and round caps, with or without peaks, for or-dinary duties. These caps were worn sharply slanted toone side by the rank-and-file of cossack regiments, overhair trimmed longer than that of ordinary Russian sol-diers. The two Caucasian Hosts wore high fleece caps onmost occasions, together with black felt cloaks (burke) inbad weather.Until 1909, Cossack regiments in summer wore whiteblouses and cap covers of standard Russian army pattern.The shoulder straps and cap bands were in the host colour,as detailed below. From 1910 to 1918, they wore a khaki-grey jacket for field wear. The dress uniform had blue orgreen breeches with broad coloured stripes in the Hostcolour and these were often worn with the service jacket.While most Cossacks served as cavalry, several of thelarger hosts had infantry and artillery units. Four regi-ments of Cossacks formed part of the Imperial Guard, aswell as theKonvoi—the tsar’s mounted escort. The Impe-rial Guard regiments wore tailored government-issue uni-forms, which were colourful and elaborate. As an exam-ple, the Konvoi wore scarlet cherkesskas, white beshmets,and red crowns on their fleece hats. The Guard Cossacksof His Majesty and the Ataman’s Guard Cossacks, bothdrawn from the Don Host, wore red and light blue coatsrespectively. The Combined Cossack Guard Regiment(made up of representative detachments from each of theremaining Hosts) wore red, light blue, crimson or orangecoats according to squadron.*All details are based on the 1909–14 dress uniforms asportrayed in “Tablitsi Form' Obmundirovaniya RusskoiArmi”, Colonel V.K. Shenk, published by the ImperialRussian War Ministry 1910–11.

5 Modern-day Russian Cossackidentity

Ethnic or “born” (prirodnye) Cossacks are those who cantrace, or claim to trace, their ancestry to people and fam-ilies identified as Cossacks in the Tsarist era. They tendto be Christian, practicing as Orthodox Christians or OldBelievers. This group includes the edinovertsy, who iden-

18 9 NOTES

Siberian Cossack c1890s

tify as Slavic.Others can be initiated as Cossacks, particularly men inmilitary service. Such initiates may be neither ethnicSlavic nor Christian in religion. Not everyone agrees thatsuch initiates should be considered Cossack. There is noconsensus on an initiation rite or rules.In other cases, individuals may put on a Cossack uni-form and pretend to be one, perhaps because there isa large ethnic Cossack population in the area and theperson wants to fit in. Others adopt Cossack cloth-ing to try to take on some of their mythic status.Ethnic Cossacks refer to the re-enactors as ryazhenye(ряженые, or “dressed up phonies”).<ref name="Казакии "ряженые"">"Казаки и "ряженые"".</ref>[123]

Because of the lack of consensus on how to define Cos-sacks, accurate numbers of the people are not available.Russia’s Population Census 2010 states that there are67,573 ethnic Cossacks in Russia,[124] while at the sametime, between 3.5 to 5 million people associate them-selves with the Cossack identity in Europe and across theworld.[109][110]

6 Registered Cossacks of the Rus-sian Federation

Main article: Registered Cossacks of the RussianFederation

Ottoman Turks in battle against the Cossacks, 1592

7 Outside perception

Turkey considered the Black Sea as its own internal wa-ter transport system, controlling the Bosphorus channelwhich led to the Marmara and Mediterranean seas. TheBlack and Azov seas were a natural border for the Cos-sacks and an integral part of Europe. This natural bor-der, however was also the field of numerous conflicts. In1570 an anti-Turkish coalition was established in Europebetween the Vatican, the Habsburg Empire, and the Pol-ish kings. After the success of the Cossacks at the Battleof Khotyn in 1621, King Sigismund III directed the Cos-sacks to focus the attention on the Turkish bases aroundthe Black Sea, promising rewards for conquest.

8 See also

9 Notes

[1] Cossacks lived along major rivers — Dnieper, Don,Volga, Terek, Ural, Amur — and had excellent naval ca-pabilities and skills — they were excellent fishermen andsea merchants in peaceful times and executed expert navalservice in war times.

[2] http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/documents/cossack/COSSACK1.gif

19

[3] Foreign Military Studies Office Publications - The Cos-sack Brotherhood Reborn: A Political/military Force in aRealm of Chaos

[4] R.P. Magocsi, A History of Ukraine, pp. 179–181

[5] A noted author, Count Leo Tolstoy, wrote "... that all ofthe Russian history has been made by Cossacks. No won-der Europeans call all of us that... Our people as a wholewish to be Cossacks.” (L. Tosltoy, A Complete Collectionof Works, v. 48, page 123, Moscow, 1952; Полн. собр.соч. в 90 т. М., 1952 г., т.48, стр. 123)"

[6] In the 19th century, Peter V. Golubovsky of Kiev Uni-versity explained that the Severians made up a signifi-cant part of early medieval Russians and Khazars. He de-scribed the Khazar state as the “Slavic stronghold in theEast”. Many Khazars, like Cossacks, as described in TheCossacks by Leo Tolstoy, could be Slavic-Turkic bilin-guals. *(Russian) Golubovsky Peter V. (1884) Pechenegs,Torks and Cumans before the invasion of the Tatars. His-tory of the South Russian steppes in the 9th-13th Centuries(Печенеги, Торки и Половцы до нашествия татар.История южно-русских степей IX—XIII вв.); availableat Runivers.ru in DjVu format. Later Mikhail Artamonovand his school confirmed many of Golubovsky’s conclu-sions.

[7] The connection is in part supported by old Cossackethonyms such as kazara (Russian: казара), kazarla(Russian: казарла), kozarlyhi(Ukrainian: козарлюги),kazare (Russian: казарре); cf. N. D. Gostev, “About theuse of “Kazarа" and other derivative words,” Kazarla eth-nic magazine, 2010, №1. (link) The name of the Khazarsin Old Russian chronicles is kozare (Ukrainian: козаре).

[8] The Don Host and the Sich region had close ties, andboth Hosts participated in numerous joint war expedi-tions. The best known is Azov Sitting, when Don and Za-porozhian Cossacks took over the Azov fortress and de-fended it with the aid of volunteers for 5 years againstTurkish armed forces. A permanent exchange of Cos-sacks took place between the Zaporozhie region and theDon region; Dinskoy (Don) Kuren (division) was one ofthe Kurens that made up the Sich. The historical relationbetween the groups is reflected in similar names amongmajor towns in the Don and Dniepr regions, for exam-ple, Novocherkassk city and Starocherkasskaya stanitsa inthe Don region, and Cherkasy city in Ukraine. Moscovitechronicles use the exonym Cherkasy to refer both to en-emy Cossacks (from Polish, Turk, and Tatar armies) andto Dnieper Cossacks, even when the latter were allied withMoscow. The Lower Dnieper (Zaporozhian) Cossacks of-ten referred to Higher Dnieper (Malorussian) Cossacks asCherkasy as well.

[9] COSSACKS' UPRISING - JewishEncyclopedia.com

[10] From Tak to Yes: Understanding the East Europeans, YaleRichmond, Intercultural Press, 1995, p. 294

[11] Андрусовский мир 1667 http://historydoc.edu.ru/catalog.asp?cat_ob_no=15249&ob_no=16146

[12] “Don River – History and economy”, Encyclopædia Bri-tannica

[13] Andrew Gordeyev. The History of Cossacks, Moscow,1992

[14] See, for example, Executions of Cossacks in Lebedin.

[15] After the Pugachev rebellion, the Empire renamed theYaik Host, its capital, Yaik Cossaks, and ZimoveyskayaCossack town in the Don region, to try to encouragethe Cossacks to forget the men and their rebellions. Atthe same time the Empire formally dissolved the LowerDnieper Zaporozhian Cossack Host and destroyed theirfortress (the Sich per se) on Dnieper, perhaps in partdue to the participation of some Zaporozhians and otherUkrainian exiles in Pugachev’s rebellion. During his cam-paign, Pugachev issued manifests to restore all bordersand freedoms of both the Polish-Lithuanian Common-wealth and the Lower Dnieper (Nizovy in Russian) Cos-sack Host under the joint protectorate of Russia and theCommonwealth.

[16] The Malorussian Cossacks (the former “Registered Cos-sacks” (“Town Zaporozhian Host” in Russia)) were ex-cluded from this transformation, but were promoted tomembers of various civil estates or classes (often Russiannobility), including the newly created civil estate of Cos-sacks.

[17] Lacking horses, the poor served in Cossack infantry andin Cossack artillery. The Russian Navy had no Cossackships and units. This is why Cossacks served with otherpeople in the Navy only.

[18] Their use to suppress pogroms is reflected in a storyby a prominent Jewish writer Sholom Aleichem, titled“A Wedding Without Musicians”, which describes howa Jewish shtetl in Ukraine is aided by a Cossack unitthat disperses a pogrom by the local mob. See ШоломАлейхем, "Быть бы свадьбе, да музыки не нашлось",Гослитиздат, Moscow, 1961..

[19] "РГ + Россия 24: Росстат об итогах Всероссийскойпереписи населения 2010 года — "Вот какие мы -россияне" — Российская газета — Росстат об итогахВсероссийской переписи населения 2010 года". Rg.ru.Retrieved 2012-08-13.

[20] "Конгресс Казаков в Америке | Рассеяны но нерасторгнуты". Kazaksusa.com. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

[21] "Этническое казачье объединение Казарла".Kazarla.ru. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

[22] "Вольная Станица". Fstanitsa.ru. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

[23] For a detailed analysis, see Omeljan Pritsak. “The Tur-kic Etymology of the Word Qazaq 'Cossack'.” HarvardUkrainian Studies 28.1-4 (2006/2007): 237-XII.

[24] “Online Etymology Dictionary”.

[25] Encyclopædia Britannica, “Cossack”.

[26] Iaroslav Lebedynsky, Histoire des Cosaques Ed TerreNoire, p38.

[27] “Cossacks”. Encyclopediaofukraine.com. Retrieved 13August 2012.

20 9 NOTES

[28] Казак // Этимологический словарь Фасмера

[29] Shambarov, Valery (2007). Kazachestvo Istoriya VolnoyRusi. Algoritm Expo, Moscow. ISBN 978-5-699-20121-1.

[30] Vasili Glazkov (Wasili Glaskow), History of the Cossacks,p. 3, Robert Speller & Sons, New York, ISBN 0-8315-0035-2

• Vasili Glazkov claims that the data of Byzantine,Iranian and Arab historians support that. Accordingto this view, by 1261, Cossacks lived in the areabetween the rivers Dniester and Volga as describedfor the first time in Russian chronicles.

[31] Newland 1991

[32] Neumann, Karl Friedrich (1855). Die völker des südlichenRusslands in ihrer geschichtlichen entwickelung [The Peo-ples of Southern Russia in its Historical Evolution].Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. p. 132. The Cumans, who areliving in the land of the Kipchak since time immemorial,[…], are known to us as Turks. It is these Turks, no newimmigrants from the areas beyond the Yaik, but true de-scendants of the ancient Scythians, who now again occurin world history under the name Cumans, […].

[33] The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. (Out ofprint). “Cossacks”. Columbia University Press, 2001–04Check date values in: |date= (help)

[34] Hrushevsky, M. Illustrated History of Ukraine. “BAO”.Donetsk, 2003. ISBN 966-548-571-7

[35] Дума про козака Голоту - Народні думи. Народнатворчість України. Бібліотека УкраїнськоїЛітератури

[36] Nicholas Pundik. Who is Fesko Ganzha Andyber? http://telegrafua.com/country/14013/print/

[37] Don Cossacks http://www.razdory-museum.ru/cossacks.html

[38] Cossacks of Kalmykia http://www.kalm.ru/en/cossacks.html

[39] Ukrainians are still called Rusi in the Romanian language,partly because of the Danubian Sich presence in Romania.

[40] This is also true of the Don Cossacks of the Lower Don,where the local dialect is related to Ukrainian. ManyUkrainian peasants joined Terek Cossacks in the 1820–30s, influencing local dialects. But the Grebensky (Row)Cossacks (the part of Terek Cossacks) with deep Adygheroots because of intermarriages, still speak an old north-ern Russian Viatka dialect. (It likely has connections tothe old dialects of the White Sea shores). Middle Dondialects are related to northern Russian dialects, the Be-lorussian language and Volyn dialects of Ukrainian, thelatter dialects are close to Belorussian dialects. Only Up-per Don dialects are southern Russian ones.

[41] “Is there move in the Kuban region?", Kuban newspaper

[42] Bogdan Zolotarevsky. “Kuban and Ukraine.”

[43] Kubanskaya balachka. The school course

[44] Serhii Plokhy (2001). The Cossacks and Religion in EarlyModern Ukraine. OUP Oxford. p. 4. ISBN 0-19-924739-0. Retrieved 1 August 2015.

[45] Wilson, Andrew (2002). The Ukrainians: UnexpectedNation. Yale University Press. pp. 62, 143. ISBN 978-0-300-09309-4. Retrieved 1 August 2015.

[46] John Ure. “The Cossacks: An Illustrated History”. Lon-don: Gerald Duckworth

[47] Cossack Navy 16th – 17th Centuries

[48] “In 1651, in the face of a growing threat from Polandand forsaken by his Tatar allies, Khmelnytsky asked thetsar to incorporate Ukraine as an autonomous duchy un-der Russian protection... the details of the union were ne-gotiated in Moscow. The Cossacks were granted a largedegree of autonomy, and they, as well as other socialgroups in Ukraine, retained all the rights and privilegesthey had enjoyed under Polish rule."Pereyaslav agree-ment”. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006.

[49] Dvornik, Francis (1962). The Slavs in European Historyand Civilization. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.ISBN 978-0-8135-0799-6.

[50] Frumenkov. Prisoners of Solovetsky Monastery.http://lib.ru/HISTORY/FRUMENKOW/uzniki_monastyrya.txt_with-big-pictures.html

[51] Vasily Klyuchevsky, The course of Russian History, vol-ume 2

[52] Angus Konstam. Russian army of the Seven Years’War. Osprey Publishing (October 15, 1996) ISBN185532587X ISBN 978-1855325876

[53] "www.napoleon-series.org/reviews/military/c_cossackhurrah.html Cossack Hurrah!". Retrieved2007-04-23.

[54] Notable supporters of this point of view were Gustav vonEwers, Nicholas I, Peter V. Golubovsky, Mikhail Arta-monov and his school, including Lev Gumilyov etc.

[55] Kadomsky The ethnic composition of BlackSea Rus. http://www.dissercat.com/content/etnicheskii-sostav-prichernomorskoi-rusi See worksof Evgueni Goloubinski and Vasily Vasilievsky aboutRelations of Gothoalans (Goths-Tetraxits) and Russiancolonists in region of North-East part of Black Sea andSea of Azov as well. The Goths-Alans came from theWestern part of North Caucasus and from Northern Eu-rope, Goths intermixed with Slavs during their trip fromNorthern Europe. When Alans had moved to Europe,these Goths occupied the part of the former Alania inCrimea and were called Gothoalans, Russian occupyinganother part were called Roxolans. Later people fromthe western part of North Caucasus joined Gotho-Alansin their Feodoro principality. It is believed that CrimeanGreeks have the Gotho-Alan ancestry, among others.Mikhail Lomonosov was the first to identify Roxolans asRussians similar to Gotho-Alan identification as Goths.

21

[56] See penultimate footnote.

[57] O'Rourke, Shane (2000). “Warriors and peasants: TheDon Cossacks in late imperial Russia”. ISBN 978-0-312-22774-6.

[58] Old Believer – Raskolniks – text in English

[59] After the Caucasus war both the Russian Imperial pol-icy and internal problems made some Muslims, Subbot-niks, Molokane, Jews and various Christian minorities,whether Cossack or non-Cossack, move outside the Donarea, usually to the newly conquered frontier areas orabroad. For example, many Moslem Cossacks movedto Turkey because of the lack of Moslem brides in theirvillages. The Don Host resisted this policy and minori-ties were kept, as was the case of some Moslem Cos-sacks and of Rostov-on-Don non-Cossack Jews; see alsohttp://www.lechaim.ru/ARHIV/148/gutman.htm

[60] Wixman. The Peoples of the USSR, p. 51

[61] Donnelly, Alton S. (1968). The Russian Conquest ofBashkiria 1552–1740. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-00430-3.

[62] Avrich 1976, p. 59

[63] Avrich 1976, p. 52

[64] Avrich 1976, p. 58

[65] Avrich 1976, p. 60

[66] O'Rourke 2008, p. 91

[67] O'Rourke 2008, pp. 90–91; Avrich 1976, p. 62

[68] Avrich 1976, pp. 66–67

[69] O'Rourke 2008, pp. 95–97

[70] O'Rourke 2008, pp. 95–96

[71] O'Rourke 2008, pp. 100–105

[72] Avrich 1976, p. 112

[73] Avrich 1976, p. 113

[74] O'Rourke 2008, p. 115

[75] O'Rourke 2008, pp. 116–117

[76] Jack P. Greene and Robert Forster, “Pugachev’s Rebel-lion”, in Preconditions of Revolution in Early Modern Eu-rope, ed. Marc Raeff, (The Johns Hopkins Press, 1975),p. 170.

[77] Raeff, Pugachev’s Rebellion, p. 172.

[78] O'Rourke 2008, p. 117

[79] O'Rourke 2008, p. 120

[80] O'Rourke 2008, p. 124

[81] O'Rourke 2008, p. 126

[82] O'Rourke 2008, pp. 127–28

[83] O'Rourke 2008, p. 128

[84] O'Rourke 2008, pp. 129–30

[85] Knotel, Knotel & Sieg 1980, p. 394

[86] Seaton, Albert (1972). The Cossacks. Random House.ISBN 978-0-85045-116-0.

[87] Littauer, Vladimir (2007). Russian Hussar. The LongRiders’ Guild Press. pp. 296–297. ISBN 1-59048-−256-5.

[88] Figes, Orlando (1997). A People’s Tragedy. RandomHouse. pp. 310–311. ISBN 0-7126-−7327-X.

[89] Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian His-tory, p. 303, John Doyle Klier (Editor), Shlomo Lam-broza (Editor)

[90] “Soviet order to exterminate Cossacks is unearthed”University of York Communications Office, 21 January2003

[91] Kort, Michael (2001). The Soviet Colosus: History andAftermath, p. 133. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN0-7656-0396-9.

[92] Pavel Polian, “Forced migrations in USSR”, Retrieved on5 February 2007

[93] Orenburg State University

[94] "голодомор | Вольная Станица". Fstanitsa.ru. Re-trieved 2012-08-13.

[95] Robert Conquest (1986), The Harvest of Sorrow: SovietCollectivization and the Terror-Famine, Oxford UniversityPress. ISBN 0-19-505180-7, p. 306.

[96] "Голод 1932 - 1933 годов, рассказы очевидцев.Голод в Казахстане, Поволжье, Северном Кавказе иУкраине. Голодомор". Bibliotekar.ru. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

[97] "ФЭБ: Шолохов — Сталину И. В., 4 апреля 1933. —2003 (текст)". Feb-web.ru. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

[98] Постановление ЦИК СССР от 20.04.1936 о снятии сказачества ограничений по службе в РККА — Вики-тека (in Russian). Ru.wikisource.org. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

[99] Cossack Congress in America, official website

[100] “Samuel J. Newland The Cossack Volunteers".

[101] “Stalin’s Enemies”, Combat Magazine, Volume 03 Num-ber 01 Winter. ISSN 1542–1546

[102] The majority of White Army refugees held the anti-Naziviews and either refrained from the support of Germansor joined the Resistance.

[103] File:Ivan Hrechinjuk.JPG#file

[104] Die Kosaken im Ersten und Zweiten Weltkrieg, HaraldStadler (Hrsg), Innsbruck: Studienverlag, 2008, pp. 151,166, ISBN 978-3-7065-4623-2

22 10 SOURCES

[105] Hans Werner Neulen, An deutscher Seite, pp. 320, 459,Munich 1985

[106] Matthias Hoy (Ph.D.thesis), Der Weg in den Tod, pp.152–55, 473–76 (Vienna 1991)

[107] General Denikin, who had been an anti-Nazi activist andchampion of Western aid to the Red Army, in vain triedto explain to Western allies that many Cossacks in Naziservice, such as Old-Believers, had never been Nazis, hadunderstood nothing of Nazi ideology or anti-Communism.They believed they were fighting their traditional waragainst Eastern Orthodox missionaries, Roman Catholics,etc. Cossacks saved many Serbs, Jews, Gypsies, Com-munists, and others from the Ustashi. They made falsemarriages to save many Russian prisoners held in workcamps.

[108] Казаки: общие сведения[Cossacks: general informa-tion]. rusnations.ru (in Russian). 2006. Archived fromthe original on 2007-12-26.

[109] Cole, Jeffrey E., ed. (2011). Ethnic Groups of Europe: AnEncyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 80. ISBN 978-1-59884-302-6.

[110] Toje, Hege (Nov 2006). “Cossack Identity in the NewRussia: Kuban Cossack Revival and Local Politics”.Europe-Asia Studies (Taylor & Francis, Ltd.) 58 (7):1057–1077. ISSN 0966-8136. JSTOR 20451288.

[111] Hughes, James and Sasse, Gwendolyn: Ethnicity and terri-tory in the former Soviet Union: regions in conflict. Taylor& Francis, 2002, page 107. ISBN 0-7146-8210-1

[112] Sabra Ayres (26 November 2014). “Opportunists takeadvantage of eastern Ukraine leadership confusion”. AlJazeera. Retrieved 7 August 2015.

[113] Andrew E. Kramer (4 August 2015). “Cossacks FaceGrim Reprisals From Onetime Allies in Eastern Ukraine”.The New York Times. Retrieved 7 August 2015.

[114] Grinevetsky, Sergei R.; Zonn, Igor S.; Zhiltsov, Sergei S.;Kosarev, Aleksey N.; Kostianoy, Andrey G. (2015). TheBlack Sea Encyclopedia. Berlin: Springer. p. 126. ISBN9783642552274. Retrieved 2014-12-11. Kuren—unit ofa Cossack troop.

[115] "Сопредельные с ними (поселенцами – Ред.) по"Горькой линии" казаки ... поголовно обучалисьКиргизскому наречию и переняли некоторые,впрочем, безвредные привычки кочевого народа".Генерал-губернатор Казнаков в докладе АлександруIII, 1875. "Among – Edit. neighbouring (settlers -Edit.)in Gor'kaya Liniya, Cossacks ... everyone learnt Kyrgyslanguage and adopted some, harmless though, habits ofnomadic folks.” quote from Report of Governor-GeneralKaznakov to Tzar Alexander III, 1875.

[116] Богаевский А.П. Ледяной поход. Воспоминания 1918г.

[117] “Russia’s Cossacks rise again :: Russia’s Cossacks riseagain”. news.bbc.co.uk (BBC News). 2007-08-09. Re-trieved 2007-08-09.

[118] Sergey Pavlovich Korolev, Yablor blog

[119] Heifetz, Elias (1921). The Slaughter of the Jews in theUkraine in 1919. Thomas Seltzer, Inc.

[120] Milovidov, Bessonov. Polish prisoners of war in 1812–1814. http://adjudant.ru/captive/bes06.htm

[121] Plokhy, Serhii (2012). The Cossack Myth: History andNationhood in the Age of Empires. New Studies in Euro-pean History (Reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press.p. 357. ISBN 9781107022102. Retrieved 2015-01-27.[...] the Russian used by the Ukrainian elite of the lateeighteenth and early nineteenth centuries [...] was stronglyinfluenced by the military and bureaucratic terminologyof the period (the hallmark of the Cossack elite’s impe-rial experience) [...]. The increasing influence of Russian[...] gave evidence of the new cultural situation in the Het-manate, which had all the hallmarks of a colonial setting.

[122] Khodarkovsky, Michael (2004). Russia’s Steppe Fron-tier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500-1800.Indiana-Michigan series in Russian and East Europeanstudies (Reprint ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN9780253217707. Retrieved 2015-01-27.

[123] Boris Almazov, Cossack Tragedy, Boris Almazov website

[124] The Cossacks are listed as a sub-ethnic minority groupof Russians, along with Pomory, another kind of Slavicminority

10 Sources

• Avrich, Paul (1976) [1972]. Russian Rebels, 1600–1800. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-00836-4.

• Knotel, Richard; Knotel, Herbert; Sieg, Herbert(1980). Uniforms of the World: A Compendium ofArmy, Navy and Air Force Uniforms 1700–1937.New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

• Newland, Samuel J. (1991). Cossacks in the GermanArmy, 1941–1945. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-3351-0.

• Summerfield, Stephen (2005). Cossack Hurrah:Russian Irregular Cavalry Organisation and Uni-forms during the Napoleonic Wars. Partizan Press.ISBN 1-85818-513-0.

• Summerfield, Stephen (2007). The Brazen Cross:Brazen Cross of Courage: Russian Opochenie,Partizans and Russo-German Legion during theNapoleonic Wars. Partizan Press. ISBN 978-1-85818-555-2.

• O'Rourke, Shane (2008). The Cossacks. Manch-ester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-7680-0.

23

11 Further reading• H. Havelock, The Cossacks in the Early SeventeenthCentury, English Historical Review, Vol. 13, No. 50(Apr., 1898), pp. 242–260, JSTOR

• "The Cossack Corps", General der Flieger HellmuthFelmy, US Army Historical Division, Hailer Pub-lishing, 2007

• Le Fiamme di Zaporoze -Flames of Zaporoze –Novel on Zaporozhian Cossacks of hetman IvanMazepa. ISBN 88-6155-268-4

12 External links• Cossacks during the Napoleonic Wars

• Zaporizhian Cossacks

• History of Ukrainian Cossacks at Encyclopedia ofUkraine

• Soviet Cossacks – an issue of the propaganda jour-nal USSR in Construction which presents numerousimages of Cossack life in Soviet Russia.

• Cossack Nation Livejournal

• Cossack Nation – The Social Network of EthnicCossacks

• The Congress of Cossacks in America

• Pirate, Rebel, Freedom Fighter, Champion of thePoor

24 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text• Cossacks Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossacks?oldid=676420249 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Epopt, Szopen, Andre Engels,

Roadrunner, Space Cadet, SimonP, Leandrod, Paul Barlow, Gabbe, Ixfd64, Skysmith, Ijon, Xamian, Nikola Smolenski, Timwi, RickK,Pedant17, Maximus Rex, Itai, Wetman, Dimadick, Robbot, Donreed, Jmabel, Altenmann, Nilmerg, Clngre, Cholling, Halibutt, Radomil,Von Fiszman, JackofOz, Mdmcginn, Lysy, Centrx, Yeti~enwiki, DocWatson42, Rafaelgr, Obli, Ausir, Varlaam, DO'Neil, Ezhiki, Ee-quor, PeterC, Chowbok, Gadfium, Quite, Pgan002, Kjetil r, Piotrus, Kaldari, Emax, Oneiros, Untifler, Mzajac, Maximaximax, Krupo,Karl-Henner, Lanceant, Cglassey, Burschik, Irpen, Canterbury Tail, Lacrimosus, Esperant, Thorwald, Mike Rosoft, KNewman, Discospin-ster, 4pq1injbok, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Hydrox, Vsmith, Bishonen, LeeHunter, Dbachmann, Aranel, Blue Kitsune, Julius.kusuma,Kwamikagami, Vecrumba, Kross, RoyBoy, Thuresson, Vervin, Dungodung, Giraffedata, La goutte de pluie, Nk, Fox1, Pearle, Wayfarer,Ogress, Alansohn, Uncle.bungle, SnowFire, Ryanmcdaniel, Babajobu, Cjthellama, Mlessard, Walkerma, Jvano~enwiki, Malo, Caesura,SidP, Suruena, Evil Monkey, Proski, Kober, Pensman61, Kusma, Ghirlandajo, Axeman89, Marianika~enwiki, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty,Etacar11, Sburke, Myleslong, Kelisi, Isnow, AndriyK, Eras-mus, Karmosin, SDC, NightOnEarth, BD2412, MC MasterChef, Nlsanand,Behemoth, Rjwilmsi, Missmarple, Ligulem, Kazak, Valip, Olessi, Vuong Ngan Ha, FlaBot, Naraht, Ground Zero, Winstonho0805, Gurch,Russavia, Valentinian, Mongreilf, Spasemunki, Volunteer Marek, Bgwhite, Gap, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Noclador, James Honan-Hallock, Hairy Dude, Brandmeister (old), Hack, Hede2000, Gaius Cornelius, Alex Bakharev, Wiki alf, Aeusoes1, The Ogre, Voyevoda,Welsh, Aaron Schulz, LaotianBoy1991, Chesnok, Thnidu, Nikkimaria, Josh3580, Bandurist, Curpsbot-unicodify, Nixer, Cabdude, DVDR W, Coldbourne, Yvwv, Aihre, Yakudza, Imrek, SmackBot, Kuban kazak, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, WikiuserNI, Twinkling, Rock-RockOn, Eskimbot, Waynem, Antidote, Andrew Alexander, IstvanWolf, Commander Keane bot, Hmains, Poulsen, Kurykh, TimBent-ley, Jprg1966, Hibernian, Xx236, RamBow, JoeCool59, Ben-Velvel, Colonies Chris, Jacob no. 9, Sct72, Bryndza, Can't sleep, clownwill eat me, Geoffrey Matthews, Ewjw, Mwinog2777, Ukrained, Jbhood, JesseRafe, Krich, Makemi, Dave-ros, Jklin, Lute88, Kristianthe Conqueror, Sigma 7, Riurik, Jonnyapple, DDima, Jgrimmer, Joeyramoney, Ck lostsword, Pat Holscher, Esrever, Swatjester, MikeStoyik, Trojan traveler, Zahid Abdassabur, Shrew, Horlo, Mgiganteus1, Don Alessandro, Neddyseagoon, Peyre, Sifaka, GorillazFanAdam,DabMachine, Iridescent, Clarityfiend, JoeBot, Noitalever, GiantSnowman, Khosrow II, Threadnecromancer, Adam Keller, CmdrObot,Calmargulis, Ale jrb, Bargen, Ipaat, Demandthetruth, ShelfSkewed, NE Ent, Richard Keatinge, Todgar, C33, Future Perfect at Sun-rise, KPbIC, Galassi, Andlek, Grahamec, Steel, Biancorossa, Anonymi, Srajan01, Janibek and Kerey, Christian75, KKonstantin, Buistr,Thijs!bot, Wikiwow, Epbr123, Faustian, Aurelien Langlois, Jd2718, Mibelz, Vidor, Marek69, Kathovo, Pavel from Russia, James086,DrWD, Matthew Proctor, Dawnseeker2000, Algrene, Oreo Priest, Cyclonenim, AntiVandalBot, Smith2006, Jayron32, Fayenatic london,Vanjagenije, Mahhag, Credema, Ingolfson, Golgofrinchian, Sluzzelin, DagosNavy, JAnDbot, Matthew Fennell, RIH-V, Igodard, Rothorpe,Lomis, Acroterion, Magioladitis, WolfmanSF, VoABot II, Mindgoneawol, Buckshot06, Korenyuk, Prairie Cossack, Eldumpo, Alex Kov,E104421, Enquire, 9693, Jacob Peters, MartinBot, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Gw2005, Alaexis, Pomte, DrKiernan, Erusse estelinya, Altes,Aleksandr Grigoryev, Pointlessforest, NekroPenguin, Baba762, MistyMorn, Hodja Nasreddin, Hillock65, Mrg3105, Student7, Sculptor-jones, CatoMinor~enwiki, KylieTastic, Kai a simon, Interlaker, Sergiymelnyk, Vkt183, BernardZ, Idioma-bot, Glossologist, VolkovBot,Thomas.W, Iosef, Ivasyk, Bandera16, Bandera17, Fejj the ritual, TheQuandry, Nroscha, Philip Trueman, ComradeQ, Mowsbury, Camer-alumina, Lvivske, Mkpumphrey, Erosion3, Jalo, S2grand, Spring01, Crispy park, Pharohl, Austriacus, Bohr-Einstein, SieBot, StAnselm,Coffee, Brenont, OberRanks, Ostap R, Work permit, Gerakibot, Vexorg, Lunoma, Smsarmad, Yintan, FunkMonk, Qst, Vmrgrsergr,Skillet5, Doncsecz~enwiki, Sanya3, OKBot, SergeiXXX, Belligero, Islamablad, Prof saxx, Jma2120, Kanonkas, Miyokan, Explicit, West-coastjazzer, ImageRemovalBot, Danausplexippus, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Danylo18, Cambrasa, Dingiswayo, Mild Bill Hiccup,Leodmacleod, Niceguyedc, Florestanova, Bobanni, Parkwells, Arne Heise, Solar-Wind, Greggerr, Auntof6, Zlerman, DragonBot, Excirial,Crywalt, Leontios, Docsys01, Kanġi Oĥanko, Sun Creator, Snman37922, 7&6=thirteen, AllenHansen, Elizium23, Agor153, SchreiberBike,Aitias, DerBorg, Orkh, JJR PL, Theriusthechronicler, XLinkBot, John Bahrain, Wikiuser100, Ost316, Rehsok, Vegas949, Californiaarts,Kbdankbot, Bglong11, Addbot, Beamathan, AkhtaBot, Electron, Leszek Jańczuk, USchick, Download, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot, Iakov,Alandeus, 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Shishkin, Sevastopolis, Eveand-steven, Hetman Skoropadsky, KasparBot, Francisdrake1588, IAmAmanis and Anonymous: 587

13.2 Images• File:22._Kozak_z_golovoju_tatarina.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/22._Kozak_z_golovoju_

tatarina.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ЛЂТОПИСНОЕ ПОВЂСТВОВАНІЕ О МАЛОЙ РОССІИ И ЕЯ НАРОДЂ ИКОЗАКАХЪ ВООБЩЕ. Cобрано и составлено чрезъ труды инженеръ-генералъ-маіора и кавалера Александра Ригельмана 1785-86 года. Москва. 1847. [1] [2] Original artist: Tymofiy Kalynskyi

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Cossack_Mamay_1890.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Cossack_Mamay_1890.jpg License:

13.2 Images 25

Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Ф.Стовбуненко• File:DedPogadaev.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b8/DedPogadaev.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

personal archive of Victor PogadaevOriginal artist:unknown

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• File:PG_-_Semireche_Cossack.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/PG_-_Semireche_Cossack.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: Фотографии Сергея Михайловича Прокудина-Горского (1863-1944) Восстановленные врамках народного проекта

Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii Collection (Library of Congress)Original artist: Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii, digital rendering by Natalia Anatolevna Pekova

• File:Pic_I_V_Ivasiuk_Mykola_Bohdan_Khmelnytskys_Entry_to_Kyiv.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Pic_I_V_Ivasiuk_Mykola_Bohdan_Khmelnytskys_Entry_to_Kyiv.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/picturedisplay.asp?linkpath=pic\char"005C\relax{}I\char"005C\relax{}V\char"005C\relax{}Ivasiuk%20Mykola%20Bohdan%20Khmelnytskys%20Entry%20to%20Kyiv.jpg Original artist: Mykola Ivasiuk

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26 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Kaminski_%281944%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan from 8 × 5 cm print from Marek Tuszyński’s collection of WWIIprints. In the 1960’s the negative of the photo was residing in Archive of Party History record A-3798. Original artist: Unknown

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• File:Zaporozhian_Cossacks_Officer_in_1720.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Zaporozhian_Cossacks_Officer_in_1720.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/dgkeysearchdetail.cfm?trg=1&strucID=280570&imageID=439056&parent_id=280512&word=&snum=&s=&notword=&d=&c=&f=&sScope=&sLevel=&sLabel=&total=38&num=24&imgs=12&pNum=&pos=28# Original artist: Anonymous plate

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