Correlation of Quaternary glaciations in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales

CORRELATION OF QUATERNARY GLACIATIONS IN ENGLAND, IRELAND,SCOTLAND AND WALES

D.O. BowenDepartment of Geography, Royal Holloway and Bedford New College, University of London, Egham Hill, Surrey

TW200EX, UK.J. Rose

Department of Geography, Birkbeck College, University of London, 7-15 Gresse St., London WIP PA, UK.A.M. McCabe

School of Environmental Sciences, University of Ulster, Shore Road, Newtownabbey, Co. Antrim BT37 OQB,Northern Ireland

and

D.G. Sutherland2 London St., Edinburgh EH36NA, UK.

England

INTRODUCTION correlation with the Netherlands (Zagwijn, 1975; Roseet al, 1985a; Mayhew and Stuart, 1986). Hitherto, U-

Extensive lithological evidence for glaciation, with a series and TL ages, on material older than thesound stratigraphic basis has been recognised in two Ipswichian, have yet to contribute significantly to thestages of the English Pleistocene: the Anglian and British Quaternary chronostratigraphy, and the role ofDevensian. Additionally, less extensive or indirect amino acid ratios is developed and discussed in thislithological evidence, often with a less secure strati- paper. Even the Matuyama-Brunhes geomagneticgraphic basis, indicates that glaciation occurred in at boundary has yet to be recognised within the Britishleast a further six cold episodes. Some of these can be Quaternary sequence.defined within the British Pleistocene stratigraphic Within this framework, the boundary between thesequence: the Baventian, Pre-Pastonian, and Bees- Middle and Late Pleistocene is taken as the base of thetonian, but others can only be ascribed to intervals of Ipswichian/Oxygen Isotope Stage 5e with an age of 132time that still await effective definition. ka. This differs from the conventional boundary at the

The full stratigraphic sequence recognised in base of the Wolstonian, as expressed in West (1977a),England is shown in Table 1. This sequence is based on but is preferred because of its distinctive stratigraphicMitchell et al. (1973), with modifications from sub- signature and its global applicability. In the case ofsequent publications (West, 1980; Shotton, 1983a; England, the adoption of the base of the Ipswichian asMayhew and Stuart, 1986; and Mayhew, 1985, which the boundary of the Middle and Upper Pleistocene alsowas submitted for publication subsequent to Mayhew has the advantage of avoiding the hitherto unresolvedand Stuart, 1986). The stages are climatostratigraph- succession centred around the 'Wolstonian Glaciation'ically based, derived almost entirely from the climatic which will be discussed below. In the absence of theinterpretation of biostratigraphy [palynology (West, palaeomagnetic yardstick provided by the Matuyama-1970)] supported by microtine rodent evolution (May- Brunhes boundary for the separation of the Early andhew, 1985; Mayhew and Stuart, 1986). In consequence, Middle Pleistocene in England, it is almost inevitablethe glacial episodes are, at present, placed within the that this position is not securely fixed. West (1977a)sequence solely by reference to the non-glacial events. places this in the hiatus between the Pastonian and

The geochronology of the Ipswichian, Devensian and Baventian as a result of correlation with the NetherFlandrian is derived from radiocarbon dates and lands (Zagwijn, 1975), but more recent work oncorrelation with the Oxygen Isotope stratigraphy (Shot- microtine rodent assemblages has allowed a moreton, 1977; Bowen, 1979). The remainder is derived by precise correlation and has placed the boundary be-

299

300 Quaternary Science Reviews

TABLE 1. English Pleistocene sequence, indicating episodes of glaciation (based on Mitchell et al.,1973; West, 1980; Shotton, 1983; Mayhew and Stuart, 1986, Mayhew, 1985)

Stage nameGlacial/cold in

capitals

Substage namewith evidenceof glaciation

Glacial event or evidence of glaciation

Loch Lomond ReadvanceDimlington glaciation

Lowestoft GlaciationNorth Sea Drift Glaciation

Late DevensianDEVENSIANIpswichian

-------------------------hiatus------LATE/MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE BO UNDARY --------------..-.-------"WOLSTONIAN" Welton glaciation

HoxnianANGLIAN

erratics in Satwell and Beaconfield Gravels

Cromerian----------------------- hiatus------MIDDLE/EARLY PLEISTOCENE BOUNDARY ------------------------BEESTONIAN erratics in Gerrards Cross Gravels--------------------------- hiatus ---------------------------

PastonianPRE-PASTONIAN d

cba

--------------------------- hia tus ---------------------------BAVENTIAN--------------------------- hiatus ---------------------------

Bramertonian--------------------------- hiatus ---------------------------

Antian--------------------------- hiatus ---------------------------THURNIAN

Ludhamian-----.--------------------- hiatus ---------------------------?PRE-LUDHAMIAN

erratics in Westland Green Gravelserratics in Stoke Row Gravelserratics in Baventian clays and sands

tween the Early and Middle Pleistocene in a hiatusbetween the Pastonian and Beestonian.

Currently certain problems concerning the glacialhistory of England are of particular importance. Theseare a consequence of recent regional and stratigraphicstudies, but await further research before a generalagreement can be expected.

(a) The number, extent and age of glaciations in thelater part of the Early Pleistocene. At present theevidence for these glacial episodes is derived solelyfrom glaciofluvial sediments of the Thames river systemin south midland and eastern England.

(b) The number, extent and age of glaciations in theinterval between the Hoxnian and Ipswichian Interglacials. Conventionally, the Wolstonian Glaciation isattributed to this period of time, but the stratigraphicbasis of this glaciation is now considered questionable,and a variety of evidence indicates a more complexglacial history.

(c) The status and extent of glaciation during theDevensian Stage prior to the Dimlington Stadial, that is,the period of time equivalent of Oxygen Isotope Stage4.

STRATIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

In England a formal lithostratigraphy has developedin a very ad hoc fashion (Rose, in press). Although typesites for the glacial stages of the English Quaternarywere specified in Mitchell et al. (1973), these were

selected on the basis of existing publications and thequality of description of these sites and their regionalcontext varies considerably. At present only theAnglian and Devensian glaciations are adequatelydefined with satisfactory stratotypes (Rose, in press),and these are the only two glaciations that can bereconstructed with any degree of confidence. A tentative correlative table giving some of the main elementsof the English lithostratigraphy is given in Table 2.

The range of stratigraphic methods employed toidentify, describe and date glaciations in England variesconsiderably with litho-, bio-, morpho- and soil stratigraphy used in the interpretation of the glacial events inthe latter part of the Devensian; litho-, bio-, and soilstratigraphy used in the Middle Pleistocene, and lithoand biostratigraphy in the Early Pleistocene. Likewise,the abundance of evidence of glaciation varies with age,so that the Late Pleistocene glaciations can be identified extensively and traced relatively precisely fromlandforms and sediments, Middle Pleistocene glaciations are identified primarily on the basis of sedimentswhich show varying degrees of dissection, and theinterpretation of Early Pleistocene glaciations is basedon lithological traces from other rocks, supported bybiostratigraphic evidence for climatic deterioration.

Thus, the Loch Lomond Readvance of the LateDevensian has been mapped with great precision in theLake District of northwest England (Sissons, 1980),and individual corrie and valley glaciers can be identified with sufficient detail as to be able to reconstruct

Quaternary Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere 301

o 10I

100I

kmDURHAM

CUMBRIA

Green

CovetutheEaston

Bavents

_Waldringfield

.Norwich

Dover

NORFOLK

Barford.

EASTANGLIA

.Wrettan

~---,_.......--,:>-~....!!:Bee5 tonCromer Sidestrand

Mundesley pa~~~PiSbUrgh

Sea

fambridge

.WeltonIe Wold

!eterborough

LINCOLNSHIRE

North

0'"~o""" Sewerby

<>::'"x~ HOLDERNESSf£o)-

·Wing

....Z

'"'a:....

• Thrussington

EAST

.leicester.Oadby

-KildaleNORTH YORK

MOORS

OF

YORKOUSELOWLANDS

VALE

.BeaconsfieldWinter Hill--M.!!tO.L E .Gerrard's

Stoke Row·. THAM ES t-eros'SSetweu" VALLEY

Slade Oak Lane

YORKSHIRE

.QuandonWaterman's Lodge WestlandJIRamsden Heath Marsworth Gree,; Marks Tey·

••• :..CF~:'~:nd "" HERTFORDS/t'REUPPER· .~WoI.ercote "\ ~~ O~ 1'''''. Westm,1I E SSE XTHAMES Oxford ,v v~ t>-v'O Hatfield

VALLEY "Suqwor rh cf ~I'","\OXFORDSHIRE

MIDLANDS. • .Wolston

Baqinton ·Ounsmore

-Lillington

.Netchells-Birmingham

MIDLANDS

.Four Ashes

Wolverhampton.

.Stockport

eChelford·Oakwood

Quinton-

STAFFORDSHIRE

WEST

Trvsuu ,

LANCASHIRE

LAKE.Blea

DISTRICT WaterBtetham" ·Windermere

Bog

Irish

Sea

•Tremeirchion. " ,Pontnewydd \-: CHESHIRE

CLWYD "t.tav" ';

/~,-~-~~JBERWYNS )r- .EI~smere

r'~l" SHROPSHIRE

r"l eShrewsburv

/< r,--"~1j

r:

""

WALES::((

c"I\

\-,

\1~ ...."",

'\-;

I),~

Bristol

ENGLAND Calais

FIG. 1. Localities in England referred to in the text. The northernmost part of England and localites in southwest England areshown on Figs 3 and 4 respectively.

TABLE 2. Element s of English lithostratigraphy. The basis of lithostratigraphic associations is given in the text.

Stage GlacIal Glacial Fluv ial Soil Strat igraphic Morine.

Names Episodes LlthastrotiQrophic Unit s Lithostra tigra phic Units Units Lithostratigraphic Un,ts

wFLANDRIANz

wU

loch Lomond GlaCiation . Sproughton Grovels0.... Pltstone S.O, l(/) Late Stockport Formation Iw DEVE~S IAN D,mlington GlaCiation SklPl&o and Witn. rnseo TIUs Tottersholl Grovel s..J0- M,ddle CMltord Sonds FormatIonw Earl y....<I

IPSWICt-, I AN Troutbeck SOil..J

w Glaciat ion In North - Welton Til l I Basement Ston ton Harcourt GrovelszEast England Till/? OakwOOd Tillw

:5.... HOXNI AN Swon,coni:lI Low., Loam and Nor Vallet Beds(/)MIddle Grovels

W Swan. combe Low. r Gro.... l...J Lowestoft GloClotoonI TrtOSSlc Til l l Lowestoft 8\OCk POtk Grovels0- North Sea Oroft Till /North Sea Drift WGtv.rcot. Grovels I Barham Soil Sworte Bonk Format ionw ANGLI AN

GlaCiation Ti lls W lnttr H ill Grovelsl..J Westm ,U Grove lS8 sBocton Member (t )~ CROMERI AN Sugworth Sands

Volley Form SOil .- ::-

BEESTONIANIGlaciation In West E e Gerrords Cross Grovels I "" ~ We.' RlJf\ton~...

Midlands and North Wales 1s .2 Cook, Groen Grovel, EIsRunton Member Im.f)"'- 0u.PASTONI AN .... - °1 U'tlPoston Member (m )c 9t E

GlCClotlon In Wilt 2~&8eacons fleld Grave's I..

PRE-P~STON I AN C OlMidlands and NOtth Wales E - Woldnno' ·ed Gravel'

I~b Is;~ I ; Shertnghom Member ( f)

u. EO

! ~;:::::::::aGlaciOl Ion in Wilt Q) £~ Westland GrHn GrOvelsl

w Midlands and North Wales ~ Q) ~ Wat erman' , Lodoe Grovel'Z l;.~~W GlOC lo lion In We stU ~ - 2 StOke ROw Grovel'l0 Mldlonca and North Wete, ~ ~ ..... 8a ylhom Corrrnon Grove li....(/) gwesueton Bedsw s: .-..J

BAVENTIA~; L p 4 · GlOC lot lon In i ~ Baventian Cloys and Sonds0- Nort h S.a R.qton,..

BRAM~R TONIAIIl~&CMluford ClavNl

..J nilluford SondMe"'OerQ: ·<I At\T1AN Lp 3w · 0' gL"dhom C ro~ f.lember""HU'l r-:rt.N Lp 20-· uoLUOHAMI AN Lp I~t

PRE- LUDHAMI AN Q:~ Red Crog Member

I.;J

s

oc~o...:::l~

-<if.<>:::lg;.::l<><~.

'"

Notes : x Sediment s recorded .but not suitably defined

+ Includes f reshwater lithostratigraphic units in north Norf olk ond Suffolk (West . i980 0) (f ) . Freshwater (rn) · Mori ne .

• Pollen stoqes of Ludhom Borehole


detailed ice-flow paths, patterns of ice wastage and theequilibrium line altitude during their maximum extent.Abundant glaciogenic sediments from the MiddlePleistocene allow the reconstruction of the maximumextent of glaciers during the Anglian Stage, withinformation about the main ice-flow paths, and possiblereadvances (Gibbard, 1977; Perrin et al., 1979). Incontrast, the evidence for glaciation in the EarlyPleistocene is indirect so that the presence of glaciersource areas can only be inferred from glaciofluvial orglaciomarine sediments, and only very general inferences can be made about glacier extent and sourceareas. Thus it is only possible to suggest that activeglaciation caused considerable erosion in north Walesand the northwest Midlands of England during the laterpart of the Early Pleistocene (Hey and Brenchley,1977; Hey, in press) and an ice sheet existed somewhere in the southern North Sea region during theBaventian Stage (Funnell and West, 1962; West et al.,1980).

By far the most complete evidence for glaciationexists in the lowland areas of East Anglia, the east andwest Midlands, east Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cheshire,Shropshire and Cumbria. This distribution appears tobe due to the extensiveness of glacial depositionproducing thick bodies of glacial sediments, and therelative inefficiency of subaerial erosion since glacialdeposition. Additionally much of these areas alsoappear to have suffered relatively little erosion duringglaciation so that pre-existing sediments survive and astratigraphic sequence can be established.

Thus, the traces of the Early Pleistocene glaciationsare to be found in East Anglia and the Upper andMiddle Thames Valley as part of marine or fluviatilesediment assemblages. The evidence for the laterMiddle Pleistocene glaciations is to be found as tills inEast Anglia, the east Midlands and Lincolnshire andeast Yorkshire. The Lowestoft Till and related facies ofthe Anglian Glaciation extends across much of this areaand is the most extensive glacial deposit in England(Perrin et al., 1979; Rose, in press). In many respects itforms the most important stratigraphic marker in theEnglish Pleistocene. The only evidence for postAnglian and pre-Devensian glaciation that has clearstratigraphic context takes the form of till in eastLincolnshire and east Yorkshire, although it is possiblethat deposits of this age also occur in the westMidlands.

The evidence for the Late Pleistocene glaciation isbest found in the lowland areas of the Irish SealLancashire/Cheshire/Shropshire, the Vale of York/upper Trent valley, and the North Sea/east Yorkshire/east Lincolnshire, each of which were occupied bymajor ice-lobes and represent the southernmostextension of Late Devensian glaciers. Much of the restof northern England is covered by glacial deposits ofthis age, but these deposits are generally less continuous and without a clear stratigraphic context. LateDevensian glacial deposits also occur in the lowlandsalong the Welsh borderland. Evidence for ice marginal

oscillations during the wastage of the Late Devensianice sheet is to be found in the lowland around the IrishSea, with ice derived from source areas either in NorthWales or Scotland. The evidence for the Loch LomondReadvance, which is the final event in the glacialhistory of England, differs from that of earlier glaciations in that it is found primarily in upland areas,being restricted to the glacier source areas in themountains of north west England, and is identifiedprimarily on the basis of landforms supported byindirect biostratigraphy.

EARLY PLEISTOCENE GLACIATIONS

Baventian GlaciationThe evidence for glaciation during the Baventian

Stage of the Early Pleistocene is found in marinedeposits in East Anglia. The type site is at EastonBavents (Funnell and West, 1962; Norton and Beck,1972) and complementary evidence has also beenrecorded at Covehithe (West et al., 1980). The evidence takes the form of far travelled, fresh, heavyminerals (Solomon, in Funnell and West, 1962), andsmall clasts of chert from Yorkshire (Hey, 1976) in bluelaminated sublittoral marine clays. The source andcharacter of these minerals and rocks is such that it hasbeen suggested that they were transported into theregion by a 'North Sea ice sheet', then redistributed tothe observed localities by marine currents. Support forglaciation is also provided by analysis of the pollen,foraminifer and mollusc assemblages, which indicatearctic marine conditions adjacent to a land mass with avegetation cover of grass heath, and woodland insheltered localities.

On the basis of erratic content, Catt (1982) hassuggested that the remnants of glacial deposits ofBaventian age are to be found on the Yorkshire Wolds.

Later Early Pleistocene GlaciationsIt is necessary to group the glaciations of the later

Early Pleistocene together as the evidence for theirexistence takes the form of erratic materials from northWales and the west Midlands, and glacially fracturedsand grains found in a series of river deposits along theThames valley and over much of East Anglia. This wasfirst suggested by Hey (1965) and has since beenelaborated by Rose et al. (1976), Rose and Allen(1977), who have also described intraformational icewedge casts from the deposits further supporting severeclimatic conditions, and Hey and Brenchley (1977),Hey (1980,1986) Green et al. (1980, 1982) and Gibbard(1983, 1985). In the upper Thames region, where theyare almost entirely decalcified they are known as theNorthern Drift (Hey, 1986), in the middle Thamesregion they form the Middle Thames Gravel Formation(Gibbard, 1986) and in East Anglia they are known asthe Kesgrave Sand and Gravel Formation (Rose andAllen, 1977). At present, differentiation of these


deposits is based primarily on altitudinal positionsupported by clast lithology and soil stratigraphy(Gibbard, 1983, 1985; Green et al., 1980, 1982; Greenand McGregor, 1978, 1980; Hey, 1980, 1986; Hey andBrenchley, 1977; Kemp, 1985; McGregor and Green,1978, 1983; Rose and Allen, 1977; Rose et al., 1976,1985a). Taken together, the gravels associated withthese glaciations form the largest body of sortedsediments in the Quaternary of the British Isles andrepresent the onset of effective erosion of uplandBritain.

Their place within the English Pleistocene is established by relation of these sedimentary bodies to thesediments from which the pollen and microtine rodentstratigraphy of East Anglia has been derived (West,1980a, Mayhew, 1985, Mayhew and Stuart, 1986). Asthey overlie Bramertonian sediments at Bramerton(Funnell et al., 1979) and Baventian sediments atCovehithe (Hey, 1976), and are overlain by Cromeriandeposits along the north Norfolk coast (West, 1980a)they are placed within the Pre-Pastonian (a and c) andBeestonian (West, 1980a). This interpretation is supported by the presence of pollen ascribed to PrePastonian a and Beestonian from lithological equivalents of these sediments at Sidestrand and Beeston(West, 1980a). In the upper Thames these sedimentspre-date organic deposits at Sugworth near Oxford thathave been suggested, on biostratigraphic criteria, to beCromerian in age (Briggs et al., 1975; Shotton et al.,1980). Caution about correlations must however beretained, as the precise details await elaboration andthere is evidence for major hiatuses within the timeperiod concerned (Mayhew and Stuart, 1986). Thebody of sediment as a whole is equivalent to theYarmouth Roads Formation of the southern North Sea(Balson and Cameron, 1985) and the Sterksel Formation of the Netherlands (Zagwijn, this volume).

Historically, the Northern Drift has been interpretedas till because of the apparent lack of sorting andpresence of far-travelled material (Dines, 1928; Arkell,1947), and has been considered to be direct evidence ofpre-Anglian glaciation (Shotton et al., 1980). Recentstudies have concluded that part (Shotton et al., 1980)or the whole (Hey, 1986) of the deposit was laid downas a sorted sediment by rivers draining a catchment thatextended north of the Cotswolds escarpment wellbeyond that of the present river Thames, and that thefine fraction of the present deposit is the insolubleresidue of limestone clasts that originally comprised alarge proportion of the sediment. This view tends to beconfirmed by the survival of calcareous rocks in a deepsection at Sugworth, south of Oxford (Briggs et al.,1975) and the altitudinal variations in the content of fartravelled clasts, such as would be associated with stagesof river deposition related to varying sources ofsediment. A similar explanation has been proposed forthe Chiltern Drift (Green and McGregor, 1983), whichwas originally considered to be evidence for earlyglaciation in the area north of London (Wooldridge,1938).

Evidence for Glaciation Associated with the Stoke RowGravels

The Stoke Row Gravel Member of the MiddleThames Gravel Formation (Gibbard, 1985) is characterised by a dramatic increase in the proportion ofquartzite and vein quartz clasts relative to earliersediments within the Thames system. This is consideredto represent an influx of far travelled material into theThames from the Kidderminster Conglomerate outcrops (Bunter Pebble Beds) of the west Midlands,which outcrop north of the Cotswold scarp and are wellbeyond the present catchment of the river Thames.This unit is equated with the Baylham CommonMember in East Anglia (Allen, 1984), which alsoprovides the first record of an influx of far travelledmaterial. Although it is possible that this lithologicalproperty could be due to changes in catchment shape,the abrupt onset of the change, the quantity ofsediment and the distance and direction of travel allsuggest some extraneous control. It is suggested herethat the Stoke Row Gravels provide the first evidencefor glaciation, probably in the area of west MidlandEngland and north Wales. The age of the glaciationcannot be determined other than that it is younger thanthe Baventian and older than Pre-Pastonian a.

Evidence for Glaciation Associated with the WestlandGreen Gravels

Like the Stoke Row Gravel, the Westland GreenGravel is characterised by a large proportion of fartravelled stones, dominated by quartzite and veinquartz from the Kidderminster Conglomerate of thewest Midlands and including volcanic rocks from theBerwyn and Snowdon areas of north Wales (Hey andBrenchley, 1977; Hey, 1980; Green et al., 1980;Whiteman, 1983), although the proportions of these fartravelled materials are greater and the quantity ofsediment is larger. Indeed, these gravels are the mostextensive and have the largest volume of all the Thamesriver sediments. In the middle Thames and East Angliathe continuity of this sediment body has been determined by the character of the erratic content, altitudinal position and the degree of bleaching of quartzite and quartz pebbles. On the basis of the increase infar travelled material (McGregor and Green, 1978;Hey, 1980; Gibbard, 1985) a correlation is made withthe Waterman's Lodge Member of the Northern Drift(Hey, 1986). The vast quantity of far travelled material,some of which is from the highland areas of northWales and is angular and of boulder and cobble size,plus the evidence of glacial action from the surfacetexture of sand grains (Hey, 1980), gives considerablesupport to the suggestion made by Hey (1965) thatglaciation occurred within the upper part of the Thamesheadwaters. The occurrence of flint in the NorthernDrift of the upper Thames, in addition to the erraticsfrom north Wales and the west Midlands, suggests thatthis glaciation may have covered the Irish Sea as well asnorth Wales and adjacent parts of the west Midlands(Hey, pers. commun.) and rules out the possibility that


these far travelled materials could have been entrainedand transported solely by rivers.

This episode has been ascribed, on the basis oflithological similarity, with a 'marine conglomerate' atBeeston to the cold sub-stage defined on palynologicalgrounds as Pre-Pastonian a (West, 1980a; Hey, 1980, p.287). Further support for a glaciation of this age isprovided by the surface texture of sand grains fromSidestrand in north Norfolk which 'show the affects ofglacial action' (West, 1980a, p. 51; Krinsley andFunnell, 1965), and have been ascribed to the PrePastonian a on the basis of pollen stratigraphy.

Evidence for Glaciation Associated with the SatwellGravels and Beaconsfield Gravels

The Satwell and Beaconsfield Gravel Members ofthe Middle Thames Gravel Formation were depositedsuccessively after the Westland Green Gravels. On thebasis of lithology and altitudinal position they arecorrelated with the Waldringfield Gravel in East Anglia(Allen, 1984). Descriptions of these gravels recordeither a similarity or decrease in the percentage ofquartzite and vein quartz, but an increase in thepercentage of far travelled rocks (Green et al., 1982),indicating a further influx of erratic materia!. Consequently, this gravel body is also considered toindicate the presence of glaciation in the upper parts ofthe Thames drainage catchment. It is not possible onlithological grounds to make a specific correlation withthe pollen sequence of East Anglia, although in termsof stratigraphic position it may be the equivalent of PrePastonian c (West, 1980a).

Evidence for Glaciation Associated with the GerrardsCross Gravels

The Gerrards Cross Gravel Member of the MiddleThames Gravel Formation was deposited after theBeaconsfield Gravel (Gibbard, 1985). It is correlatedhere with the Freeland Terrace of the upper Thames,although this is not in agreement with Hey (1986), andthe Cook's Green Gravel of Essex (Bridgland, 1984).In the Middle Thames and Essex it is characterised byincreased frequencies of far-travelled lithologies(Green et al., 1982), and the highest frequencies of acidigneous rocks from north Wales (McGregor andGreen, 1978; Gibbard, 1985). It is considered toindicate possible glaciation in the upper catchment ofthe Thames drainage system (Hey, 1965; Hey andBrenchley, 1977), although Gibbard (1986) hasobserved that this interpretation is not supported bySEM studies of the surface texture of quartz grainsfrom the middle Thames region.

This sedimentary unit is the last to be supplied bysediment from north Wales and the west Midlands.Succeeding Thames river deposits are characterised bymaterial derived from the area of the present catchment and the adjacent regions over-ridden by Anglianice. Consequently percentages of quartzite, vein quartzand other erratics derived from the west Midlands andnorth Wales become progressively less important. The

Gerrards Cross Gravels are correlated on the basis ofthe lithological composition and lithostratigraphicposition, with marine Beestonian gravels at the typesite in north Norfolk, and are therefore considered tobe evidence of glaciation in western Britain during theBeestonian Stage. It is interesting to note that theabsence of erratics from northeastern England in thegravels at Beeston suggests that during the BeestonianStage the 'southern North Sea remained free of ice'(Hey, 1976, p. 79).

In conclusion, it is worth emphasizing the importanceand integrity of these later Early Pleistocene glaciations. Although no till of this age has yet beenconclusively identified, the glaciofluvial sediments laiddown along the lower parts of the Thames drainagesystem form by far the largest body of sorted sedimentin the Quaternary of Britain. They are lithologicallydistinctive, with clear differences from preceding andsucceeding sediments. The different members can bedistinguished across the region on lithological andmorphological criteria, supported in East Anglia bydifferent degrees of soil development on the respectiveterrace surfaces. The quantities of sediment involvedindicate massive erosion in the west Midlands andnorth Wales, and in terms of the depositional history ofthe English Pleistocene they record the initiation ofextensive erosion in upland Britain. Indeed it is duringthis time that the Triassic rocks of the west Midlandswere extensively eroded, and the low land nowoccupied by the Severn basin was initiated. It is difficultto identify any ice limits during these glacial episodes,although it is probably that on as many as fouroccasions ice reached the area of the English westMidlands.

MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATIONS

Anglian GlaciationThe type site for the Anglian Glaciation is at Corton

in north east Suffolk. Details of the stratigraphy, itseffectiveness as a type site, and the history of researchare given in Rose (in press). Two episodes of glaciationare recorded by the presence of two distinctive tilllithologies. The lower, Cromer Till, is attributed to theGunton Stadial, and the upper Lowestoft Glaciation tothe Lowestoft Stadia!' At Corton these tills are separated by sands which are interpreted as outwash (Bridgeand Hopson, 1985) and the interval between the twoglaciations is known as the Corton Interstadial,although the status of this episode as a climaticallydetermined event must be open to question (Rose, inpress). The Cromer Till is interpreted as having beendeposited by Scandinavian ice that moved into theregion from the north east, and the Lowestoft Till isconsidered to have been deposited by ice that originated in Scotland. The tills of the Lowestoft Glaciationare the most extensive in Eastern England reaching asfar south as the area of north London.

The stratigraphic position of the Anglian Glaciationis well defined and clearly observable at many sites in


East Anglia. Along the coast of northeast Norfolk andnorth Suffolk, Cromer Till overlies the Cromer ForestBed Formation which is of Cromerian age (West,1980a). By detailed analysis of the sedimentary characteristics and the associated pollen at a large number ofsites in this area, it has been possible to reconstruct anapparently full sequence through from the temperateconditions of the Cromerian Interglacial to the onset ofperiglacial climate and eventual overriding by theScandinavian ice sheet in the Anglian Glaciation(West, 1980a). The upper boundary of Anglian Glaciation is identified by the presence of Hoxnian biogenicdeposits overlying Lowestoft Till. This succession isknown at many sites in eastern England, and at Hoxne,Quendon, Barford, Nar Valley and Marks Tey acontinuous succession can be followed from the LateAnglian (IAn) to the Early Temperate substage of theHoxnian (HoI) (West, 1980b). Thus, the AnglianGlaciation in England is defined by relation to thebiostratigraphically defined Cromerian and Hoxniantemperate Stages.

Additional evidence for the Anglian Glaciation takesthe form of Early Anglian pollen assemblages biozoneswhich show a progressive deterioration of climate fromglassland with some pine, birch and alder woodland tograssland and finally sparse herb cover (West, 1980a;Rose et al., 1985b, Table 9.1). This deterioration ofclimate is also recorded by a well developed palaeosolknown as the Barham Soil (Rose et al., 1985a, b),which can be traced beneath the Anglian tills acrossmuch of East Anglia. This soil shows that permafrostconditions with ice-wedge development began in thesubstage defined on pollen evidence as Cromerian IVc.Additionally the Barham Soil includes, and is associated with, wind-blown silts and sands, which can beshown on mineralogical grounds to be derived from theAnglian glacigenic sediments rather than the existingKesgrave Sands and Gravels. These aeolian depositsprovide the first evidence for glaciation in Britaindaring the Anglian. Analysis of a wide range of macroand microscopic soil structures have enabled a detailedinterpretation of the climate prior to the over-riding ofthe area by Anglian ice, at a time when polar desertconditions existed and vegetation was either scarce orabsent, and suggest that the conditions at this timerepresent the most severe cold and regional aridity ofthe British Pleistocene (Rose et al., 1985b).

On a wider scale the Anglian Glaciation is correlatedwith the Swarte Bank Formation of the southern NorthSea (Balson and Cameron, 1985) and the PeeloFormation of the Netherlands (Zagwijn, 1974; TerWee, 1983). Extensive Elsterian glaciolacustrine sediments across north Germany (Lauenberg Clay, Ehlers,1983) and the Netherlands (potklei, Ter Wee, 1983)indicate the presence of a large proglacial lake acrossthe southern part of the North Sea basin. Drainage ofthis lake is believed to have caused the erosion of theEnglish Channel in the area between Calais and Dover,formation of plunge-pools at the base of waterfallswhere the lake overflow crossed the high barrier, and

the creation of a major palaeovalley system in theeastern part of the English Channel (Smith, 1984).

The North Sea Drift Glaciation is represented by theCromer Tills which are typically brown, sandy diamicts,and intervening glaciofluvial sand and gravels (Westand Banham, 1968; Banham et al., 1975; Bridge andHopson, 1985; Boulton et al., 1984). The full successionwhich can be seen at sites such as Happisburgh andMundesley (West, 1977) consists, from the baseupwards of:

Gimingham SandsThird Cromer TillMundesley SandsSecond Cromer TillIntermediate BedsFirst Cromer Till

Although the various tills show small, but distinctive,differences in colour and carbonate content theymaintain a lithological unity (Perrin et al., 1979),reflecting bulk derivation from the North Sea regionand far travelled clasts and minerals from Scandinavia.These tills are the equivalent of the decalcified NorwichBrickearth, which covers much of northeast Norfolk,and represents the extent of this glacial advance inEngland.

In the type area of north east Suffolk the LowestoftGlaciation is represented by the Lowestoft Till which isa grey, silt and clay rich diamict with predominantlychalk clasts. This sediment can be traced extensivelyacross eastern England with a texture, chemistry andmineralogy that is qualitatively and quantitativelydistinctive (Perrin et al., 1979). Locally the lithologyvaries with changes in the underlying source materials.For instance in east Lincolnshire and northwestNorfolk it is very chalk rich and known informally asthe Marly drift because the ice flow path was almostentirely over Cretaceous Chalk, whereas in parts ofEssex and Hertfordshire where the ice flow path hasbeen across the Kesgrave Sands and Gravels the basalunits of the Lowestoft Till has a high sand and gravelcontent. In Leicestershire this chalky till interdigitateswith a till rich in Triassic material showing contemporaneous deposition (Sumbler, 1983), and a similarTriassic till can be traced widely across the westMidlands (Rice, 1981). Thus on the basis of lithologicalcontinuity the Anglian Lowestoft Till, defined at thetype site at Corton, can be traced across most of easternEngland into the Midlands, and demonstrates theextent of ice cover during this glacial episode (Sumbler,1983; Rose, in press). The ice flow paths responsible forthe deposition of this sediment can be shown by thedistribution of bulk lithologies to have moved throughthe Wash and Fen basin, which was eroded during thisglaciation, and taken a radial flow as a piedmont lobeacross eastern England. The western margins of this icesheet appear to have been in contact with an ice sheetfrom the northwest (Shotton, 1983), resulting in theinterdigitation of the different till lithologies. The cause

Qu aternary Gla ciations in the Northern Hemisphere 307

Thus, glaciation in th is region is represented by thepresence of Triassic rich Thrussington Till which wasdeposited by an early ice adv ance from the northwest.Overlying Walston Clays and Sands indicate that icecover was followed by the development of a largeproglacial lake (Lake Harrison) in the area betweenBredon Hill and Leicester, held up by ice remaining inthe west and an ice front to the north (Shotton, 1953;Bishop , 1958) . Thi s lak e is estimated to have persistedfor several thousand year s (Shotton, 1976) . Finally thepresen ce of Oadby Till across much of the region , andextending as far south as Morton in the Marsh ,indicates that the area was overridden from thenortheast by the ice sheet which deposited the chalkyLowestoft Till . It was during thi s stage that thenorthwestern and northeastern ice sheets becameconfluent and the respective till sheets were superimposed . It is not unreason able to suppose that theearly adva nce of northwest ern ice is th e equivalent ofthe North Sea Drift in East Anglia , both of which werefollowed by, and became confluent with , the LowestoftTill from eastern Scotl and .

In addition to the Anglian deposits described fromthe east Midlands , pre-Hoxnian till has been recognisedat Quinton near Birmingham (Horton, 1974), and preHoxnian gravels have been recognised at Netchells inBirmingham (Kelly, 1964) , and Trysull (Morgan, 1973)southwest of Woverhampton , and in all cases havebeen attributed to the Anglian Glaciation. Althoughsuch a correlation is probable, regional studies of tilland gravel lithology have not been carr ied out and theregional context of these sites cannot be demonstrat ed .

Recognition of Anglian glaciation in Midl andEngland has further implications. Firstly it is clear thatthe Severn lowlands were in existe nce at thi s time (asopposed to being an upland part of the Thamescatchment as in the Early Pleistocene) , and receivedtheir most extensive glacial cover. This is in accord withthe att ribution of the maximum extension of glaciationin South Wales and th e Bristol Cha nnel to the A nglianGlaciation (see below on the section of this paper onWales and southwest England). Secondly, a dep os itbelow the Baginton/Lillington Gravels , ' known asBubbenhall Clay , which has been interpreted as till(Shotton 1953; although this interpretation has beenquestioned by Sumbler, 1983), may represent a preAnglian glaciation in the East Midland.

In terms of the Quaternary lithostratigraphy ofEngland, and as an independent stratigraphic control,it is important to establish the relationship between theAnglian Glaciation and the Thames river deposits andterraces. This is readily done in the area of the Vale of

of the radial flow pattern of the eastern ice sheet isattributed to travel across highly deformable bedmaterial from the Mesozoic clays and shales in theregion of the Wash and Fen basin.

The relationship between the ice sheet that depositedthe Cromer and Lowestoft Tills can be demonstrated innorth Norfolk and around Norwich where tills andoutwash from the two ice shee ts interdigitate, indicating that the two glaciers were in contact for at leastsome of the time (Banham et al., 1975; Cox andNickle ss, 1972) . The general successio n demonstratesthat the Scandinavian ice reached East Anglia first ,formed a barrier that diverted a Scottish ice sheetfromthe North Sea along a path that is now occupied by theWash . The absence of any sediments of the LowestoftGlaciation over the main part of northeast Norfolksuggests that the Scandinavian ice remained in this areathroughout Anglian glacierization.

Th e attribution of the glacial deposits of the eastMidlands to the Anglian Glaciation is not in agreementwith the widel y held belief that these deposits are ofWolstoni an age and include the type site for th eWolstonian Glaciation (Shotton , 1953, 1976, 1983b) .However , the line of argument presented here isdemonstrable both in the field and by laboratoryana lysis, and the view that the uniform till lithology canbe the product of two glaciations following similar flowpaths (Shotton , 1983b, p . 263), while perfectly reasonable must , logically, be without material support untilan intervening non-glacial sediment is recorded . Further material evidence for an Anglian age for the sedeposit s is now available from the lower members ofthe Wolstonian sediments, the Baginton/LillingtonGravels and the Baginton Sands, which can be tracedcontinuously into East Anglia where they underlieLowe stoft Till (Rose, unpubt.) . Additionally thedeposits at the type site of Walston are 'without clearconnection to either the preceding or subsequentintergl acial stages' (Bowen , 1978, p. 35) whereas theycan be related directly , on lithological criteria , to theAnglian type site at Corton (Rose , in press) .

Str ictly , this argument implies that the term 'Wolsto nian' sho uld be abandoned (see also Sumbler, 1983) ,and to a degree that has been the case in this section ofthe paper on Glaciation in England where reference ismade to the problem of 'glaciations between th eHoxnian and Ipswichian Interglacials' , but the term isret ained elsewhere for the purpose s of communicationand is shown in Table 1 in quotation marks. Adiscuss ion of the nature of glaciations in Englandaround this period of time is discussed in the followingsection, but the implications for our knowledge of th eAn glian Glaciation in England are considerable and arediscussed here.

The attribution of the glacial deposits of the eastMidlands to the Anglian Glaciation does not in any wayconflict with the interpretation of glacial events in thisregion (Shotton, 1953, 1976, 1983b; Bishop 1958; Rice,1968,1981 ; Douglas, 1980), the ma in elements of whichare represented by the following succession:

Dunsmore GravelUppe r Walston Clay lWolston SandLower Wolston ClayThrussington TillBaginton SandBaginton/Lillington Gravel s

Oadby Till


St. Albans where the Westmill Gravel can be relateddirectly to glacial outwash (Gibbard, 1977, 1978, 1979,1983, 1985; McGregor and Green, 1978). In the regionof the upper Thames the Evenlode valley acted as adrainage route for meltwater from the Anglian icesheet (Bishop, 1958) and fresh flint from this source isfound, for the first time, in the gravels of theWolvercote Terrace (Briggs and Gilbertson, 1973,1980; Briggs et al., 1985) which must therefore beconsidered of Anglian age. In the middle Thames theWinter Hill Gravels are the first to show an influx offresh flint, and these are correlated downstream withthe Westmill Gravels (Gibbard, 1983, 1985). Thus, thegravels of the Wolvercote Terrace are correlated withthe Winter Hill Gravels and Westmill Gravels and allare considered Anglian. Independent support for thiscorrelation is provided by the fact that the WolvercoteGravels are younger than the Cromerian sediments atSugworth (Briggs et al., 1985), and are dissected by achannel containing a Middle Acheulian hand-axeassemblage typical of Hoxnian Interglacial (Wymer,1968, 1974). Additionally the Winter Hill and WestmillGravels are overlain by Hoxnian Interglacial depositsat Slade Oak Lane and Hatfield in the middle Thamesvalley and Vale of S1. Albans respectively (Gibbard,1985).

In conclusion it can be seen that the evidence for theAnglian Glaciation in England is extensive and welldefined. At the present time, the tills of this ageprovide possibly the best lithological markers of theEnglish Pleistocene. The Anglian is the period that sawthe greatest changes in the evolution of the Englishlandscape. In particular it is the time when the drainageof East Anglia changed from an extensive series ofnortheastward sloping river terraces, to a glacial landscape composed primarily of till with a radial drainagepattern (Rose et al., 1985b). The period of the AnglianGlaciation also included the erosion of the low land ofthe Severn basin, and hill ranges like the Cotswoldsbecame prominent features. Finally it is the time whenthe river Thames was diverted from the Vale of St.Albans and Essex into its present route throughLondon.

Evidence ofan Additional Cold Period at the End of theAnglian Glaciation

In addition to the evidence for the Anglian glaciationgiven above note should also be taken of the observations of Wymer (1985) based on archaeologicalartifacts from sites such as Clacton and in the Thurrockarea. These can be interpreted to suggest that atemperate episode followed by a severe cold periodoccurred during the latter part of the period attributedto the Anglian Glacial Stage. As far as is known there isno evidence for glaciation during this cold period, but itis associated with coarse gravel sedimentation in theThames and a fall of sea-level.

Evidence for Glaciations Between the Hoxnian andIpswichian Interglacials

Evidence for glaciation between the Hoxnian and

Ipswichian Interglacials is far from clear. This appearsto be due to the fact that over much of England thisglaciation was less extensive than the succeeding LateDevensian glaciation, and consequently has beenwidely destroyed or obscured. The evidence that isavailable takes two forms: (i) tills in Durham, EastYorkshire and Lincolnshire, in northwest East Anglia,and in the west Midlands, and (ii) indirect sedimentaryor biological evidence for a cold episode between theHoxnian and Ipswichian, but without direct evidencefor the presence of glacier ice.

Tills in Durham, east Yorkshire and east Lincolnshire.The Basement Till of east Yorkshire (Catt and Penny,1966), the Welton Till of east Lincolnshire (Alabasterand Straw, 1976; Madgett and Catt, 1978), and theWarren House Till of coastal Durham (Francis, 1970)are correlated on their stratigraphic position beneathDevensian Till, the presence of Scandinavian erratics(Warren House Till, Basement Till) and a similarmineralogy (Basement Till, Welton Till). The age ofthese deposits is determined by the position of theBasement Till beneath an Ipswichian beach at Sewerby(Catt and Penny, 1966) and the position of the WeltonTill above gravels which are considered to be Hoxnianor younger from the presence of derived Acheulianartifacts (Wymer and Straw, 1977). The distinctivemineralogy allows these tills to be distinguished fromtills of Anglian and Devensian age, and they have beencorrelated across the North Sea with Saalian deposits ofthe Netherlands (Oele and Schuttenhelm, 1979).

Till above sediments containing artifacts in northwestNorfolk. In the northwestern part of East AngliaWymer (1985) has described a number of localitieswhere till overlies sediments which contain archaeological artifacts. As these artifacts are likely to beHoxnian at the oldest, and the sites are beyond thelimit of the Devensian glaciation the assumption ismade that these sites can be taken as evidence forglaciation between the Hoxnian and Ipswichian Interglacials, with a limit across East Anglia based ongeomorphological criteria (Straw, 1979a, 1983). However, as pointed out by Wymer (1985) it is not clearwhether any of the tills described at these sites are insitu, or whether the till has distinctive lithologicalproperties. Additionally it should be noted that Hoxnian biogenic sites near Peterborough (Douglas, 1981),and in the Nar Valley (West and Whiteman, 1986), arewithin the limit of this glaciation and show no evidenceof having been overridden by a succeeding glaciation.Thus, their value are evidence for glaciation must awaitfurther work.

Till above Hoxnian biogenic deposits in the westMidlands. At Quinton (Horton, 1974) and Netchells(Kelly, 1964) in the west Midlands, till overlies organicdeposits that are interpreted as belonging to theHoxnian Interglacial. The description at Quinton is


limited, and the relationships at Netchells are based oninference rather than direct observation. Both sites arebeyond the known limit of the Devensian glaciationand have traditionally been taken as evidence for aWolstonian Glaciation despite the abundant lithological evidence to the contrary. However, in view ofthe quality of the evidence, and the fact that postHoxnian/pre-Ipswichian glacial deposits are absentfrom a well described site with Hoxnian organicremains at Trysull (Morgan, 1973), the full significanceof these localities must await further observation.

Sites with indirect evidence for a cold episode betweenthe Hoxnian and Ipswichian Interglacial Stages. AtMarsworth in Buckinghamshire (Green et al., 1984)and at Stanton Harcourt in Oxfordshire (Briggs et al.,1985) organic and minerogenic deposits are interpretedas evidence for a sequence of temperate-cold-temperate climatic change. In both cases the final temperateepisode is interpreted as Ipswichian, but the earliertemperate episode is not correlated with the Hoxnian.Thus, an additional temperate episode is added to theinterval between the Hoxnian and Ipswichian, and thismust, by definition, be separated by two cold episodes,the latter of which was associated with gelifluction andbraided river sedimentation at Marsworth and StantonHarcourt respectively.

Radiometric dates have also been used to investigatethe problem of glaciation between the Hoxnian andIpswichian Interglacials. U-Series dates on cave sediments from northern England (Gascoyne et al., 1983)have been interpreted as evidence for a cold stage ofglacial status between 165 ka and 140 ka BP. andsimilar evidence from Pontnewydd in north Walessuggests a warm episode between 250 and 230 kafollowed by a cool temperate episode (unfortunatelythe younger ages conflict with U-Series determinationsfrom Marsworth which suggest that a temperateepisode existed between 140 and 170 ka BP althoughthese dates must be given less credence in view of the,limited size of the sample and the type of materialdated). However, the situation remains that it is stillnot possible to relate the evidence for glaciation withinthe interval between the Hoxnian and the Ipswichian tothe sequences at Marsworth and Stanton Harcourt, orto the cold episodes indicated by the U-Series determinations elsewhere.

Conclusion. The only satisfactory evidence for glaciation in the interval between the Hoxnian and Ipswichian Interglacial Stages is the Welton/Basement/Warren House Tills of northeastern England. It wouldappear that this glacial event extended only as far southas the area around Welton and consequently depositsof this age were overridden by Devensian ice. It is notclear how this glacial event relates to the sequences atMarsworth and Stanton Harcourt, or to cold episodesindicated by U-Series determinations.

LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATIONS

The type site for the Devensian Glacial Stage is atFour Ashes in Staffordshire where there are 'depositsof Late, Middle and Early Devensian above an Ipswichian horizon' (Shotton, 1977, p. 110). However, atthis site evidence for the presence of glacier ice is to befound only in the Late Devensian, a situation that istypical of the Devensian glacial evidence in northernand western England as a whole. Essentially, inEngland the evidence for glaciation during the EarlyDevensian is nothing more than suggestive, the evidence for glaciation during the Dimlington Stadial ofthe Late Devensian is well developed and extensive,and the evidence for glaciation during the LochLomond Stadial of the Late Devensian is restricted tothe high land of the Lake District and northernPennines hills. A comprehensive review of environmental change during the Devensian Stage is given inLowe and Walker (1984).

Evidence for Early Devensian GlaciationThe onset of cold conditions at the beginning of the

Devensian is represented by biological evidence fromWing in Leicestershire (Hall, 1980) and Histon Road,Cambridge (Sparks and West, 1959), but at neither ofthese sites, nor at Wretton in northwest Norfolk, wheredeposits of Early Devensian and Ipswichian IV age areobserved in close proximity (West et al., 1974), is theredirect evidence of the presence of glacier ice. Observation of a till unit (Oakwood Till) below organicsediments of the Chelford Interstadial at Chelford hasresulted in the tentative suggestion that this may be theproduct of Early Devensian glaciation in northwestEngland (Worsley et al., 1983), but a D:L determination on Lymnaea peregra from gravels overlying theOakwood till shows that the glacial event is preIpswichian. In eastern England, Straw (1979b) proposed an early Devensian glaciation on the basis ofgeomorphological criteria although these are modifiedby mass movement and this interpretation clearlycontradicts well developed and extensive lithologicaland biostratigraphic evidence from the region (Catt,1980). In conclusion, it is difficult to demonstrate anyevidence for ice in England during the Early Devensian, although on the basis of the climatic signalindicated by the Oxygen Isotope stratigraphy it isprobable, that at the very least, glaciation occurred inthe highland areas of western and northern England.

Late Devensian GlaciationGlaciation during the Dimlington Stadial. The type sitefor the Dimlington glaciation is the coastal locality ofthat name in East Yorkshire (Rose, 1985. in press). Inrecent years this site has been the subject of muchresearch and detailed descriptions exist of the stratigraphic sequence and till lithologies (Catt and Penny,1966; Penny et al., 1969; Madgett and Catt, 1978;Derbyshire et al., 1984). The full sequence at Dimlington is as follows:


Withernsea Till)Sand and silts(discontinuous) DimlingtonSkipsea Till glaciationDimlington Silts(discontinuous) }Basement Till Pre-Ipswichian glaciation

The Dimlington Silts, which contain arctic Coleopteraand mosses, and the Skipsea and Withernsea Tills areconsidered as evidence for severe climate followedimmediately by glacierization. The unity and age of thesuccession is demonstrated by the results of radiocarbon determinations of between 18,500 and 18,240BP on moss fragments from the Dimlington Silts(Penny et al., 1969), and 16.7 and 13 ka BP fromorganic lake deposits overlying the glacial sediments atKildale and Roos Bog (Jones, 1977; Keen et al., 1984;Beckett, 1977).

Similar stratigraphic evidence, although not quite soprecisely defined by radiocarbon determinations, existsin the region around Chelford in Cheshire (Worlsey,1985). Here the stratigraphic sequence consists of:

Stockport Formation }(tills and glaciofluvial Dimlington glaciationsands and gravels)

Chelford Sands FormationOakwood till

A minimum radiocarbon date on shells entrainedwithin the Stockport Formation give an age of around28 ka BP while the maximum radiocarbon age fromlake sediments above the glacial deposits of 14.3 ka BPfrom Blelham Bog in the Lake District (Penningtonand Bonny, 1970) and of 13.5 ka BP from Stafford givean age for ice wastage.

A radiocarbon date of 18 ka BP from beneath glacialdeposits at Tremeirchion in the Vale of Clwyd (Rowlands, 1971), gives further evidence for the age of theDimlington glaciation, although four radiocarbon datesbetween 18.9 and 18.4 ka BP from above glacialdeposits on the Isle of Man suggest that ice wastage hadbegun by this time and emphasize the problems ofdepending soley on radiocarbon dating, and the variations in timing the maximum extension of glaciers, dueto such factors as varying glacier response rates, andcontrasting bed materials along ice flow paths.

Nevertheless a large body of evidence suggests thatthe maximum expansion of glaciers during the Devensian Glaciation occurred sometime after about 26 kaBP, as indicated by stratigraphic evidence from Scotland, reached a maximum extent around 18-17 ka BP,and wasted from most of England, at least as far as thelowland of the Lake District, by about 14.5 ka BP. Theproblem of obtaining a precise age to these events ismade worse by the relative absence of organic materialfrom beneath the tills, problems of hard-water contamination from lake sediments, and the apparentabsence of biomass production during the early stagesof deglacierization. Some reinforcement for the scheme

outlined above is provided by a TL age of 17.5 ka BPon loess from beneath the Skipsea Till in East Yorkshire (Wintle and Catt, 1985) and TL ages of between31-14 ka BP from loess known to have been formedduring the Dimlington Stadial (Wintle, 1981).

The extent of the Dimlington ice sheets has beendetermined using lithostratigraphy, the extent of 'constructional' glacial topography (the basis of the 'NewerDrift' concept), and landforms and sediment sequencesthat suggest non-glacierization through the periodconcerned.

In eastern England the till units can be traced onlithological properties from County Durham throughYorkshire and Lincolnshire as far south as northNorfolk (Francis, 1970; Beaumont, 1971; Madgett andCatt, 1978). Lithological criteria can also be used totrace the Withernsea Till some 200 km east of theHolderness coast (Derbyshire et al., 1984; Cameron etal., in press). Sedimentological studies suggest that thetills include lodgement facies (Derbyshire et al., 1984),and Boulton et at. (1977) have suggested that thesedeposits were emplaced during a surge when glaciersextended over deformable bed materials in the easternpart of the North Sea region. Traditionally the southward glacial flow-path has been attributed to constriction by Scandinavin ice to the east, but recent workon offshore sediments suggests that much of the NorthSea region was ice-free throughout the DimlingtonStadial and the ice-stream was unconfined to the east.Inland, a limit to the extent of glacierization isindicated by the presence of palaeosols, (Bullock et al.,1973), tors (Palmer 1956) and loess (Catt et al., 1974)on the high land of the North York Moors and theYorkshire Wolds, extensive proglacial lake sedimentsthroughout the OuselTrent/Humber lowlands (Gaunt,1976,1981) and river deposits showing a long history ofsedimentation in the lower Bain valley (Girling, 1974;Holyoak and Preece, 1985).

Across, and around the southwest margin of thePennines, till limits and 'constructional' drifttopography, often complemented by the distribution ofice-marginal meltwater channels and tors, provide themain criteria for identifying the extent of the Dimlington ice sheet. West of the Pennines and in thenorthwest Midlands, Irish Sea Till (Stockport Formation) has been traced southwards through Shropshire (Worsley, 1970) as far as the area aroundWoverhampton where Morgan (1973) has identified alimit to distinctive 'mega-erratics'. In the Shrewsburyarea, where deposits derived from a Welsh sourceoverlie Irish Sea materials, a contact can be establishedbetween the Welsh and English ice streams (Worsley,1975).

Glacial readvances during the wastage of the Dimlington ice sheet have been postulated in the northWelsh borderland (Peake, 1961), Pennine valleys(Raistrick, 1934), the Lake District (Gresswell, 1951)and northern Cumbria (Trotter, 1929; Huddard, 1971),on the basis of landforms and till sequences. However,although there is no climatic or geographical reason

Qu atern ary Glaciation s in the Northern Hemisphere 311

why such readvances should not have occurred, none ofthese cases is supported by substantiable lithologicalevidence or independent biological or pedologicalevidence for intervening non-glacial conditions.

Two cases are worth further attention. In the northWelsh borderlands , around Llay , Ellesmere andShrewsbury , Peake (1961) has proposed a WelshReadvance , and Irish Sea Readvance and aLlayReadvance, based primarily on the succession of tilllithologies derived respectively from the Irish Sea andWelsh upland regions, supported by geomorphologicalevidence for ice-contact positions . Penny (1964) drewattention to the possible importance of these features inhis review of the last glaciation in Britain and limitsbas ed on their position have oft en been reproduced instandard works on British glacial history (for instanceWest , 1977a). However, in a critical reassessment ofthe evidence , bringing to bear recent developments inglacial and glaciofluvial sedimentology , Worsley (1985)has suggested that the landforms and sediments at boththe Llay and Ellesmere could be regarded as part of a'supraglacia l landsystern' (Eyles, 1983) and that the tillsuccessio n at Shrewsbury is the product of interactionof Irish Sea and Welsh ice sheets.

In northern and western Cumbria , Trotter (1929)proposed the Scottish Readvanc e on the basis of anupper till with Scottish erratics ove rlying glaciofluvialsa nd and gravels and a lower till deri ved from the LakeDistrict to the south. Huddart (1971) provided lithological evidence for the distinctiveness of the two tills.Penny (1964) , on the basi s of general drift sequencesand morainic landforms, correlated this readvancewestwards across the Irish Sea with the Bride Morainein the northern part of the Isle of Man and the DrumlinRe advance of the Carlingford Bay area of easternIreland . However, independent evidence for nonglacial between the lower and upper tills is lacking inboth Cumbria and the Isle of Man , and as a result of acritical assessment of the evidence from these regionsThomas (1985 , p. 158) concluded that " the concept of amajor 'Scott ish Readvance' . . . is illusory , devoid ofstratigraphic or chronological foundation " .

Thus, at the present state of knowledge it is difficultto substantiate any significant glacial readvance duringthe wastage of the Dimlington ice sheet in England ,from its maximum extension some 18-17 ka ago tocomplete deglacierization in the Windermere Interstadial around 14 ka BP.

Glaciation during the Loch Lomond StadialThe type area for the Loch Lomond Stadial is around

the southeastern part of the Loch Lomond basin, whereevidence for a glacial readvance, following the wastageof the main Late Devensian ice sheet, can be clearlyobserved (Simpson, 1933; Rose , in press, see section of

thi s paper on Scotland). In England , the evidence forglaci ation during this stadial is much less extensive , anddirect stratigraphic evidence for an actual advance ofglaciers has yet to be discovered. The evidence th at isavailable comes from the Lake District (Manley, 1959;Pennington , 1970, 1978; Sissons , 1979a , b, 1980, 1981)and the western part of the northern Pennines (Rowelland Turner, 1953; Manley, 1959; W .A. Mitchell , pers.commun.). This evidence takes the form of glaciallandforms (moraine ridges, hummocky moraine , flutedmoraine and boulder limits) , and varved sediments and'so lifluction clays' in lakes beyond the stadial ice limit.It is supported by pollen stratigraphy indicating acontemporaneous deterioration of climate. Thechronology of glaciation is deri ved from radiocarbondat es and radiocarbon-dated pollen stratigraphy.

Detailed geomorphological mapping in the LakeDistrict has revealed some 64 valley and corrie glacierscovering an area of 55 km 2 and a mean snow linealtitude of 540 m O .D. (Sissons , 1979a, b , 1980) . Pollenstratigraphy , lithostratigraphy and radiocarbon datesfrom lakes beyond the Loch Lomond glacier limitsindicate that the are a was ice-free during the preceding Windermere Interstadial , and the ice began toaccumulate in the higher part s of the mountains about11 ka BP (Pennington , 1970, 1978) . Varve counts fromlakes in the larger glaci erized catchments indicate thatice remained present for around 450 years. D etailedpollen stratigraphy shows that thi s ice melted from thevar ious localities between abo ut 10.65 and 10 ka BPwith periferal sites becoming ice-free by the A rtemisiaPollen Assemblage Biozone , intermediate site s becoming ice-free by the Gr amin eae-Rumex-EmpetrumPAZ and deep, high corries only becoming ice-free inthe Juniperus PAZ. Blea Water, which has site conditions very favourable for glacier accumulation, didnot become ice-free until the end of the Stadia I(Pennington, 1978) .

Elsewhere in the Lake Di strict and the northernPennines the Loch Lomond Stadial saw the development of protalus ramparts (Sissons, 1980a ; Ballantyneand Kirkbride , in press ; S. Oxford and W.A. Mitchell ,pers. commun.) , while in both of these regions andelsewhere in England the severe climatic condition sresulted in accelerated river de velopment (Kerney etal. , 1964; Rose et al., 1980) , accelerated mass mov ement (Kerney, 1963) , cryoturbation (Kerney, 1963;Johnson , 1975) , development of ground-ice mounds(Sparks et al. , 1972) and the movement of wind -blownsand (Matt hews , 1970; Wilson et al., 1981) . The LochLomond Stadial was the last time that Englandexperienced the presence of glacier ice, and the lasttime that it experienced rap id landscape change beforebecoming covered with the protective woodland of theFlandrian Interglacial.


Ireland

INTRODUCTION

During the second half of the nineteenth century theofficers of the Geological Survey of Ireland recordedthe occur rence of conspicuous glaciall y-related featuresincluding es ker ridges , moraines, drumlins, straie ,raised beaches, boulder clays, erratics and rochernoutonnees. Glacigenic successions were often dividedint o lower boulder clay, middle sands/gravels and anupper boulder clay on the basis of a pre-conceivedmodel. Individuals including Portlock (1843), Close(1867) , Traill (1875), Carvill Lewis (1894), Praeger(1896) and Hinch (1913) provided very early insightsinto the problems of landform typ e and distribution.Features including eskers, drumlins , kame eskers andboulder clay were discussed in addit ion to the recurrentproblem of the origins of till and shell y-drift. Later ,Wright (1914) divided the glacial drift into a Youngerand Older Series and noted that there was a markedabse nce of 'fresh landforms' so uth of the newer driftlimit (T he South of Ireland End Moraine , Charlesworth , 1928) .

Thi s concept of Older and Newer Drifts (morphostratigra phical zones) has been retained in the literature almost to the present day (McCabe, 1985; Synge ,1979) . It could also be argued that most glaciogenicdeposits in Ireland can be associated with two majorcold stages. The earlier has been termed the Munsterian and the most recent the Midlandian (Mitchell et al. ,1973) . These general terms reflect the type of ar easwhere distinct assemblages of deposits are best seen(Midlandian from Irish Midlands, Munsterian from theprovince of Munster). Although this style of subdivisions has been the subject of some debate (Warren,1985) it is based on lithological and morphologicalcontrasts from type areas in which well-defined phasesof ice sheet activity can be recognised (Creighton , 1974;Dwerryhouse , 1923; Farringt on . 1942, 1943, 1944,1949; McCabe, 1985; Mitchell , 1976, 1981; Stephens etal. , 1975; Synge , 1968, 1969, 1977, 1979a , 1981). Thepr esent debate on the age of the Munsterian deposits iscomplicated by the apparent ab sence of organicsequences which can be confidently assigned to the lastinterglacial stage (Watts , 1985) . Warren (1979 , 1985)has argued that an 'objective stratigraphic approach 'would place all deposits which are considered to beMun sterian somewhe re within th e last cold stage (ct .McCabe , 1985; Mitchell , 1976; Synge , 1985; Watts ,1985) . Synge (1981) associates the dispersal of Galwaygranite erratics over the Irish Midlands with anothermaj or glacial episode (Connachtian) which post da testhe Munsterian system and predates the Midlandian.On thi s basis Synge (1981) conside red that the Munsterian deposits belong to an older cold stage (Elster).

Sub- and inter-till organic horizons have been investigated from about twelve major sites in Ireland . Inthe north of Ireland these sites provide a generalframework of glacial events, interstadials and non-

glacial phases within the Midlandian Cold Stage. Atpre sent , sediments from two sites onl y (Shortalstownand Baggotstown) can be assigned to the last interglacial stage (Colhoun and Mitchell, 1971; Mitchell ,1976,1981; Watts, 1964) . It is precisely for this reason(i .e . 'missing' warm stage) that the known sub-till peatsof Gortian aspect (Penultima te warm stage) have beenplaced by 'objective lithostratigraphy' in the last interglacial stage (Warren , 1985) . Clearly, this problemawaits further field inve stigation but at present it isknown that the Gortian style peats differ floristicallyfrom all of the other Ipswichian /Eemian sites known inmainland Britain and We stern Europe (Mitchell, 1976;Watts, 1985).

It is extremely difficult to compare data fromoffshore records with th e evide nce from the land forvariety of reasons. Most important however is thatresearchers recognise most diamictons as basal orlodgem ent till . Clearly, within the context of glaciallyinfluenced continental margins, sediment successio nsshould be examined in detail if former depositionalenvironments are to be correctly identified. Offshorework in the Irish and Celtic Sea areas suggests:(1) Th e Celtic Sea shelf is esse ntially Quaternary inorigin as it truncates the upper part of the Little SoleFormation (Pantin and Ev ans , 1984).(2) Pantin and Evans (1984) sugges t that there is littleevidence of ice grounding features in the central orsouthe rn Celtic Sea and occasional till masses areassociated with ice-rafting (cf. Synge, 1979a).(3) Garrard (1977) has identified two major till sheetsseparated by marine sediments with a temperate faun ain St. George's Channel. The tills have been assigned tothe last two cold stages of the Quaternary.(4) Ploughmarks due to iceberg grounding areabundant on the outershelf of Western Ireland down toabout the latitude of Co. Kerry (Belderson et al., 1973;Kenyon , 1982). It is likel y that some of these areassociated with the phase of drumlin formation inWestern Ireland.

Recon structions of Pleistocen e events on land andassess ments of successive ice sheet morphologies havebeen based largely on geological evidence. The aim ofmost researchers ha s been recon structions of phases ofice sheet activity by examina tion of data includingdirectional landform mod els , lithological variationswithin multilayered glacigenic sequences (Farr ington,1934, 1936, 1942, 1944, 1949; Hoare , 1977; McCab eand Hoare, 1978; Stephens et al. , 1975; Stephens andSynge, 1958, 1965; Synge , 1963b, 1964, 1968, 1969, 1973,1977, 1981). However, stratigraphic correlations fromregion to region have been hindered by the paucity ofrecognisable stratigraphic markers and intraformational organic hori zons . This problem is compounded by the types of terminology used to describeglacigenic sequences (i .e . till vs. diamicton). In addition , the general lack of a facie s analysis approachhas, in man y cases , given undue weight or significance


to individual till units and type sites. For example,recent work has focused attention on the origins ofglacigenic sequences within the Irish Sea Basin (Eyleset al .. 1985; Eyles and Eyles, 1984; McCabe, 1986;McCabe et al .. 1984, 1986a; Thomas and Dacombe,1985; Thomas and Summers, 1982). Although recentaccounts disagree in many ways they contrast markedlywith the traditional models of ice sheet advance/retreatcycles and explore glacigenic deposits in terms ofsubaqueous depositional systems formed during the lastdeglacial.

MUNSTERIAN GLACIAnON

At present it is extremely difficult to reconstruct thenumber of pre-Midlandian glacial events in Irelandlargely because of the erosive and depositional vagariesof Midlandian ice masses. Synge (1979b, 1981) hasargued that two major glacial events are represented inthe older drift record. The earlier comprises theMunsterian drifts (Elster) and the later the Connachtian (Sa ale ). Synge (1981) considered the the expansionof Connachtian ice carried erratics of Galway graniteseast over the Midlands of Ireland. However, erraticdispersal fans of this magnitude can be accommodatedwithin the traditional model of Munsterian ice movements.

Munsterian deposits are best exposed on the Munsterlowlands, along the southern and south-eastern coastsand in western Co. Mayo (Mitchell, ]976; Synge. 1968,1979b. 1981). They are characterised by subduedmorphologies, deep-weathering profiles and a distinctlack of fresh glacial bedforms (Finch and Synge, 1966).The relative stratigraphic position between Munsterianand Midlandian deposits can be clearly identified in atleast two localities. In south western Co. LimerickSynge (1969) has shown that the Fedamore morainefronting the drumlin swarms south of the Shannonestuary oversteps the earlier Late-Midlandian limit(Ballylanders) onto an area of Munsterian drift. NearScattery Island, on the Shannon estuary, the 'drumlinice sheet' incorporated older weathered drift anddeposited it as part of the end moraine.

The diversity of Munsterian deposits is related to twomajor ice sheet systems from distinct centres of icedispersion (Synge and Stephens, 1960). Ice from majorcentres in western Scotland penetrated eastern Ulster(Stephens et al., 1975) and deposited fine-grained tillscontaining shell fragments and Ailsa Craig microgranites. Similar till lithofacies occur along the southeastern and southern coasts as far west as Ballycroneen , Co. Cork (Mitchell, 1960, 1972, 1976;Warren, 1985; Wright and Muff, 1904). Inland icecentres carried granite erratics from Connemarasouthwards and south-eastwards towards the SlieveBloom mountains (Synge, 1979b) and tills weredeposited at Clogga and Bannow. Interbedding of localand Irish Sea type tills in south-eastern Ireland suggeststhat ice from inland and Irish Sea/Scottish sources werein close contact (Synge, 1981).

There is some evidence to suggest that independentice masses existed in the Wicklow Mountains (Farrington, 1942, 1944, 1949, 1954, 1966; Synge, 1973), theMourne Mountains (Synge and Stephens, 1960;Stephens et al., 1975), and in the mountains of WestCork and Kerry (Farrington, 1954; Lewis, 1974;Warren, 1974b). These events and ice limits are basedlargely on erratic carriage out of the mountains. Incases where substantive lithofacies or moraines areassociated with mountain ice only their general stratigraphic position in relation to lowland ice sheets hasbeen determined.

Lithostratigraphic variability within Munsteriansequences has been recognised for a long time (Wrightand Muff, 1904). Alternative chronologies which havebeen presented in a series of synoptic papers usuallyinvolve the recognition of a marine platform, raisedbeaches, Irish Sea tills, local tills, far-travelled erraticsand head deposits (Bowen, 1973b; Devoy, 1983;Mitchell, 1960, 1979; Warren, 1985). The most recentaccount (Warren, 1985) of the classical Munsteriansequences along the south coast is based largely onlithostratigraphic variability of tills and associatedsediments. Warren (1985) has interpreted the southcoast deposits (normally: Beach-eHead-e-Till) and theBallybunnion deposit (Till-e-Beach-egeliflucted till) interms of a glacial-Interglacial-glacial sequence.Clearly, this view hinges on the interpretation of theCourtmacsherry beach as interglacial in age. Thisexplanation is unconvincing because the beach isunfossiliferous and assumptions that the beach iseverywhere of the same age cannot be upheld either inthe light of modern process studies or from studies ofraised beaches elsewhere in Ireland (Carter, 1982). Theapparent absence of the Courtmacsherry beach on theeast coast has been attributed to erosion by ice (Synge,1981). Alternatively, this absence may be due to thepresence of an ice cover over the east coast. Thisviewpoint would agree with the suggestion of Wrightand Muff (1904) that the beach formed in a cold orarctic environment. Contemporaneity with cold climateslope processes is suggested by elements of the beachwhich are interbedded with head deposits. A rationalexplanation of the basic stratigraphy (Beach-»Head~till) suggests deposition within one cold phase.

It is remarkable that individual till units have beeninterpreted in terms of individual ice sheet movementsand terms such as basal till and Irish Sea Till arecommonly used in a stratigraphic sense (e.g. Devoy,1983). The idea that most of the glaciogenic sedimentsare tills is questionable given the scant sedimentologicalevidence available. For example, the Ballycroneen Till(an Irish Sea Till?) is characterised by a silty-claymatrix, interbeds of washed sediment, crude beddingplanes or massive structure, outsized lonestones, clastclusters, a wide range of soft-sediment deformationstructures and facies transitions with substantive sandand gravel beds. The general attributes of the so-called'Irish Sea Tills' have more in common with subaqueousdebris flow activity, ice-rafting (IRD), plume depo-

314 Qu atern ary Science Reviews

Sea

I r is h

80I

DOWN

l- Iogg a

Ag h~ adarragh

Ikm

o 20

ULSTER

° Ballyline

° Magui r esbridge

O~'¢v

O

«. ',«.~

'?v LEI N S T E RWICKLOW

°Hollymount

[) erryvree . • Hollybr ook

IRELAND

• Fedamore

°B agg o t st o w nLIM ERIC K

.Gor t

Cork

MUNSTER

~oo

FI G , 2, Localities in Ireland referred to in the text.


sition and traction current activity, than glacial lodgement (McCabe, 1985). Clearly, critical appraisal of thesouth coast sequences wait facies analysis within thecontext of a shallow water, glaciated continentalmargin.

INTERGLACIAL STAGES

In Ireland, only six sites preserve a large portion ofan interglacial cycle (Watts, 1985). Other sites at Fenit(Mitchell, 1970) and Ballyline (Coxon and Flegg, 1985)are less complete. Watts recognises four stages (Protocratic, mesocratic, telocratic and cryocratic) from theBaggotstown site. The telocratic flora include forests(Abies alba, Picea abies, Alnus glutinosa, Taxusbaccata) , heaths and bogs with Rhododendronponticum and heaths (Calluna, Erica, Bruckenthalia,Daboecia). This assemblage indicates an oceanic, highrainfall climatic regime similar to that of south westernIreland today (Watts, 1985).

The age of the Gortian beds hinges on three mainquestions. First, what is the stratigraphic age of theMunsterian deposits which generally overlie the peat?Second, is the floristic composition and progression ofthis interglacial cycle sufficiently different from Ipswichian sequences to place it in the earlier Hoxnianinterglacial of England? Third, are the floristic similarities with the Hoxnian sufficient for correlation purposes? At least two general schools of thought exist:(1) Traditionally, Gortian-style deposits are considered to belong to the penultimate interglacial(Watts, 1977, 1985; Mitchell, 1976). This interpretationis largely based on well-documented floristic similarities with interglacial sites on the Continent andEngland.(2) Synge (1981) and Warren (1979, 1985) consider theGortian beds to be of last interglacial age largely onregional stratigraphic considerations.

There may be enough diversity among deposits withGortian affinities to argue that more than one interglacial is represented. However, Watts (1985) hasshown that the floristic similarities are convincing and,by comparison with other European sites, indicate the'penultiminate' interglacia\. At present, the balance ofargument favours the latter interpretation. If this is thecase the 'hidden interregnum' of Mitchell (1976) maynot be as anomalous as first perceived. This apparentabsence may be intimately associated with the erosiveeffects of the last ice sheet in central and northernIreland and periglacial modification in southern Ireland. Much of the lowlands where last interglacialdeposits would be expected are covered by thickglaciogenic sequences which are rarely exposed to anygreat depth.

MIDLANDIAN GLACIATION

A tentative sequence of events and chronology forthe Midlandian Stage can be reconstructed from five

major type sites in the north of Ireland and are namedon essentially biostratigraphic criteria.

Three major sites are Aghnadarragh, Derryvree andHollymount consist of lower and upper tills which areseparated by stratified sediments with distinct in situorganic horizons. These organic beds pose a commonlyfound interpretative problem. In some cases thepalaeobotanical and palaeofaunal evidence showsinterstadial conditions while in others it shows phasesof cold aspect between either stadials or interstadials(ct. Coope, 1977). The field evidence includes:(1) An Early-Midlandian major stadial, followed by aperiglacial episode and a phase of relatively warminterstadial conditions.(2) A Middle-Midlandian interstadial complex of nonglacial, but cold aspect.(3) A Late-Midlandian stadial with a major ice sheetglaciation which almost covered the island and a later,more restricted phase when drumlins were formed inthe northern and western parts of Ireland.(4) A Late-glacial climatic oscillation comprising aninterstadial and stadia\. During the latter renewed,growth of small cirque glaciers occurred.

The Fermanagh StadialAt Derryvree , Hollymount and Aghnadarragh

lodgement-type till units underlie organic beds whichdate from the latter part of the Early and MiddleMidlandian (Colhoun et al., 1972; McCabe et al., 1978;McCabe and Hirons, 1986). The upper parts of the tillsare unweathered and pass into unfossiliferous lakemuds. Although they occur at widely spaced locationsthey contain a similar erratic suite derived from theCentral Tyrone Igneous Complex. This pattern showsthat these tills are derived from one ice sheet whichmoved radially from a centre of ice dispersion inCentral Tyrone across the Ulster lowlands.

In north Co. Londonderry, Portlock (1843) recordeda fine-grained till containing shell fragments. Colhoun(1970, 1971) termed this the Bovevagh Till and considered it to be Munsterian in age. However, it occursin a similar stratigraphic position to all of the otherEarly Midlandian tills known in Ulster and its distinctlyperipheral distribution in Northern Ireland shows it wasdeposited when northward moving ice from centralUlster block the southern movement of Scottish Ice. Itis also evident that Ailsa Craig erratics from the Firth ofClyde have a similar distribution (Charlesworth, 1966)though often reworked into later deposits. Both distributional patterns show that Scottish and Irish icemasses were coeval during the Early MidlandianStadia\.

The maximum extent or southern limit of ice duringthis stadiaI is unknown but it covered most of Ulster.At Aghnadarragh palaeobotanical evidence from theoverlying interstadial peat horizons shows that glacialconditions during the Fermanagh Stadial were shortlived and therefore probably areally restricted. Thisinference is based on the slow migration rates of Piceaforests into recently deglacierized areas (Davis, 1976).

316 Quaternary Scien ce Reviews

A lengthy Early Midlandian stadial followed by a phaseof cold periglacial conditions would not allow sufficienttim e for migrations and establishment of substantialPicea for ests (Gennard, 1986) during the succeedingAghnadarragh Interstadial (>48.18 ka SP).

The Fermanagh Stadial ended with a phase of coldperiglacial conditions with formation of ice-wedgepseudomorphs. The overlying gravel/diamicton unitconta ins the oldest known remains of Mammuthusprimigeniu s in Ireland (McCabe , 1986) . Although littleis known of the vegetation at this time, other isolatedsites such as Hollybrook (McCabe , 1969) indicate thatlocal slope processes and freeze thaw activity wereactive during this time.

The Aghnadarragh InterstadialThis epi sode of climatic warming is recorded by a

pe at (>48,18 ka SP) above deposits of Early Midlandian age at Aghnadarragh . The woody detritus peatis composed of abundant smoothed pieces of rolledwood (Picea, Abies and an unidentified hardwood)within compressed sheets of disseminated peatymat eri al which were water transported into a marshy,deltaic en vironment (McCabe and Hirons, 1986).Pollen anal ysis indicates a general change from Pinusand Picea forests to a more open grassland/shrubassemblage during the course of the interstadial (Gennard , 1986) . The assemblage may be compared floristically and stratigraphically to that of Chelford inCheshire (Simpson and West, 1957).

Abundant insect remains wer e recovered from thepe aty detritus (Coope , 1986). Mo st of the Carabidaeare characteristic of swampy habitats and includespecies that reach only as far north as the southern halfof Fennoscandia. There is a complete absence ofobligate high northern species. Th ere is enough of aresemblance between the Aghnadarragh insectassemblage (woody detritus peat) to suggest a tentativecorrelation with that from the Chelford Interstadial.

The Hollymount Cold PhaseThis phase has been identified stratigraphically from

organic fresh water muds at Hollymount (McCabe etal . , 1978), Aghnadarragh (McCabe , 1986) andGreenagho (D ardis et al. , 1984) . The Hollymountorganic silts have been dated at > 41.5 ka BP and theGreenagho silts at 34.46 ka BP. However , the latterdate is clearly a minimum date and should be regardedwith caution. No recognisable pollen was identifiedfrom Greenagho . The palaeobotanical evidence fromHollymount indicates that the local en vironment waso pe n countryside sparsely occupied by a biota ofnorthern type. Similar environmental conditions arealso evident from the disseminated organic mud(>46.62 ka BP) towards the top of the Aghnadarraghsite which is characterised by a Cyperaceae-G raminaeassemblage. All the insect remains are indicative of acold , open type of environment of northern aspect . Thewidely spaced distribution of these sites indicates th atno extensive ice masses existed in the north of Ireland

in the early part of the Middle Midlandian (McCabe ,1986) .

The Derryvree interstadialAt Derryvree, Co. Fermanagh , road excavations

exposed an in situ, fre sh water organic deposit betweentwo till sheets. The lower till facies is identical to that atHollymount and formed during the Fermanagh Stadial.The upper till forms a drumlin . The organic siltscontain a flora and fauna of cold northern aspect andgave a radiocarbon date of 30.5 ka SP (Colhoun et al. ,1972) . The local environment was treeless and muskegin character with a rich moss flora. The completeabsence of dung beetles indicates that large mammalswere not present locally. Molluscs including Pisidiumnitidum were recorded.

Mitchell (1976, 1981) has evaluated the mammalianfauna from the Castlepook Cave , Co. Cork. A mammoth molar was dated to 35 ka SP and spotted hyaenato 34.3 ka BP. It is not possible to say much about thetaphonomy of the fossil assemblage because of poordescriptions of the material and its stratigraphicposition. However, it is likely that the general climaticenvironment was similar in the so uth of Ireland to thatof Derryvree towards the end of the Middle Midlandian. Mammoth remains have not been found in anyyounger deposits.

These two sites provide the onl y positive evidence ofenvironmental conditions towards the end of theMiddle Midlandian. Some accounts (Mitchell , 1981;Warren, 1985) assume that the Derryvree organic siltsreflect interstadial conditions. This viewpoint is notfully supported by the fossil content (Colhoun et al.,1972) .

The Glenavy StadialDeposits formed during the last glaciation have

previously been described by various terms - LateMidlandian, Maguiresbridge Substage (Mitchell , 1981;Warren , 1985). This approach is unsatisfactory for anumber of reasons:(1) Late-Midlandian tim es (26- 10 ka BP) was dominated by a glaciation which produced two morphostratigraphic regions: 'a main phase ' and the 'DrumlinReadvance phase' (Synge , 1969).(2) Traditional terminology is not based on type-siteswhere either radiocarbon dating or biostratigraphy areavailable.(3) Tills of the Drumlin ph ase as multiple and complex(Dardis et al. , 1984; Dardis , 1985) . In Warren (1985) ,the term Maguiresbridge Till Formation is used eventhough it is a drumlin-forming till which does notrepresent earlier, 'main glaci al phase'.(4) New Stage names such as Fenitian (from Co. Cork)proposed by Warren (1985) are not readily applicableeither to the main area of Midlandian glaciation or nearto the probable limit of maximum ice expansion.the term Maguiresbridge Till" Formation is used eventhough it is a drumlin-forming till which does notrepresent earlier, 'main glacial ph ase '.


(4) New Stage names such as Fenitian (from Co. Cork)proposed by Warren (1985) are not readily applicableeither to the main area of Midlandian glaciation or nearto the probable limit of maximum ice expansion.

Thus there is no satisfactory term to describe eitherthe period of maximum glacier expansion or thefollowing more restricted expansion of ice duringdrumlin formation. The radiocarbon dates of 17.3 kaBP and 16.94 ka BP from Ballycastle, Co. Mayo showthat the ice sheet had wasted to about two-thirds itsarea extent by this time (McCabe et al., 1986). Thesedates from shells of Macoma calcarea screened for ageequivalence by D/L ratio measurements (Bowen et al.,unpubl. data), occur in raised glaciomarine mudsdeposited contemporaneously with the marine-deltamoraines along the north coast of Co. Mayo. TheBallycastle moraine (Synge, 1969) is one of a series ofsedimentologically complex moraines which front thedrumlin swarms of Ireland (McCabe et al., 1986). Onthe basis of continuity of glacial depositional systems,McCabe (1985) has suggested that these moraines areof broadly similar age (ca. 17 ka). This is, to someextent, supported by the broad regional pattern of lateglacial strandlines in eastern and northern Ireland(Stephens and McCabe, 1977).

During the Glenavy Stadial, ice in the Irish Seabasin, was coeval with ice flows from the Irish lowlands(McCabe and Hoare, 1978). The South Ireland EndMoraine complex is generally accepted as the mainsouthern ice limit (Charlesworth, 1928; Mitchell, 1976)of last glaciation ice in southern Ireland (but seeBowen, 1973b). Subsidiary centres of ice dispersiondeveloped in peripheral mountain groups. Their stratigraphic relationships with lowland based ice have beenparticularly well-documented by Farrington (1934,1938,1942,1944), Synge (1973, 1981) Lewis (1974) andWarren (1979b). However, most of the stratigraphy isrelative and is not supported by either radiocarbondates or biostratigraphy.

Exposures show complex diamiction, mud, and sandand gravel along the east coast of the island (Mcr.abej1986; McCabe et al., 1984). Irish Sea Drifts of this typehas been evaluated by two basic methodologies. Onerecognises distinct, local ice sheet advances or readvances from the evidence of lithofacies variabilitywithin complex sediment piles. For example, the tills ofsouth-eastern Ireland have been considered to relate tovarying strengths between inland and Irish Sea masses(Synge, 1981; Mitchell, 1976). It could be argued thatthis approach allows broad recognition of glaciallyrelated events without details of precise environmentalconditions. More recently various authors (Huddart,1981; McCabe et al., 1984; McCabe, 1985, 1986;Thomas and Summers, 1982, 1983) have adopted adifferent approach giving attention to the total sedimentary characteristics of complex sequences, communally in context (Walker, 1985). Many tills are notbasal in origin but result from a wide range ofsubaqueous processes (McCabe, et al., 1984; Thomasand Summers, 1982). Facies analysis indicates that

subaqueous debris flow deposits, plume rain-outdeposits and ice-rafting are common elements withinmost complex sections. Thus complex sections ineastern Ireland may be interpreted within a context ofglacially influenced shallow, marine basins. In somecases there is good evidence for in situ marine faunas(Colhourn and McCabe, 1973) though others seem tobe derived. Complex diamicton stratigraphies havebeen identified from Dundalk Bay (McCabe, 1985) andfrom south Co. Down (McCabe, 1986). Thesesequences may be explained readily by deposition inshallow glaciomarine environments.

Complex local successions are also known from theCarey valley in north-eastern Antrim where it isconsidered (Hill and Prior, 1968; Prior, 1968; Stephenset al., 1975) that superimposed lithofacies reflect thechanging strengths of Irish North Channel, and Scottishice. The latter advanced to a well-defined morainebetween Ballycastle and Armoy when ice from centralUlster retreated south along the Bann valley. Althoughthe Armoy moraine limit is clearly linked with the lastextraneous ice advance from Scottish sources theunderlying till/stratified sequences awaits investigationin terms of basin facies analysis. Similarly, othercomplex sections in east Antrim at Ballyrudder(Praeger, 1896) consist of diamictons/stratified sediments with a marine fauna and indicate deposition in anisostatically depresssed marine basin as ice wasted inthe North Channel.

The Woodgrange Interstadial and Nahanagan StadialJessen's (1949) general scheme of Late-glacial events

included an Older Salix herbacea period (Zone I), aLate-glacial birch period (Zone II) and a Younger Salixherbacea period (Zone III). Watts (1985) argues thatthis tripartite scheme is no longer adequate becausechanges in vegetation cover do not necessarily correlatewith stratigraphic changes and vegetation successionsdo not fall readily into three units (Singh, 1970).Differences in vegetation between sites should bedocumented using radiocarbon dates accompanied by'a rather loose narrative of events' rather than a formalstructure of zones (Watts, 1985). Watts (1985) recognises a Rumex phase (13-12.4 ka), first Juniper phase(12.4-12 ka), erosion phase (12-11.8 ka), Grass phase(11.8-10.9 ka) and an Artemisia phase (YoungerDryas, 10.9-10 ka). Mitchell (1976) has suggested thatthe Woodgrange Interstadial lasted from 14 to 13 kaBP.

Many authors have identified suites of morainesbordering cirques in the mountains (Farrington, 1934,1938, 1942, 1944, 1953, 1954, 1966; Hoare and McCabe, 1981; Lewis, 1974; Mitchell, 1951, 1976; Synge,1963b, 1964, 1968, 1970, 1973; Synge and Stephens,1960; Warren, 1979). These have been assigned ageswhich vary from full glacial to late glacial. Only theinner cirque moraines at Lough Nahanagan , Co.Wicklow, have been dated (Colhoun and Synge, 1980).The latest phase of cirque glaciation which occurredbetween 11 and 10.5 ka BP has been termed the


Nahanagan Stadia!. The dates come from organicdetritus incorporated in ice-pushed lake clays. Theorganic detritus shows an 'early Late-glacial' Juniperus/Empetrum vegetation assemblage which was radiocarbon dated at 11.5 ka BP. The Nahanagan Stadial isthus recognised from a readvance of cirque ice overclays of pre-Older Dryas, Older Dryas and Allerodages. The outer block moraines probably relate to theGlenavy Stadia!. Colhoun and Synge (1980) havecalculated that the regional snowline was depressed toca. 470 m during the Nahanagan Stadial before it wasraised to 1660 m in the early Littletonian (post-glacial).This suggests a temperature depression of ca. 7.2°Cduring the Nahanagan Stadia!.

CONCLUSIONS

For a large number of reasons assemblages of glaciallandforms continue to act as the cornerstone forestimating the extent of former ice sheets. Stratigraphicstudies cannot be divorced entirely from morphologicalevidence which, in certain cases, adds to information ofconditions at the ice/substrate interface and the state ofthe ice sheet. Depositional systems should be investigated using a facies analysis approach when directglacial stratigraphy may be separated from indirectglacial stratigraphy. Developments of this nature havestarted to explore the problems of complex glaciogenic

successions and should help to interpret the Older Driftstratigraphy.

Correlations between the Pleistocene deposits ofIreland and those of the rest of the British Isles arefraught with difficulties. The suggestion by Synge(1981) that the 'Older Drifts' are divisible into twoseparate glaciations, an extensive Munsterian (? Elsterian), and more limited (? Saalian phase) creates notonly problems with local, but regional correlations.Although Gortian sites are similar to Hoxnian sites infloristic development and in the presence of certainmarker taxa, problems remain. These include theeffects of regional climatic influences on vegetationaldevelopment and local ecological site factors. Sitesthought to represent parts of the last interglacial areincomplete and problematic.

The Early Midlandian glaciation recognised in Ulsterhas not been positively identified from elsewhere. TheAghadarragh Interstadial of the Early Midlandian andnon-glacial conditions of the Middle Midlandiancorrelate broadly with environmental conditions fromthe English Midlands. The maximum of the LateMidland glaciation probably occurred around 23 ka andthe Drumlin maximum was at 17 ka. However, thelatter cannot be interpreted in terms of a climaticallygenerated readvance but in terms of ice sheet surging(Dardis et al., 1984). Major ice readvances followingdrumlin formation have not been identified fromstratigraphic evidence. Small renewed cirque icegrowth occurred during the Nahanagan Stadia!.

Scotland

INTRODUCTION

In the half century that followed the introduction ofthe glacial theory to Britain (Agassiz, 1840), theScottish glacial deposits provided the basis for manyinsights of both local and global significance into thenature of glacial sedimentation and the causes andeffects of ice ages. At an early stage a two-fold subdivision of the glacial deposits in Scotland was recognised, a period of ice sheet inundated being followed bya restricted valley glaciation (Chambers, 1855; MacLaren , 1855). Later, inspired principally by the work ofCroll (1875, 1885) who advanced the theory thatvariations in the earth's orbit around the sun wereresponsible for multiple glaciation (and, in support ofthis theory established that the oceanic currents are theprincipal means of distributing heat around the surface

of the earth), the concept of multiple ice sheetglaciation (in Scotland and elsewhere) was apparentlyconfirmed by James Geikie's (1894) masterly synthesisof the available evidence. During the same period theconcepts of glacio-eustasy (MacLaren, 1841) andglacio-isostasy (Jamieson, 1865) were proposed whilstadvances in the description and classification of glacialsediments and landforms that occurred then (e.g.Geikie, 1863) are today recognised in the use ofstandard terms such as 'kame', 'kettle', 'drumlin' and'till' .

These ideas were produced during a period ofconsiderable controversy and debate and theiracceptance was by no means universal but by the end oflast century it might appear that knowledge andunderstanding of the Scottish glacial sequence was suchas to provide a firm basis for new insights and

Quaternary Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere

o

319

oIkm

FLANNEN ISLES'"

~STKILDA

40"

SULA SGEIR.

160I

,RANA

Porloy

KirkhillCros sbrae , J-

Farm ~ .Moraseat"1~

Aberdeen

• BenholmBurn

Forth

Approaches

ENGLAND

FIG. 3. Localities in Scotland referred to in the text.


discoveries. In fact, there was a lapse into monoglacialism which became the local ruling hypothesis for thenext sixty or so years with only occasional papers suchas those by Bremner (1928, 1931, 1943) advancing theidea of multiple ice sheet glaciation. A distinct periodof restricted valley glaciation subsequent to the disappearance of the last ice sheet was 'rediscovered' bySimpson in 1933 and termed the Loch Lomond Readvance. It was not until the 1960s, and in particularthe publication by Sissons (1967a) of the 'Evolution ofScotland's Scenery', that the Scottish glacial depositswere again to be interpreted routinely as part of amultiple glacial sequence. During the last quartercentury much new information from both on land andthe neighbouring continental shelves has been published and complex series of Quaternary events are nowknown from various parts of the country (Sutherland,1984) . It is not yet possible to synthesise these varioussequences into a coherent statement of Quaternaryevents because in the separate areas most of the datingis relative rather than absolute . In the following,however, an attempt is made to indicate the mainsequence of events as indicated by the availableevidence.

EARL Y AND MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE

On land, the earliest Pleistocene fossils known arethe 'Crag' shells first described by Jamieson (1858,1882) that occur as erratics in glacial deposits ofprobable Late Devensian age in a limited area of NorthEast Scotland near the coast north of the River Ythan.They occur immediately to the south of the ?Plioceneflint gravels which have recently been ascribed a glacialorigin in part (Kesel and Gemmell, 1981) but thisinterpretation is disputed, McMillan and Merritt (1980)and Merritt and McMillan (1982) reaffirming thetraditional view (Flett and Read, 1921; Read, 1923)that the flint gravels were pre-glacial marine depositswhilst Hall (1984) suggests a fluvial origin . Although itis generally agreed that the upper portions of thesegravels have been glacially and periglacially disturbed.a glacial origin for the gravels themselves seemsunlikely.

Offshore, in the central and northern U.K. sector ofthe North Sea Basin, there are thick sequences of Earlyand Middle Pleistocene sediments. The Basal Beds,originally ascribed to the Quaternary (Holmes, 1977)are now thought more likely to be Late Tertiary in age(Stoker et al . , 1985) which implies a somewhat thinnerQuaternary thickness (Cameron et al., 1986) thanpreviously mapped (Caston, 1977) . According to therevised stratigraphic names of Stoker et at. (1985) theEarly to early Middle Pleistocene is represented in thecentral North Sea Basin by the Aberdeen GroundFormation and the late Middle Pleistocene by theFisher, Ling Bank and the basal part of the Coal PitFormations.

The sediments of the Aberdeen Ground Formationare dominantly marine clays with lenses of fine sand.

Micropalaeontology indicates deposition in a warmtemperate inner to middle shelf environment. Discontinuities in the seismic profiles have been interpreted asresulting from hiatuses in seedirnentation , possiblyduring 'cooler' intervals (Cameron et al., 1986). Asimilar warm temperate oceanic climate has beeninferred for the Shackleton Formation of Middle toEarly Pleistocene age in the northern North Sea Basin .The first evidence for glacial conditions occurs towardsthe top of the Aberdeen Ground Formation in the areaof the Forth Approaches. There, a sedimentarysequence has been interpreted as relating to a groundedice sheet, originating in Scotland, being succeededeastwards by proximal then distal glaciomarine sediments (Stoker and Bent, 1985). These glacial andglaciomarine sediments occur just above the MatuyamaBrunhes palaeomagnetic boundary which impliescorrelation of the glacial event with 'G lacial A' of theCromerian Complex of the Dutch stratigraphicsequence (Stoker and Bent, 1985) . This is the earliestdirect evidence for glaciation of Scotland, the extent ofthe ice sheet in the area ofthe Forth -Approaches beingdirectly comparable with the extent of ice at the last(Late Devensian) glacial maximum.

The top of the Aberdeen Ground and ShackletonFormations have been truncated by an extensiveerosion surface that relates to the first period of cuttingof the major channel systems of the North Sea Basin.Till-like sediments resting on this erosion surface havebeen described from the northern North Sea Basin anda thin till of Anglian aspect has been associated with itin the southern North Sea Basin but no glacialsediments have been directly linked to it in the centralNorth Sea Basin (Cameron et al ., 1986). The greaterpart of the Middle Pleistocene sediments in the centraland northern North Sea Basin that overlie the erosionsurface are of glaciomarine origin but towards the baseof the Ling Bank Formation a freshwater interglacialhorizon (Griffin, 1984) which has been correlated withthe Hoxnian (Cameron et al . , 1986) occurs. These linesof evidence have led to the conclusion that the erosionsurface correlates with the Anglian glaciation and thatat this time the Scottish and Scandinavian ice sheetsmay have been in contact.

A further period of channel formation and widespread erosion occurred after the deposition of theHoxnian sediments and prior to a further interglacialcorrelated with the Ipswichian (see below). In thenorthern North Sea Basin the sediments immediatelyoverlying this erosion surface are gravelly clays , themicropalaeontology of which indicate them to havebeen deposited in a shallow glaciomarine environment.This erosion surface and the associated channellinghave been correlated with the 'Wolstonian' glaciation(Stoker et al., 1985; Cameron et al., 1986). It is possiblethat this glacial event correlates with the till describedin Borehole 81/26 by Ellingsen and Sejrup (1984) asoccurring before the last interglacial but after 300 ka.This 'Wolstonian' glaciation was apparently restrictedto the central and northern North Sea Basin.

Qu aternary Glaciations in the No rthe rn Hemisph ere 321

Th e terrestrial Early and Middle Pleistocene recordis ext remely fragmented and it is not possible accurate ly to date or correlate th e vario us glacial, interglacialor littoral events that can be inferred on stratigraphicgrounds to ha ve occurred during this period . The mostdet ailed record occurs in North East Scotland wherethe KirkhiIl site preserves a complex sequence ofdeposits which pre-date the presumed last interglacial(Connell et al . , 1982; ConneIl and Hall , 1984). An earlyglacial event is recorded at KirkhiIl by erratics con tained within basal fluvial sa nds and gravels depositedin a periglacial environment. There is no direct datingo n any of the Kirkhill sequence but on the simplestinterpretation of the stratigraphy this glacial event hastentatively been correlated with the Anglian (Connelland Hall , 1984).

FoIlowin g deposition of th e basal sands and gravelsth ere was a period of erosion th en landsurface stabilityand pedogenesis . The soil horizon together with anoverlying organic layer was originaIly taken to represent inte rglacial conditions (ConneIl et al. , 1982) .More recent work , however , has shown first, th at th eso il horizon is mo st akin to a 'co ld water gley' thatwould develop above 900 III in Scotl and today (Conne lland Rom ans, 1984) and second. that the org anichorizon and overlying slightly orga nic bedded sandscont ain organic material and poIlen eroded from alandsurface with a temperate soil and vegetation cover(Connell, 1984; Lowe , 1984) . At the time of erosion ofthat soil cover, clim at e was deteriorating towardsperi glacial conditions and a head deposit overlies andpartly interfingers with th e o rganic sands. Thus whilstth ere is no in situ interglacial deposit at the level of thelower palaeosol at Kirkhill , the evidence from thedetrital organic matter and pollen content in theorganic layers implies that interglacial conditions wereexperienced prior to their deposition . Again, on asimplest explanation of the stratigraphy this interglacialmay be correlated with the Hoxnian .

The deposition of the he ad overlying the organicsands was foIlowed by a glaci al episode in which a till ,now weathered, was deposited . The till relates to aglacial incursion from the NW. After a possible furtherperiod of periglacial conditions and cryoturbation ofthe upper layers of this tiIl , a palaeosol (now truncated)of interglacial status developed (ConneIl et al., 1982;ConneIl and Romans , 1984) . Correlation of thi s interglacial with the Ipswichian (on the basis of its stra tigraphic position) suggests a Wolstonian age for th eglaciation that deposited the underlying till. The datingof the Kirkhill sequence is clearly unsatisfactory beca use of a lack of direct dating evidence but thesediments do demonstrate a long and complex Middleto Early Pleistocene record in which at least two glacialepi sodes are represented.

The weathered till at Kirkhill has been correlatedwith a similarly weathered till at Moreseat (Hall andConnell , 1982; Hall, 1984) and possibly with theweathered basal till unit at Portsoy (Peacock, 1966) anda weathered till near Aberdeen reported by Synge

(1963a) . It is not kn own whether the 'indigo' tilloriginally described by Jamieson (1906) and possibl yalso identified by Bremner (1931, 1943) near Aberdeenre lates to this same glaciat ion. If the correlation of theweathered till with th e 'Wolsto nian' is correct th engiven the extent of 'Wols tonian ' ice inferred for thecentra l and northern North Sea Basin, complete glaciation of North East Scotl and would be expected at thi stime .

Elsewhere in Scotland only a few sites are knownth at apparently record Middle or Early Plei stocen eevents. On Shetland at Fugla Ness, an interglacial pe athas been assigned to th e Hoxnian on the basis of itspoll en and macrofossil content (Birks and Ransom ,1969) . This correlation with the Hoxnian is not basedon entirely secure grounds (Lowe, 1984) and other agesare possible (cf, Sutherland , 1984) . The Fugla Ne sspeat is underlain by on e till unit and overlain two tillunits. Interpretation of the site is complicated by th eexisting description of the site (C hapelhowe , 1965) notdistinguishing between the tills above and below thepeat giving the possibility th at the peat is a large e rra t ic(Birks and Ransom , 1969; Sutherland, in press). Ifthese a re indeed two distinct tills th en th e ba sal tillrepresents a glaciation of probable Middle Plei stocen eage , po ssibl y to be correlated with the Anglian. The toptill at Fugla Ne ss is attributabl e to the Late Devensianwhich implies at least on e glaciation between theformation of th e interglacial peat and the Late Devensia n . The age of thi s glaciat ion must remain specu lativebut it may too be of Middle Pleistocene age.

In the Outer Hebrides a possibly interglacial peat hasbe en reported from Toa Galson in NW Lewis (Sutherland and Walker, 1984) . The peat is known to havebeen preceded by a period of marine erosion producinga now-raised rock platform and a period of glaciation ofth at platform (McCann, 1968 ; von Weymarn , 1979) . Ifa minimum age for the Toa Galson peat is accepted aslast interglacial then the pr eceding glaciation mu st beMiddle Pleistocene in age . This glacial event may beth e same as that which tr ansported a se ries of e rratics tothe islands of St. Kild a pri or to a local glacial event th athas been assigned a minimum age of Early Deven sian(Suthe rland et al. , 1984) . Similarly, it may ha ve beenthis glaciation that was responsible for the deposition oferratics on the Flannan Isles and Sula Sgeir (Stewart ,1933) and erratics and till on North Rona (Stewart ,1932; G ailey, 1959), none of th ese islands having beenglaciated during the Late Devensian.

In summary, it is possible, on the basis of theev idence from the North Sea Basin , to infer th atScotland has supported maj or ice sheets on at leastthree occasions during the Middle Pleistocene . Theearliest of these glacial events has been correlated with'G lacial A' of the Dutch Cromerian Complex, and th eothe r two with the Anglian and 'Wolstonian' glaciations. In North East Scotland the Kirkhill site preservesevide nce of two Middle Plei stocene glaciations whichhave been tentatively correlated with the Anglian andth e Wolstonian . Other tills in the North East , such as

322 Qu aternary Science Reviews

the ' indigo' till may correlate with the earlier glaciationor be evidence of a further glacial event. The FuglaNess site in Shetland probably indicates one andpossibly two glaciations during the Middle Pleistocenewhilst the Outer Hebrides was glaciated at least onceduring this period . It is possible that evidence of MiddlePleistocene events occurs elsewhere in Scotland such asin the multiple till sequences of the lower Spey valley(Bre mner, 1931 ; Sutherland, 1984) or in the offshoresediments of the west coast described by Davies et at.(1984) but as yet dating control is lacking in these areas .

LATE PLEISTOCENEThe conventional lower boundary for the Late

Pleistocene is the base of the last (Ipswichian) interglacial. There are few sites in Scotland that have beenattributed to this interglacial and none of theseattributions is secure (Lowe, 1984). The relevant sitesare: Sel Ayre in Shetland (Birks and Peglar, 1979)which is overlain by a single till unit (Mykura andPhemister, 1976); Teindland in North East Scotland(Fitzpatrick, 1965; Edwards et al. , 1976) which isoverlain by a single till (Edwards et al., 1976; Sutherland , unpubt.) and at Inchnadamph where a speleothem has been dated to ca . 122 ka although this cannotbe directly related to any glacial event (Lawson, 1981) .Other possible last interglacial horizons are the upperpalaeosol at Kirkhill , which is overlain by two till units(Connell et al. , 1982) , and the Toa Galson site on Lewiswhich has not been glaciated (Sutherland and Walker ,1984) . Given the limited number of sites, the uncertainties as to their ages and the limited palaeoenvironmental information from each one, there islittle that can be confidently stated about the lastinterglacial in Scotland. Similarly despite various rockplatforms and raised beaches being attributed 'interglacial' status , none of these has been dated to the lastinterglacial in Scotland.

In the central and northern North Sea Basin certainhorizons that have yielded micropalaeontological evidence for an ameliorated marine climate have beencorrelated with the last interglacial (e.g. FeylingHansen , 1981, 1982; Gregory and Harland , 1978;Jansen et at., 1979; Jansen and Hensey, 1981; Knudsen ,1985; Skinner and Gregory, 1983; Stoker et at., 1983).There are a number of difficulties in the identificationof specific interglacial horizons in the North Sea Basin(Sutherland , 1984) but use of poll en analysis (e .g.Jansen and Hensey, 1981) and , in particular, palaeomagnetism (as the Blake Event of reversed polaritycoincides with the last interglacial) (Skinner andGregory , 1983; Stoker et al . , 1985) has allowed therecognition of the last interglacial at a number of sites.In the U.K . sector of the central North Sea Basin noneof these sites has subsequently been glaciated but in thenorthern North Sea Basin the extent of glaciationsubsequent to the last interglacial is less clear.

The last interglacial strata in the central North SeaBasin occur in the lower part of the Coal Pit Formationand the Early to Middle Devensi an sediments compris-

ing the upper part of the Coal Pit Formation consi stmainly of proximal and distal glaciomarine sediments(Stoker et at., 1985). These sediments are not closel ydated but the y apparently impl y glaciation of part ofthe North Sea Basin during the Early or MiddleDevensian. Whether thi s was by Scottish or Scandinavian ice (or both) is not known .

On land, Early and Middle Devensian events arepoorly known . In an attempt to synthesize the information on and explain the 'anoma lo us' high-level shellbeds that have been reported from a number oflocalities around Scotland, Sutherland (1981) proposedthat they are the consequence of pro-glacial isostaticdownwarping when world sea-level was relatively highduring the initial phase of ice sheet build-up in theEarly Devensian. This hypothesis of an Early Devensian initiation of the last Scottish ice sheet wassupported by Sissons (1981 , 1982a) in his explanation ofthe distribution of rock platforms on the west coast ofScotland. An Early Devensian age has also beenconsidered a possibility for the upper two till units atKirkhill (Connell and Hall , 1984; Hall , 1984). Asmentioned , proximal and distal glaciomarine sedimentswere deposited in the North Sea Basin at approximately this time whilst Davies et at. (1984) consideredth at certain of the glaciomarine sediments off the westcoast could date from thi s period. However , no glacialsediments have been directly dated to the EarlyDevensian in Scotland and the concept of an EarlyDevensian glaciation remain s unproven.

A number of sites have been attributed to Early orMiddle Devensian interstadials . At the Burn of Benholm on the east coast a silty peat contained within a tillhas a grass and sedge dominated pollen assemblage anda radiocarbon age of > 42 ka BP (Donner, 1960, 1979).In addition to the possible Ipswichian pollen assemblage at Teindland, Edwards et at. (1976) suggestedthat there was also evidence for a Middle Devensianinterstadial at that site although the radiocarbon datesconsidered to support that int erpretation are bestregarded as minimal (Sutherland , 1984; Lowe , 1984).At Crossbrae Farm in North East Scotland, a thin pe at ,overlain onl y by a solifluction layer , has been radiocarbon dated to 26.4 -ka BP (SRR-2041a) (alkalisoluble) and 22.38 ka BP (SRR-2041b) (alkali insoluble) (Hall , 1984). The interstadial site at To staHead on Lewis that has a radiocarbon age of 27.33 kaBP (SRR-87) gives pollen and diatom evidence for anopen vegetation and soil instability during a period ofdeclining climatic conditions (vo n Weymarn andEdwards, 1973; Birnie , 1983) . On S1. Kilda an organicsand overlain only by a str atified slope deposit has aminimum radiocarbon age of 24 .71 ka BP (SRR-1809b)and a pollen assemblage dominated by grasses andsedges (Sutherland et al. , 1984).

Further to these radiocarbon-dated and pollenanalysed sites, a variety of faunal remains and organichorizons have been found that may also relate to Earlyor Middle Devensian interstadials. In the MidlandValley faunal remains from below till or within the


deposits of the last glaciation have been widelydiscovered (Sutherland, 1984). At Kilmaurs, frombelow till and on top of a marine horizon, a tusk ofMammuthus primigenius has been radiocarbon dated to13.7 ka BP (GX-0634) whilst an antler of Rangifertarandus from the same locality produced an age of>40 ka BP (Birm-93) (Sissons, 1967b; Shotton et ai.,1970). A fragment of bone of Coeiodonta antiquitatisfrom sands and gravels below till at Bishopbriggs nearGlasgow has been dated to 27.5 (GX-0597) (Rolfe,1966). One further site has faunal remains thatapparently date from this period, the Inchnadamphcaves where two separate fragments of Rangifertarandus have given ages of 25.36 ka BP (SRR-2103)and 24.59 ka BP (SRR-2104) (Lawson, 1984).

The limited number of sites, the apparently briefintervals of time represented by the various organichorizons, the uncertainties associated with the radiocarbon dates and the lack of any distinctive pollenspectra that could be used to correlate or differentiatesites, means that it is not possible to decide on thenumber, age, or, other than in the broadest sense, theenvironment, of Early and Middle Devensian interstadials in Scotland.

It is widely accepted that the Late Devensian wascharacterised by the expansion and subsequent contraction of the last Scottish ice sheet but the limitednumber of clear Middle Devensian sites overlain by tillrelated to this glacial phase has meant that LateDevensian ice sheet glaciation is only proved at a smallnumber of localities and the chronology of ice sheetexpansion is unknown. Until recently it was possible toargue that the whole of the Scottish land area as well asthe northern and central North Sea Basin was glaciatedat this time (e.g. Boulton et al., 1977; Price, 1983) butthe discovery of the Toa Galson and Crossbrae Farmsites together with the revision of the interpretation ofstratigraphy and chronology of the sediments in theNorth Sea Basin have shown that the Scottish ice wasrelatively limited in extent and that parts of theMainland and of the islands were ice-free throughoutthe Late Devensian (Sutherland, 1984).

In the North Sea Basin the greatest extent of theScottish ice is represented by the junction of the glacialWee Bankie Formation and the glaciomarine MarrBank Formation some tens of kilometres off the eastScottish coast (Thomson and Eden, 1977). At this timethe south-central North Sea was dry land and an area ofthe north-central North Sea Basin between the Scottishand the Scandinavian ice sheets was a shallow arcticmarine embayment (Sutherland, 1984; Cameron et al.,1986) that may have had a thick sea ice cover (Stokerand Long, 1984).

An ice-free area in North-East Scotland is implied bythe Crossbrae Farm evidence (Hall, 1984) but theextent of this area and the ages of the various till unitson its margins is not resolved (Hall, 1984; Sutherland,1984). It has been argued that much of Caithness andOrkney were ice free at this time but there is no directdating evidence for this and the matter is unresolved

(Sutherland, in press). In NW Lewis an ice free areahas been established on both stratigraphic and directdating grounds (Sutherland and Walker, 1984) whilstthe island of St. Kilda only supported a small valleyglacier at this time (Sutherland et al., 1984) implyingthat Outer Hebridean ice terminated some distance tothe east and that there were areas of dry land on thewestern continental shelf.

Although there is no direct dating control on theexpansion of the ice sheet, stratigraphic evidencearound the margins of the Southern Uplands impliesthat ice from the south-west Highlands initiallyexpanded to encroach on the Southern Uplands andthat it was only as the glaciation progressed thatSouthern Uplands ice increased in strength and in turnexpanded into areas once covered by Highland ice(Geikie, 1894; Sissons, 1967a; Sutherland, 1984). Thischange in the relative strengths of the two ice centres isexplicable in palaeoclimatic terms by the southwardmovement of the zone of maximum effective precipitation, an hypothesis that is also compatible with theevidence of ice free areas in the north of Scotland whileice reached into the Midlands of England.

In addition to the Mainland ice sheet an independentice cap became established on the Outer Hebrides(Flinn, 1978a; von Weymarn, 1979) the Late Devensianage of which is established by the Tolsta Headinterstadial site (von Weymarn and Edwards, 1973) andthe amino acid ratios and radiocarbon dates on icetransported marine shells in Lewis (Sutherland andWalker, 1984). The independent ice cap that lastglaciated Shetland probably also dates from this period(Flinn, 1978b; Mykura and Phemister, 1976) but thereis no direct dating evidence as to its age. The ice capexpanded ca. 60 km to the east of Shetland but was notin contact with Scandinavian ice, the intervening part ofthe North Sea Basin being partly an arctic marineembayment and partly dry land (Long and Skinner,1985; Cameron et al., 1986).

The time of the maximum expansion of the last icesheet and whether this was a synchronous event aroundall the margins is not known. The initial phases of icesheet retreat, however, occurred when the climate wasstill very cold. The principal evidence for this is thedistribution of marine sediments that contain a higharctic micro- and macro-fauna and which were deposited during deglaciation. These are principallyfound along the east coast (termed the Errol Beds;Brown, 1867; Davidson, 1932; Graham and Gregory,1981; Paterson et al., 1981; Peacock, 1975) and in theNorth Sea Basin (termed the St. Abbs Formation andpart of the Witch Ground Formation; Thomson andEden, 1977; Thomson, 1978; Stoker et ai., 1985)although possibly equivalent faunas have also beenreported from South West Scotland (Brady et al., 1874)and the northern Minch (Gregory, 1980). Subsidiaryevidence for the severity of the climate during ice sheetretreat comes from the intraformational fossil frostwedges in the Midlothian Basin (Anderson, 1940;Kirby, 1969). Some of the ice wedge cast networks


found in eastern Scotland (Gemmell and Ralston, 1984;Greig, 1981) may also have formed at this time.

During this period of severe climate the ice sheetretreated until it was almost entirely land-based on theeast coast although an ice dome appears stilI to haveexisted over the Firth of Clyde. Sequences of raisedshorelines were formed as the ice retreated (Cullingford, 1977; CuIIingford and Smith, 1966, 1980; Sissonsand Smith, 1965; Sissons et al., 1966) and it is possibleto infer from the decline in shoreline gradients thatover half the isostatic uplift consequent upon ice decayoccurred during this period. The Perth Readvance wasoriginally considered to have terminated this initialperiod of ice retreat (Simpson, 1933; Sissons, 1963,1964) but this concept is now abandoned (Paterson,1974; Sissons, 1976) and high marine limits have beenreported inside the hypothesised readvance ice margin(Browne, 1980; Paterson et al., 1981). The generalmode of ice sheet retreat was considered to be that ofstagnation and in situ downwasting (Sissons, 1967a) butis possible to interpret the evidence in terms of anactive retreat with stagnation only occurring in topographically suitable areas (Sutherland, 1984).

There are no dates on this initial phase of ice sheetretreat but basal dates from both terrestrial and marinedeposits related to the subsequent period of milderclimate (the Lateglacial Interstadial) suggest that thechange of conditions occurred approximately 13 to 13.5ka BP. The extent of the Scottish ice at this time isuncertain and depends on an assessment of the validityof certain basal radiocarbon dates (ct. Sutherland,1980) and the validity of palaeoclimatic models thatenvisage increased precipitation consequent uponmilder conditions leading to a brief readvance of the icesuch as may be indicated by the Wester Ross Readvance (Robinson and Ballantyne, 1979; Sissons andDawson, 1981) or the various moraines in Easter Ross(Sissons, 1982b). It seems probable that during theearly part of the Lateglacial Interstadial the ice sheetretreated, perhaps rather rapidly, everywhere to withinthe limits of the subsequent Loch Lomond Readvance.Whether there was complete deglaciation of :';cotlandduring the Interstadial is unknown and the indirectevidence based on the environmental conditions duringthe Interstadial can be argued either way (Sissons,1976; Sutherland, 1984).

The Loch Lomond Readvance broadly correlateswith the Loch Lomond Stadial which is characterisedby a return of arctic marine conditions to the Scottishcoasts (Peacock et al., 1978; Peacock, 1981) and to amarked vegetational revertance on land (Gray andLowe, 1977; Walker, 1984). Glaciers expanded in manyof the mountain groups throughout Scotland with thelargest ice mass being in the western Grampians(Sissons, 1979a, b, 1983). It is only the outlet glaciers inthe South West Highlands and on the neighbouringisland of Mull that have provided direct radiocarbondated evidence for the readvance in terms of Lateglacial Interstadial age marine shells that either overridden or incorporated into the readvance glacial

deposits (Sutherland, 1984). These dates imply that themaximum of the readvance occurred after 10.9 ka BP inthe Loch Lomond type area. Until more direct dates onthe glacial phase are available arguments as to thesynchroneity of the timing of the readvance maximumin different parts of the country must remain speculative. There are similar problems related to dating thefinal phase of deglaciation of Scotland. Based on pollenstratigraphic work in the South West Highlands (Loweand Walker, 1981; Walker and Lowe, 1981) a progressive deglaciation from the readvance limits into theice cap centre seems implied but it has not provedpossible to radiocarbon date this accurately. The pollenevidence is suggestive of ice lasting until the very earlyFlandrian.

DISCUSSION

This review of existing knowledge of glaciation ofScotland has indicated that ice sheets have developedon at least four occasions in the last 700 ka years('Glacial A' of the Cromerian Complex; Anglian;'Wolstonian' and Late Devensian) and that there mayhave been a further period of ice sheet glaciation duringthe Early Devensian. There was also the minor glacialbuild up of the Loch Lomond Readvance at the end ofthe Late Devensian. This record, whilst confirmingmultiple ice sheet glaciation of Scotland, may becompared with the deep-sea core evidence whichimplies nine major glacials during the same period(Bowen, 1978). As the observational basis for theScottish glacial sequence relates to a series of localitiesthe stratigraphies of which have numerous unconformities and often represent only brief portions of therelevant time periods then this lack of correspondencebetween the continuous deep-sea record and that of theterrestrial or continental shelf deposits is to beexpected. The alternative hypothesis, which cannot atpresent be tested, is that for some reason certain of thedeep-sea core 'glacials' correspond to ice sheet growthin Scotland whilst others do not. Resolution of thisproblem is dependent upon the discovery of new sitesand, in particular, of the more accurate dating of thevarious glacial events. It may be, for instance thatcertain of the till units known at present (e.g. atKirkhill) do not relate to the glaciations to which theyhave tentatively been ascribed (usually on a stratigraphic basis) but represent 'missing' glaciations.

A key element in the recognition and subdivision ofdistinct glacial stages is the ability to define andcorrelate interglacial and interstadial strata. With theexception of the Lateglacial Interstadial, knowledge ofthis part of the Scottish Quaternary sequence isrudimentary at best. In part this may be regarded as afield problem for relatively few relevant sites have beenreported and of those that are known most appear torelate to rather short time intervals. Another aspect ofthis problem which has recently been highlighted byLowe (1984) is the extent to which in much of Scotland


interstadial and all or parts of interglacials have heathand grassland vegetation with few or any tree speciesthat may indicate the status of the event and suggestcorrelations with interglacials farther south. Resolutionof this part of the problem may be difficult and is likelyto be dependent upon the application of techniquesother than pollen analysis to reconstruct the palaeoenvironment as well as the use of the longer-rangedating methods for those deposits beyond the limit ofradiocarbon dating.

The increased application of established or developed dating techniques (such as U'-series, amino acidanalysis, palaeomagnetism and accelerator radiocarbondating) should allow certain specific problems to betackled in the near future. For example, the shorelinesequence that relates to the early phase of deglaciationon the east coast of Scotland has long been establishedbut remains undated as no marine fossils suitable forconventional radiocarbon dating and critically relatedto the shoreline sequence have been found in recentyears. Microfaunal remains are more common andaccelerator dating may result in the dating of some ofthese shorelines. This, in turn, would give insight intothe timing and rate of ice sheet retreat, and the rate ofisostatic uplift as well as provide limiting dates on thechange for arctic marine to boreal conditions at thestart of the Lateglacial Interstadial.

A further problem that may be approached through

the application of more refined dating techniques iswhether the Late Devensian ice sheet reached itsmaximum synchronously around all its margins orwhether, as is suggested by the stratigraphic evidencediscussed earlier, the northern parts of the ice sheetdeveloped earlier than the southern. Informationgained on this topic would be important not just inpalaeoclimatic reconstructions but would also havewider implications for the understanding of the Scottishglacial sequence. If the stratigraphic evidence is confirmed by direct dating, it supports the idea that thepalaeoclimatic conditions that support glaciation on thenorthern part of the Scottish ice sheet are not necessarily those that support glaciation on its southernmargins. The glacial history of the north of Scotlandneed not necessarily coincide with a glacial chronologydeveloped in the Midlands and east of England andcertain of the missing 'glacials' referred to above incomparison with the deep-sea core evidence couldrelate to glaciation that was not experienced on thesouthern or south-eastern margins of the ice sheet. Thisconcept emphasises the problems that are inherent inthe use (as in this paper) of such terms as 'Anglian' of'Wolstonian' as established glacial events with whichcertain tills can be correlated and suggests that locallithostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic subdivisionsshould be established prior to regional correlationschemes.

Wales and Southwest Engalnd

INTRODUCTION

Long after the monoglacialism resulting from Buckland's (1842) conversion from a belief in the biblicaldeluge as an explanation for glacial drift, and afterDarwin's (1842) work in north Wales, only twoepisodes of glaciation (Ramsay, 1852; Charlesworth,1929; Bowen, 1974) were recognised for over 100 years.This, of course, excludes the relatively minor readvances in upland cirques during the Loch LomondStadial (Godwin, 1955; Walker, 1982; Gray, 1982).Only recently has the discovery of the Pavilandmoraine in south Wales, and Welsh erratics in theThames basin far from the principality, allowed a morecomplex glacial history to be proposed. A feature of allglaciations was the interplay between Welsh ice massesand those from the Irish Sea to the north (this includesLake District ice in the northeast). Because most ofWales is predominantly upland in character, evidencefor multiple glaciation occurs around its margins and insouthwest England.

EARLY AND MIDDLE PLEISTOCENEGLACIATIONS

There is no direct evidence for Early Pleistoceneglaciation in Wales or southwest England. The first

glaciation of Wales can be inferred from the erraticsderived from the Berwyn and Snowdon mountainranges, found in the Kesgrave Formation of EastAnglia (Hey and Brenchley, 1977; Rose and Allen,1977). Specifically, these first occur in abundance in theWestland Green Gravel Member of the KesgraveFormation (Hey, 1980) which can be traced westwardsas part of the Middle Thames Gravel Formation(Gibbard, 1985) and the Northern Drift of Oxfordshire(Hey, 1986) (see earlier section on England for furtherdetail). No till is known in Wales which relates to thisevent. It is, therefore, entirely inferred. But elsewherethere may be further evidence to support recognition ofit. For example, on Crousa Common, on the LizardPeninsula in Cornwall, there are spreads of gravels thatrequire re-evaluation: these may be related to such anearly glaciation particularly as they occur at highelevation and do not relate to present day topography.

A second glaciation, by tradition referred to as the'Irish Sea' Glaciation (e.g. Pringle and George, 1961)was, until very recently, the only pre-Late Devensianglaciation recognised throughout the area. This involved complete glaciation of Wales by local ice sheetsas well as extensive glaciation of the southwest andsouthern margins of Wales and all the Bristol Channelincluding Lundy Island (Mitchell, 1968), the coastalarea and sometimes the immediate coastal hinterland

326 Qu aternary Science Reviews

·Chelford

Four Ashes.

ENGLAND

SOMERSET

"\.... .....-. ....I ............ I,

v

100I

km

o 10I .

t.lanqollen"

BRECONBEACONS

WALES

Cada irIdri s

Port

...." ISLES•• , of

. ~D SCILLY

FIG. 4. Localities in Wales and southw est England referred to in the text .

Quaternary Glaciati ons in the Northern Hemisphere 327

of Avon (Hawkins and Kellaway, 1971), Somerset ,north Devon (Mitchell, 1960) and north Cornwall, andthe Isles of Scilly (Mitchell and Orme, 1967).

Till and f1uvioglacial deposits occur in southwestWales, where indicator erratic trains show that IrishSea ice flowed from northwest to southeast. The claimof Battiau-Queney (1981) that this locality was unglaciated is contradicted by a considerable body of physicalevidence (Griffiths, 1940; Bowen, 1970). Except forsome sand and gravel topography at Llandre ncarWhitland (Bowen , 1970) , no constructional forms ofthis glaciation remain. The drifts are highly dissected(Bowen, 1970), but they are related to the presenttopography. At West Angle Bay, at the entrance toMilford Haven, till is overlain by estuarine deposits(Dixon, 1921) , which have yielded temperate pollen.However, the pattern of vegetational history does notallow comparison with any standard British interglacial(Stevenson and Moore , 1982). Comparison with otherinterglacial marine deposits in South Wales (Bowen etal. , 1986) makes correlation with marine Isotope Stages5 or 7 probable ; on this basis the age of the glaciationcould be time equivalent to Isotope Stage 6 or 8 orolder. Elsewhere in South Wales erratics show that theIrish Sea ice crossed southwest Gower from northwestto southeast , crossed Swansea Bay, and penetrated theEwenny Valley to the north of Bridgend, as far asPencoed , where marine shells were discovered incalcareous Irish Sea till (Strahan and Cantrill, 1904).Beyond Bridgend, characteristic heavy minerals of theIrishSea suite were identified by Griffiths (1940) in theVale of Glamorgan, and Crampton (1966) attributedLias cobbles to a glacial origin. The farthermost easterratic clast was discovered by Griffiths (1940) on theoutskirts of Cardiff.

It seems likely, given the topographic situation ofglacial deposits in the Bristol area of Avon (Hawkinsand Kellaway , 1971) , that these are the same age asthose of the Irish Sea glaciation of South Wales. Just asin South Wales these are older than marine depositsascribed to Isotope Stage 7. They also antedate fluvialdeposits containing Corbicula [luminalis at Kenn Pierand Yew Tree Farm which yield amino acid DIL ratioscorrelated with sites at Purfleet in the Thames Valley(Andrews et al., 1984). These can be ascribed toIsotope Stage 9 (ca. 320 ka) (Hughes , unpublisheddata), thus the glaciation could be time equivalent toIsotope, Stage .1O. or older ,

~imiLa.r .fc)fisideration.s show that the Fremington Tillof BarnstapleBay, North Devon, is the same age. It isrelated to present day topography and field relationships show that it is older than the raised beaches atSaunton and Croyde (Zeuner, 1945; Bowen, 1969).Underlying gravels claimed to be marine (Stephens,1966) were shown to be fluvial or glaciofluvial byKidson and Wood (1974) .

'fl1e_glacial deposits of the Isles of Scilly were firstdescribed by Barrow (1904) but were then forgottenuntil Mitchell and Orme (1967) redescribed them. Theyargued that the glaciation post-dated local (Hoxnian)

raised beaches , but Bowen (1969, 1973b) disagreed andmaintained that erratic clasts in head sequences abovethe raised beaches were in a secondary position becauseof solifluction and th at the glaciation responsible fortheir carriage to the islands antedated the raisedbeaches .

From the age considerations above , the closestminumum date for glaciation comes from the OILratios at Kenn Pier: that is , the glaciation must be olderthan Isotope Stage 9. Similar conclusions ma y bereached from reworked shells of Littorina from theraised beach at Hunts Bay, Gower , which can, on theirOIL ratios be ascribed to Isotope Stage 9 (ca. 320 ka).There is no stratigraphic evidence at that locality toshow that the Irish Sea ice crossed it subsequent to thathigh sea-level event (Bowen et al. , 1986) .

A glaciation subsequent to the Ir ish Sea Glaciation ,but before the Late Devensian glaciation has beenrecognised in west Gower, south Wales (Bowen andJenkins, unpublished data) . In west Gower, George(1933) described a mixed drift containing erratics fromboth Irish Sea and Welsh sources . At that time themixed drift of west Gower was classified as 'OlderDrift' along with Irish Sea glacial deposits. Thepossibility that it represented an advance of Welsh icesubsequent to the Irish Sea glaciation was considered,and both pre-Devensian (Bowen. 1973a , 1974) andLate Devensian (Bowen, 1970) ages were considered.The matter was resolved in 1985 when a drillingprogramme supplemented by geophysical surveydemonstrated that a belt of high ground, mapped assolid geology overlain by some glacial deposits , wasshown to consist of a large end-moraine. This has beennamed the Paviland Moraine. The ice moved directlyfrom north to south with indicator erratics of quartzitefrom the north crop of the South Wales Coalfield. Itcrossed terrain previously glaciated by Irish Sea ice ,from northwest to southeast, hence is ascribed to aseparate glacial event. This satisfactorily explains thecontrast in drift cover between west Gower and otherareas glaciated before the Devensian Stage. Ice of thePaviland Glaciation crossed the present coastline ofwest Gower into Port Eynon Bay but retreated andstabilized a short distance inland at the PavilandMoraine. The field and stratigraphic relationships withlocal raised beaches show that the Paviland Glaciationis older than Isotope Stage 7 (ca . 225 ka) (Bowen et al. ,1986) . No equivalent deposits to the Paviland Glaciation are yet known elsewhere in Wales.

LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIAnONS

The Late Pleistocene (after 132 ka) includes some ofthe raised beaches of south Wales and southwestEngland which are, on the basis of amino acidgeochronology and uranium-series dating, correlatedwith Sub-stage 5e of the deep-sea isotope scale (Bowenet al. , 1986).

No glacial deposits of Early Devensian age areknown in Wales. The age and extent of Late Devensian


glaciation, however, is satisfactorily established(Bowen, 1973a, 1974, 1981). Around the coast of southWales raised beaches ascribed to Sub-stage 5e (ca. 125ka) of the isotope scale have been used as a stratigraphic marker to delimit the extent of Late Devensianice: glaciated and unglaciated areas were discriminatedby the presence or absence of glacial deposits instratigraphic position above the raised beaches(Bowen, 1973a, b, 1974). Subsequent ascription of alimited number of such raised beaches to Isotope Stage7 (Bowen et al., 1986), a possibility anticipated earlier(Bowen, 1973c), has not modified this interpretation.

Further evidence for fixing the Late Devensianglaciation in time and space is provided by maximumand minimum radiocarbon dates. Maximum ages areprovided by the 30 ka radiocarbon ages from FourAshes, in Staffordshire, (Shotton, 1967) on the IrishSea ice sheet with which a Welsh ice sheet was coeval;and a date of 18 ka BP from a carpal bone of a woollymammoth from the Tremeirchion Caves of the Vale ofClwyd, northeast Wales (Rowlands, 1971), which aresealed by Irish Sea till. These are the caves whichcontained Aurignacian artifacts which allowedCharlesworth (1929) to date the 'Newer Drift' glaciation of Wales as post-Aurignacian and probablyMagdalenian. Other maximum age indicators are fromamino acid DIL ratios of shells incorporated into glacialdrift. The age of the shells is estimated by comparisonwith genera from interglacial beach deposits and alsoby a preliminary radiocarbon timescale which is beingdeveloped by dating bulk samples of similarly agedshells, as shown by amino acid signatures and DILratios. This method shows that the glacial drifts ofsouthwest Dyfed (e.g. Abermawr and Banc-y-warren),and north Gower, are Late Devensian in age becausethey contain shells of Isotope Stage 3 (Bowen andHenry, 1984). Unexpectedly young shells occur in someglacial deposits. These, by comparison with the D/Lradiocarbon comparisons, suggest ages close to the

glacial maximum. In Ireland (see section above) it ispossible to show their association with glaciomarinebeds as well as a considerable isostatic depression of thecrust to allow marine conditions to be coextensive withthe ice-margin. The implications of these data areconsiderable with regard to the dimensions of the LateDevensian ice in Wales and in the Irish Sea.

Indications of a readvance of Welsh ice occur in thenorthern borderland of Wales between Llangollen andShrewsbury. At the latter locality Welsh outwash andtill overlies Irish Sea till (Pocock et al., 1938) which isthe lateral equivalent of the Four Ashes till (Shotton,1968; Morgan, 1973) and Stockport Formation (Worsley, 1967, 1970), although Worsley (1985, p. 213)attributes this solely to a 'zone within which Irish Seaand Welsh derived ice sheets interacted' and fails toimply any greater significance (see also section onEngland). At Glanllynnau, in Gwynedd (northwestWales), the Criccieth till is overlain by the LIanystumdwy Till with signs of non-glacial conditionsbetween the two (Saunders, 1968a, b). This is takenhere as evidence for the Gwynedd readvance , althoughBoulton (1977) prefers to interpret the sequence as theproduct of one complex depositional event. Deglaciation was complete in the Llyn peninsula, northwestWales, by at least 14.46 ka BP (Coope et al., 1971), theoldest minimum radiocarbon date in Wales.

After deglaciation of the main Late Devensian icesheet, which is time equivalent to the DimlingtonStadial (Rose, 1985), a readvance of the cirque glaciersin Snowdonia (Godwin, 1955; Seddon, 1957) occurredduring the Loch Lomond Stadial (Gray, 1982). Asimilar advance has been dated in South Wales in theBrecon Beacons, where there may also be an equivalent to the main ice sheet readvance represented byhummocky moraine outside the morainic arc of theLoch Lomond Readvance (Walker, 1982). Similarreadvances probably occurred in all the major uplandcirques of Wales: e.g. Cadair Idris.

Correlation of Glaciations in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales

A provisional correlation of Quaternary glaciationsin England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales is shown onTable 3, and the extent and limits of some of them isshown on Fig. 5. So far as is possible, on Table 3, thephysical evidence for glaciation (i.e. till or glaciofluvialstratigraphic units) is fixed in time by geochronologicalcontrols. The 'labels' of existing classifications areavoided. Provisional correlation with the OxygenIsotope timescale of the deep global ocean is madeusing the Stages defined by Shackleton and Opdyke(1973, 1976). The ages calculated for stage boundariesare from Johnson (1982).

EARL Y PLEISTOCENE

As far as can be ascertained at present there is nodirect evidence for Early Pleistocene glaciation in

Britain and Ireland, although there is substantialindirect evidence for glaciation in the upland areas ofnorth Wales (and by implication other upland areasalso) from erratics and glacially fractured sand grains inmarine and river deposits in the Thames valley andEast Anglia.

Evidence exists to suggest five separate glacialevents. The earliest (Baventian) is indicated by fartravelled fresh minerals transported into the regionfrom a source to the north of East Anglia. Theremaining four glaciations are identified by erraticsfrom north Wales, the west Midlands of England andthe Irish Sea basin, and are represented by the largestbody of sorted sediment in the British Quaternaryrepresenting extensive erosion in the upland areas ofthe west. Inevitably, evidence for these glaciations islacking in upland areas, because of the erosional nature

Qu atern ary Glaciations in the Northern Hemisph ere 329

Southern lim it of Welton I Pavrtand tSaaleGlaciation

Readvance limits formed during wastageo f Dlmllngton I Glenavy glaciers

Gwynedd readvanceScottlshl Brlde l Drumlin read vanceW ester Ross readvance

'\-,

\\

'\'\ ,

""- ....

2~O

....-,\,

I\\\I

J •• -I."

... '1.... \.... '\.. ,

"

sooIkm

---- .... -,\,

IJ

/ I

»> ..... --- :

". / "II /

...........f - - - - - - "

Sou the rn limn o f A ngl lan l M unst er lElster Glacia tion

Maximum ex tent of loch Lomond INahanagan glaciers

M a ximum e xr ent of Otmhngton IGtenavv glaciersc)- - - - - - ......

FIG . 5. Extent o f glac ial events and glacial event s and glacial limit s in Br itain, Ireland, offsho re regions and the adjacent part ofthe Netherlands . Th e basis of all limit s is given in the text. Sol id lines indi cate ice limits on land , lon g dashes ind icate inferred icelimits in offshore regions, and short dashe s indicate inferred glacie r limits, both on and offsho re, th at were overridden bysubsequent glacial events . Although the doubt that has been expressed about the validity of the Scottish Readvance is explainedin the text, this limit is shown o n this figure in order to illustr ate possible geographical continuity with the Drumlin readvance of

Ireland .

TABLE 3. Correlation of glaciations in the British Isles. Oxygen Isotope stages are from Shackleton and Opdyke (1973), Ages are from Johnson (1982),with the exception of the stage 2/3 boundary (footnote 1) and stage 3/4 boundary (footnote 2) which are ages set by the Geological Society of London Special

Report NO.4 on the Quaternary (1973). wwo

o.::a~...::l

"'~V'JD.~

::l<)~

~<:

~.

74C date

Maximum age

Minimum age

... TL dare

o AA DIL

• llr-series

ENGLAND

210

~

~

.I.76,. .1.94

+114 ,. ,101

?'2S

SCOTLANDWALES 81

SW ENGLANDIRELAND

2

6. 180STAGE

26'

3

502

4

SI-d79 ,10

5,122

'IDS

'122132

125 ~12S

6

7198

f'2 Int

lUt

8252

~OO ?200 t226

9302

I I10--338

? ?

11352

12428

1348

14512

562

AGE 'E::::-! ,no. :::A(hI ;:1 ••+ ?II 10 I

Each wedge symbol indicates ice advance and retreat. Wherever possible, minimum and maximum age determinations are shown to constrain eachglaciation. Amino acid age determinations are based partly on calibration by other dating methods but otherwise by general ascription to an oxygen isotopestage, hence the generalised dates.

The glaciation, time equivalent to stage 4, in Ireland has not been recognised elsewhere but in view of the mountainous terrain of the north and west ofmainland Britain it is likely that glaciation did occur at this time but the extent of which was subsequently overrun by the late Devensian glaciation.Similarly, it is likely that the glaciation ascribed to oxygen isotope stage 8 was overrun in Ireland by subsequent advances. For further explanation see text.

Quaternary Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere 33 1

of these and subsequent glaciations. Likewise, theabsence of evidence from mo st lowland regions thatwere glacierized during the Middle and Late Pleistocene is almost certainly due to subsequent glacialreworking. However , it is worth pointing out that theTh ames system was particularly favourable for representing and preserving evidence for these glaciations,because during the Early Pleistocene it had a muchmore extensive catchment that was linked to thehighland areas, and it drained into an area of low reliefwhere subsequent erosion has been relatively small . Ananal ogue exists in northern Europe where the riverRhine deposited the coarse grained Sterksel Formationat this time, and evidence for glaciation is indicated inthe Linge and Dorst Glaciations of the Bavelian, whichpredate the Matuyama-Brunhes geomagnetic reversal(Zagwijn and De Jong, 1984).

Throughout most of the Thames system these sediments are differentiated and correlated on geomorphological (alt itude) and lithological criteria, but in EastAnglia these sediment bodies , and that of the Baventian, include, or can be link ed with. pollen bearingdeposits and can thus be related to th e standard Britishpoll en and mirotine rodent stratigraphy (West , 1980a;Ma yhew and Stuart , 1986). On thi s basis the Baventianis identified as the earliest glaciation. This is followedby evid ence for four glaciations th at can be placed, atthe current sta te of th e pollen strat igraphy in the prePastonian (c, a . and an ea rlier unknown stage) andBeestonian .

As it is not possible to determine any ice-limits or , atpr esent, relate any of th e glacial events to OxygenIsotope Stages, the Early Pleistocene glaciations ar enot represented on Fig. 5 or Table 3.

MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE

The Anglian glaciation of England is , by definition ,older than Hoxnian Interglacial. D/L (D:alloisoleucine ;L:isoleucine) ratios from non-marine molluscs show aninterglacial intermediate in age between the Hoxnianand Ipswichian (Hughes et al. , unpubl .y: e.g. th eStanton Harcourt interglacial deposits (Briggs et al . ,1985) . Because the Ip swichian (sensu lato) is ascribedto Ox ygen Isotope (0.1. ) Stage 5, it seems reasonableto correlate the Hoxnian with 0.1. Stage 9, and theinterglacial intermediate between it and the Ipswichianwith O.J. Stage 7. On thi s basis the Anglian glaciationmay be ascribed to 0 .1. Stage 10 or earlier. Butbecause no appreciable glaciation is known anywherein the northern hemisphere during 0.1. Stage 10 (thisvolume) it is, accordingly , ascribed to 0.1. Stage 12 assuggested on other considerations by Shackleton andOpdyke (1973). It is also of some importance to noteth at the D/L ratios from some species show that part ofthe Swanscoombe gravels (correlatives of which atHornchurch , in Essex, overlie Anglian till), may beascribed to 0.1. Stage 11, and Wym er (1985) recognisesboth a temperate and cold stage between Anglian till

and Hoxnian interglacial dep osits at sites such asClacton and the Thurrock area. At Tryssul , in th e WestMidlands of England , int ergl acial deposits ascribed to0.1. Stage 9 by their molluscan D/L ratios , overliesediments that are correlated with the Anglian(Mo rgan, 1973) .

Corre lation with Wal es and southwest England ispossible because the Irish Sea glaciation of SouthWales , the Bristol Ch annel , the northern coasta lhinterland of Devon and Cornwall and the Isles Scillyantedates the mixed (D /L) faunas of Gower which areascr ibed to 0.1. Stage 9 (Bowen etal., 1986). Thus, forsimilar reasons to those adduced above in estimatingthe age of the Anglian glaciation, the Irish Seaglaciation of Wales and southwest England is correlated with 0.1. Stage 12. Th e two major glaciations ofso utheast and southwest Britain , therefore , are timeequivale nt. Correlation with the Munsterian Glaciationwhich also represents the most extensive glaciation ofIreland, is also proposed (Table 3) . In Scotland , theglaciation which contributed th e err act ics in th e sandsand gravels at Kirkhill is correlated with this St age .

The Anglian/Munsteri an Glaciation is the mostexte nsive glaciation of Britain and Ireland , and itfollowed the period of most int en se cold and ar idityknown in the British Plei stocene. In eastern England inparticul ar it was a time when extensive changes oflandscape took place , and it was the time when th emost extensive lithostratigraphic marker, the Low estoftTill and its variants. was deposited .

Intermediate betw een the Ir ish Sea glaciation andthe Late Devensian glaciation of South Wales is thePaviland Glaciation, named after the recently discovered Paviland Moraine in Gower (Bowen, Jenkins.Catt and Reid, unpublished data; see also Bowen et al . ,1986). The stratigraphic and field relationships of th ePaviland glacial deposits in G ower show that they areolder than raised beaches of the Minchin Hole (D /L )Stage (Bowen et al. , 1986) , which are ascribed to 0 .1.Stage 7. On such grounds the Paviland glaciation isascribed to 0.1. Stage 8. The glaciation whichdeposited the Welton/Basement/Warren House Tills ofnortheast England is considered the most likely equivalent of the Paviland Glaciation (Fig. 5) , and it ispossible that the till above the Hoxnian Interglacialdeposit at Quinton is of the same age. Correlation isa lso proposed with the Kirkhill Till in Scotland, but noob vious correlative is known in Ireland.

Such limited knowledge of this glaciation in Britainand Ireland can be readily explained by the fact that ,with th e exception of Gower, and possibly part ofLincolnshire and the west Midlands, the 0.1. Stage 8glacial limits were overridden by Late Devensian/LateMidlandian ice, and hence pre-existing deposits wereeither destroyed or obscured. Only in northeastEngland, where an apparently surging glacier with alow surface gradient and highly deformable bedmat erial overrode the Warren House/Basement/Welton Tills are deposits of this age preservedextensi vely.


In conventional terms this glaciation is post-Hoxnianbut pre-Ipswichian, but it did not extend as far south asWolston so that the term 'Wolstonian' is no longerappropriate. The deposits at Wolston are considered tobe of Anglian age (Rose, in press; see also section onEngland). The two Middle Pleistocene glaciations ofthe British Isles, ascribed to 0.1. Stages 12 and 8, arecorrelated respectively with the Elster and Drenthe(Saale) Glaciations of the Netherlands.

LATE PLEISTOCENE

An Early Devensian glaciation can only be demonstrated in Ulster where till units occur containingmarine molluscs with 0.1. Sub-stage 5e DIL ratios astheir youngest faunal element. This is not the caseelsewhere around the coast of Britain as glacial depositscontain molluscs ascribed to both 0.1. Sub-stage 5e andStage 3 (Middle Devensian) (Bowen, McCabe, Sykesand Harkness, unpublished data).

Given an Early Devensian ice advance of unknownextent in Ireland, it is unlikely that the mountains ofScotland, Wales and western and upland Englandescaped glaciation. In these areas, however, theevidence has been overridden by Late Devensian ice.Sutherland (1981) has suggested that the 'high levelmarine clays' of Scotland accumulated on a glacioisostatically depressed crust during the Early Devensian. DIL ratios from molluscs in these beds indicate anapproximate age equivalent to 0.1. Stage 5. It ispossible that some of these are late Stage 5 or earliestStage 4 in age, thus adding support to Sutherland'sproposal of Early Devensian Glaciation in Scotland.

The notion that the Late Devensian glaciation ofWales (Bowen, 1973a) and Ireland (Warren, 1979,1985) could be temporally and spatially constrained bydistribution of raised beaches ascribed to 0.1. Substage 5e, and minimum age indications from kettle holesediments lying on glacial drift, has been confirmed byDIL ratios from molluscs of Middle Devensian age inshelly glacial deposits. The radiocarbon maximum andminimum ages for the main glacial episode of the LateDevensian glaciation (Dimlington advance of Britainand Glenavy advance of Ireland) are shown on Table 3.The relatively few maximum age determinations stemfrom a lack of organic material available from what wasan extremely harsh climatic environment immediatelyprior LO, and during glaciation.

Radiocarbon and amino acid dates of ca. 17 ka BP onin situ molluscs from glaciomarine sediments contemporaneous with ice at the Drumlin Readvanceposition in Ireland (Bowen et al., unpublished data) andtheir correlation by DIL aminostratigraphy, showsconsiderable isostatic depression of the crust in theIrish Sea at that time. Although McCabe (1985) regardsthe Drumlin Readvance as having been produced byglaciological changes rather than climatic forcing, thereare lithostratigraphic indications of physical readvanceof the ice margin in northwest Wales and northwestEngland. At present, it is impossible to relate the

Wester Ross Readvance to glacial events elsewhere inBritain and Ireland. It can be described only as an icelimit formed during the wastage of glaciers during theDimlington Stadia!.

The Loch LomondlLoch Nahanagan Readvance iswell defined and correlated by radiocarbon dates andassociated pollen stratigraphy. Evidence exists in allfour countries although its extent in Ireland appears tobe minimal, and in England and Wales it is restrictecdto the highest land of the western mountains. Problemsstill remain on the exact timing of ice build-up anddecay, and a large degree of diachronism is likely. Thismay be a product of the migration of the polar front inthe North Atlantic which appears to have been themain control over the growth and decay of glaciersin Britain (Ruddiman et al., 1977; Sissons, 1979a).

REFERENCES

Agassiz, L. (1840). On the evidence of the former existence ofglaciers in Scotland, Ireland and England. Proceedings of theGeological Society of London, 3, 327-332.

Alabaster, C. and Straw, A. (1976). The Pleistocene context offaunal remains and artefacts discovered at Welton-Ie-Wold,Lincolnshire. Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society, 41,75-94.

Allen. P. (1984). Field Guide to the Gipping and Waveney Valleys.Suffolk. May, 1982. Quaternary Research Association, Cambridge.

Anderson, J.G.c. (1940). Glacial drifts near Roslin, Midlothian.Geological Magazine, 77, 470-473.

Andrews, J.T., Gilbertson, D. and Hawkins, A.B. (1984). ThePleistocene succession of the Severn Estuary: a revised modelbased upon amino acid racemization studies. Journal of theGeological Society, 141, 967-974.

Arkell, W.J. (1947). The Geology of Oxford. Clarendon Press,Oxford.

Ballantyne, C.K. and Kirkbride, M.P. (In press). The characteristicsand significance of Lateglacial protalus ramparts in uplandBritain. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms.

Balson , P.S. and Cameron, T.D.J., (1985). Quaternary mappingoffshore East Anglia. Modem Geology, 9, 221-239.

Banham, P.H., Davies, H. and Perrin, R.M.S. (1975). Short fieldmeeting in north Norfolk. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 86, 251-258.

Barrow, G. (1904). Geology of the Isles of Scilly. Memoir of theGeological Survey, U.K., pp. 15-31.

Battiau-Ouenney. Y. (1981). Contribution a I'etude geomorphologique due Massif Gallois. Theses present devant l'Universite deBretagne Occidentale.

Belderson, R.H., Kenyon, N.H. and Wilson, J.B. (1973). Icebergplough marks in the northeast Atlantic. Palaeogeography.Palaeoclimatology and Palaeoecology, 13,215-224.

Beaumont, P. (1971). Stone orientation and stone count data fromthe lower till sheet, eastern Durham. Proceedings ofthe YorkshireGeological Society, 38, 343-360.

Beckett, S.C. (1977). The Bog, Roos. In: Catt, J.A. (ed.), X INQUACongress Excursion Guide: Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, pp.42-46. Geo Abstracts, Norwich.

Birks, H.J.B. and Peglar. S.M. (1979). Interglacial pollen spectrafrom Sel Ayre, Shetland. New Phytologist, 83, 559-575.

Birks H.J.B. and Ransom, M.E. (1969). An interglacial peat at FuglaNess, Shetland. New Phytologist, 68, 777-796.

Birnie, J. (1983). Tolsta Head: further investigations of the interstadial deposit. Quaternary Newsletter, 41, 18-25.

Bishop, W.W. (1958). The Pleistocene geology and geomorphologyof three gaps in the Midland Jurassic escarpment. PhilosophicalTransactions of the Royal Society of London, 8241, 255-306.

Boulton, G.S. (1977). A multiple till sequence formed by a lateDevensian Welsh ice-cap: Glanllynnau, Gwynedd. Cambria, 4,10-31.

Qu aternary Gl aciat ion s in the Northern Hemisphere 333

Boulton , G .S .. Cox. F. , Har t , 1. and Th orn ton , M. (1984) . Th eglacial geo logy of No rfolk . Bull etin of the Geological Soc iety ofNorfolk , 34.103-1 22.

Boulton . G .S ., Jon es. A .S. , Clayton. K.M. and Kenning, M.J .(1977). A Br itish ice-sheet model and patt ern s of glacial erosio nand dep osi tio n in Britain . In: Shott on , F.W. (ed. ) BritishQuaternary St udies , pp 231- 246. Clarendo n Press. Oxford.

Bowen , D .O . (1969) . Th e Pleistocen e history o f the Bri stol Channe l.Proceedings of the Ussher Society , 2. 86.

Bowen , D .O . (1970) . South-east and central South Wales. In : Lewis,C A . (ed .) Th e Glaciations of Wales and adjo ining regions . pp .197- 227. Longma ns, London .

Bowen, D.O . (1973a) . The Pleistocene history o f Wales and th ebord erland . Geolo gical Journal . 8. 207- 224.

Bowen , D .O . (1973b). The Pleistocen e succession of the Irish Sea .Proceedings of the Geologists ' A ssociation . 84. 249-272.

Bowen . D .O. (1973c). The excav ati on at Minchin Hole 1973. Gow er.24.1 2.

Bowen. D .O . (1974). The Quaternary of Wales. In: Owen, T.R.(cd .) The Upper Palaeozoic and p ost-Palaeozoic Rocks of Wales,pp. 373- 426. Cardiff.

Bowen. D.Q. (1978) . Quaternary Geology. Pergamon. Oxford.Bowen , D .O . (1979). Qu aternary cor relations. Nature. 277, 171-1 72 .Bowen , D.O . (1981). The 'South Wales End Mor aine ' : fifty years

afte r. In : Nea le. J . and Flenley. J . (eds) The Quaternary inBritain , pp . 60-67. Pergam on , Oxford .

Bowen , D.Q . and Henry, A . (1984) . Wales: Gower, Preseli, Ffo restFawr. Q uate rnary Research Association Field Gu ide , Cambridge .

Bowen. D .Q., Sykes , G .A. , Reeves, A ., Miller , G .H . , An dre ws.J.T ., Brew. J .S. and H are , P .E . (1986) . A mino acid geo chronology of raised beaches in south west Brit ain . QuaternaryScience Reviews ; 4(4) . 279-318.

Brady. G.S . , Crosskey , H .W . and Robertson, D . (1874). Amonograph of the post-Te rtiar y Ent omostr aca of Scotland .Mongraph of the Palaeontological Society : 28. 232 pp .

Bremner , A . (1928). Further pro blems in the glacial geo logy ofnorth-eastern Scotland . Transactions of the Edinburgh GeologicalSocietv : 12, 147-1 64.

Bremner: A . (193 1). The glac iation of Moray and ice movement s inthe north of Sco tland . Transactions of the Edinburgh GeologicalSocietv; 13. 17-56.

Bremner; A . (1943). The glacial epoch in the North-east. In : To cher .J .F. (ed .) The Book of Bu chan (Jubilee Volume). pp. 10- 30 .Aberd een University Press, Aberdeen .

Bridge , D.McC. and Hopson. P.M . (1985). Fine gravel. heavymineral and grain-size analysis of mid-Pleistocene glacial depositsin the lower Waveney valley, East Anglia. Modern Geology. 9,129-144.

Br idgland , D.R. (1984) . The Quaternary fl uvia l deposits of NorthKent and East Essex . Ph .D. Th esis, Council for Nation alAcadem ic Awards. City of Lon don Polyt echn ic.

Briggs, D .J . , Coope . G .R. a nd G ilbe rtso n, D .O . (1985). Thechro nology and e nviro nme nta l framework of Early man in th eupper Th am es Vall ey. British Archeological Series , 137.

Briggs, D .J ., Coope , G.R. , Gilbertson , D.O ., Goudie , A .S. ,Osborne , P.I . , O smaston , H .. Pett it , M.. Shotton , F.W. andStu art , A .S . (1975) . New int er glacial site at Sugworth . Nature.257. 477-479.

Briggs, D .J . and Gilbertson , D .O. (1973). Th e age of the Han borou gh Terr ace of the River Ev enlode , Oxford shire . Proceed ings of the Geologists Association . 84, 155-193.

Briggs, D .J . and Gilbertson, D .O . ( 1980). Qua te rnary process es andenvironmen ts in the upper Th am es basin. Transacti ons of theInstitute of British Geograph ers , NS 5, 53-65.

Brown , T. (1867) . On the arctic she ll-clay of Elie and Errol , viewedin connec tio n with our other glacial and more recent deposits.Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , 24, 617-633.

Browne , M.A.E . (1980). Late-Deven sian marine limits and patternsof deglaciatio n of the Str athearn area , Tayside . SCOI/ish Journal ofGeology , 16,221-230.

Buckland , W. (1842). Reliquiae D iluvianae: O n the glacial-diluvialphenomena in Snowdonia and the adjacent parts of North Wale s.Proceedin gs of Geological So ciety of L ondon. 3. 579-84.

Bullock. P ., Carroll, D.M . and Jarvis, R.A. (1973). Palaeosolfeatures in northern England. Nature, Physical Sciences, 242.53-54.

Cameron. T .D .J ., Stoker, M.S . and Long , D . (in pre ss) . The histo ryof Quate rnary sedimentation in the UK sector of the North SeaBasin. Journal of the Geological Socie ty .

Ca rvill Lewis, H . (1894) . Papers and Notes on the Glacial Geology ofGreat Britain and Ireland . Lon gman , London .

Ca rter. R. W.G . (1982) . Sea-level cha nges in Northern Ireland .Proceedin gs of the Geolog ists ' A ssociation , 93. 7- 23 .

Cas ton, V.N .D . (1977). Q uatern ary de pos its of the centra l No rthSea , I. A new isop ach yte map of th e Quaternary of the Nor thSea . Rep ort of the Institu te of Geo logical Sciences, 77/ll .

Catt, J .A . (1980) . Till facies asso ciated with the Devensian glacialmaximum in eastern En gland . Quaternary Ne wsletter, 30. 4- 10.

Can, J.A. ( 1982). The Q uate rna ry deposits of the Yorkshire Wolds.Proceedin gs of the No rth of England So ils Discussion Group, 18.61-67.

Catt , LA. and Penny. L.F. (1966) . Th e Ple istocen e de posits ofHolderness, East Yorksh ire. Proceedings of the York shire Geo logical Society , 35, 375-420 .

C att, J.A.• Weir, A.H . and Madgett , P .A . (1974). The loess ofeastern Yorkshire and Lin coln shire . Proceedings of the YorkshireGeological Society. 40 , 23-39.

Chambers. R. (1855). Furthe r observa tions on glacial phenomena inScotl and and the north o f Engl an d . Edinburgh New Philosoph icalJournal, 1.97-103.

Cha pelhowe, R . (1965) . On the glaciatio n of North Roe , Shetl an d .Geographical Journal. 131, 60-70.

Charlesworth , J.K. (1924). The glacial geo logy of the nor th-west o fIrel and . Proceedin gs of the Royal Irish Academy, 36B , 174- 314 .

Charl eswo rt h, 1.K. (1928) . Th e glacia l re t reat fro m ce ntra l a ndsouthe rn Ireland . Qu arterly Jo urna l of the Geological Society ofLondon . 84, 293-344.

Cha rleswort h . 1.K. (1929). T he So uth Wales e nd mor aine . QuarterlyJournal of the Geological Society of London, 85. 335-358.

Cha rleswo rth , J .K. (1939). So me o bservatio ns on the glaciation ofnorth-east Ireland . Proceedings of the Royal Irish A cadem y. 45B ,255- 295.

Charleswor th , J .K . (1966). The Quaternary Era . Arno ld. Lon don.Co lhoun, E .A . (1970). On the nature of the glaciatio ns and final

deglaciat ion of the Sperrin Moun tains and adjace nt area s in thenorth of Irel and. Irish Geograph y , 6, 162-1 85.

Co lho un, E. A . (1971). Th e glacia l stra tigraphy of th e SpcrrinMountain s and its relati on to the glac ial st ratigraphy of north-westIrel and . Proceedings of the Roya l Irish A cademy, 71B. 37-52 .

Co lhoun, E. A .. Dickso n, J .H . , McCabe . A .M. and Shott on. F.W.( 1972). A Middle Midl andian freshwater se ries at Derryvree ,Maguiresbridge , County Ferrn anagh , Northern Ireland. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London . 8180,273-292.

Co lhoun , E.A. and McC ab e. A. M. (1973). Pleistocene glacial,glacioma rine and associat ed deposits of Mell and T ullyallentownl ands, near Droghed a , eas tern Ireland. Proceedings of theRoyal Irish Academy , 73B, 165-206.

Colhoun , E.A. and Mitchell. G .F . (1971). Interglaci al mar ineform ati on and lateglacial freshwater formation in Shortalstowntownland, Co . Wexford . Proceedings ofthe Royal Irish Academy .718 , 211- 245 .

Co lhoun, E .A. and Synge, F .M. ( 1980) . Th e cirque morain es atLou gh Nahan agan , County Wicklow , Ireland . Proceedings of theRoyal Irish A cademy , 80B . 25- 45.

Connell, E .R . ( 1984) . Kirkhill Q ua rr y. In: H all . A .M. (ed .) Bu chanField Guide, pp . 62-64. Q ua terna ry Rese arch Association.Ca mbridge .

Connell. E .R. and H all , A .M. (1984) . Kirkhill Quarry. In : Hall.A .M. (ed .) Bu chan Field Guide, pp. 80-81. Quaternary ResearchAssociatio n. Cambridge .

Co nne ll, E.R. and Romans, J .c.c. (1984) . Kirkhill Qu arry. In : H all ,A .M . (ed .) Buchan Field Guide, pp . 70- 77 . Ouaternary ResearchAssociation. Cambrid ge .

Connell, E .R . , Edward s, K.J . and Hall , A .M . (1982). Evidence fortwo pre-Flandrian palaeosols in Buchan . north-east Scotl and .Nature. 297. 570-572.

Coope , G .R ., Morgan . A . and Osborne . P.J. (197 1). FossilCoeloptera as indi cators of clima tic fluctuations during th e lastglaciat io n in Britain . Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology ,Palaeoecology. 10,87-101.

Coo pe , G.R. (1977). Fossil coleopteran assemblages of sensitiveindicators of climatic change during the Devensian (last) coldstage . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London ,8280. 313- 340.

Coope, G .R . (1986). Aghn ad arragh . 111 : McCabe . A .M . and H iron s.K.R . (eds) So uth-East Ulster Field Guid e. pp . 142-168. Qu aternary Research Association. Ca mbridge .


Cox, F.C. and Nickless, E.F.P. (1972). Some aspects of the glacialhistory of central Norfolk. Bulletin of the Geological Survey ofGreat Britain, 42, 79-98.

Coxon, P. and Flegg, A. (1985). A middle Pleistocene interglacialdeposit from Ballyline, County Kilkenny. Proceedings of theRoyal Irish Academy, 85B, 107-120.

Crampton, CiB. (1966). Certain effects of glacial events in the Valeof Glamorgan, South Wales. Journal of Glaciology, 6, 261-6.

Creighton, J .R. (1974). A study ofthe late Pleistocene geomorphologyof north-central Ulster. Ph.D. Thesis, Queen's University,Belfast.

Croll, J. (1875). Climate and Time and their Geological Relations.Daldy, Isbister and Co., London.

Croll, J. (1885). Climate and Cosmology. Adam and Charles Black,Edinburgh.

Cullingford, RA. (1977). Lateglacial raised shorelines and deglaciation in the Earn-Tay area. In: Gray, J.M. and Lowe, J.J. (eds)Studies in the Scottish Lateglacial Environment, pp. 15-32.Pergamon, Oxford.

Cullingford, R.A. and Smith, D.E. (1966). Late-glacial shorelines ineastern Fife. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,39,31-51.

Cullingford, RA. and Smith, D.E. (1980). Late Devensian raisedshorelines in Angus and Kinkardineshire. Boreas, 9, 21-38.

Dardis, G.F. (1975). Till facies association in drumlins and someimplications for their mode of origin. Geografiska Annaler, 67A,13-22.

Dardis, G.F. and McCabe, A.M. (1983). Facies of subglacial channelsedimentation in Late-Pleistocene Drumlins, Northern Ireland.Boreas, 12,263-278.

Dardis, G.F. and McCabe, A.M. (1986). Subglacial sheetwash anddebris flow deposits in Late-Pleistocene drumlins, NorthernIreland. In: Menzies, J. and Rose, J. (eds) Drumlins - 1985Symposium. Balkema, Rotterdam.

Dardis, G.F., McCabe, A.M. and Mitchell, W.I. (1984). Characteristics and origins of lee-side stratification sequences in latePleistocene drumlins, Northern Ireland. Earth Surface Processesand Landforms, 9, 409-424.

Dardis, G.F., Mitchell, I. and Hirons, K.R. (1985). MiddleMidlandian interstadial deposits at Greenagh, near BeIcoo,County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. Irish Journal of EarthSciences, 7, 1-6.

Darwin, C. (1842). Notes on the effects by the ancient glaciers ofCaernarvonshire etc. Philosophical Magazine, 21, 180-88.

Davidson, C.F. (1932). The arctic clay of Errol, Perthshire. Transactions and Proceedings of the Perthshire Society of NaturalScience, 9, 55-68.

Davies, G.L. and Stephens, N. (1978). Ireland. Methuen, London.Davies, H.e., Dobson, M.R and Whittington, RJ. (1984). A

revised seismic stratigraphy for Quaternary deposits on the innercontinental shelf west of Scotland between 55° 30' and 57° 30' N.Boreas, 13,49-66.

Davis, M.B. (1976). Pleistocene biology of temperate deciduousforests. Geoscience and Man, 13, 13-26.

Derbyshire, E., Foster, C., Love, M.A. and Edge, M.J. (1984).Pleistocene lithostratigraphy of north-east England: a sedimentological approach to the Holderness sequence. In: Mahaney, W.e.(ed.) Correlation of Quaternary Chronologies, pp. 371-384. GeoBooks, Norwich.

Devoy, RJ. (1983). Late Quaternary shorelines in Ireland: anassessment of their implications for isostatic land movement andrelative sea level changes. In: Smith, D. and Dawson, A.G. (eds)Shorelines and Isostasy, pp. 227-254. Academic Press, London.

Dines, G. (1928). On the glaciation of the north Cotteswold area.Memoir Geological Survey Summary of Progress, 1927,66-71.

Dixon, E.E.L. (1921). The Geology of the South Wales Coalfield PartXlII. The Country around Pembroke and Tenby. Memoir of theGeological Survey of Great Britain.

Donner, J.J. (1960). Pollen analysis of the Burn of Benholm Peatbed, Kincardineshire, Scotland. Societas Scientiarum FennicaCommentationes Biologicae, 22, 1-13.

Donner, J.J. (1979). The Early or Middle Devensian peat at Burn ofBenholm, Kincardineshire. Scottish Journal of Geology, 15,247-250.

Douglas, T.D. (1980). The Quaternary deposits of western Leicestershire. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,B288, 259-286.

Douglas, T.D. (1981). Field Guide to the Leicester Region. Quaternary Research Association, London.

Dwerryhouse, A.R. (1923). The glaciation of north-east Ireland.Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 79,352-422.

Edwards, K.J., Caseldine, C.J. and Chester, D.K. (1976). Possibleinterstadial and interglacial pollen floras from Teindland, Scotland. Nature, 264,742-744.

Ellingsen, K.L. and Sejrup, H.P. (1984). Preliminary geneticinterpretation of the 200 m thick sediment sequence in BGS core81126 from Bosies Bank, northwestern North Sea (abs). In:Aaseth, I. and Sejrup, H.P. (eds) Quaternary Stratigraphy of theNorth Sea, pp. 80-82. University of Bergen.

Ehlers, J. (1983). The glacial history of north-west Germany. In:Ehlers J. (ed.) Glacial Deposits in North-West Europe, 229-238.

Eyles, N. (1983). Glacial Geology. Pergamon, Oxford.Eyles, C.H. and Eyles, N. (1984). Glaciomarine sediments of the Isle

of Man as a key to Late Pleistocene stratigraphic investigations inthe Irish Sea Basin: Geology, 12, 359-364.

Eyles, C.H., Eyles, N. and McCabe, A.M. (1985). Glaciomarinesediments of the Isle of Man as a key to late Pleistocenestratigraphic investigations in the Irish Sea Basin: A Reply.Geology, 13,446-447.

Farrington, A. (1934). The glaciation of the Wicklow Mountains.Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 42B, 173-209.

Farrington, A. (1938). The local glaciers of Mount Leinster andBlackstairs Mountains. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,65-71.

Farrington, A. (1942). The granite drift near Brittas, on the borderbetween County Dublin and County Wicklow. Proceedings of theRoyal Irish Academy, 47B, 279-291.

Farrington, A. (1944). The glacial drifts of the district aroundEnniskerry, Co. Wicklow. Proceedings of the Royal IrishAcademy, SOB, 133-157.

Farrington, A. (1949). The glacial drifts of the Leinster Mountains.Journal of Glaciology, 1,220-225.

Farrington, A. (1953). Local Pleistocene glaciation and the level ofthe shoreline of Croaghaun Mountain in Achill Island, Co. Mayo,Ireland. Journal of Glaciology, 2, 262-267.

Farrington, A. (1954). A note on the correlation of the Kerry-Corkglaciations with those of the rest of Ireland. Irish Geography, 3,47-53.

Farrington, A. (1965). A note on the correlation of some of theglacial drifts of the south of Ireland. Irish Naturalists Journal, IS,29-33.

Farrington, A. (1966). The last glacial episode in the WicklowMountains. Irish Naturalists Journal, 15, 226-228.

Farrington, A. and Stephens, N. (1964). The Pleistocene geomorphology of Ireland. In: Steers, J.A. (ed.) Field Studies in theBritish Isles, pp. 445-461. London.

Feyling-Hansen, RW. (1981). Foraminiferal indication of Eemianinterglacial in the northern North Sea. Bulletin of the GeologicalSociety of Denmark, 29, 175-189.

Feyling-Hansen, RW. (1982). Foraminiferal zonation of a boring inthe Quaternary deposits of the northern North Sea. Bulletin of theGeological Society of Denmark, 31, 29-47.

Finch, T.F. and Synge, F.M. (1966). The drifts and soils of west Clareand the adjoining parts of counties Kerry and Limerick. IrishGeography,S, 161-172.

Fitzpatrick, E.A. (1965). An interglacial soil at Teindland, Morayshire. Nature, 207, 621-622.

Flett, J .S. and Read, H.H. (1921). Tertiary gravels of the Buchandistrict of Aberdeenshire. Geological Magazine, 58, 215-225.

Flinn, D. (1978a). The glaciation of the Outer Hebrides. GeologicalJournal, 13, 195-199.

Flinn, D. (1978b). The most recent glaciation of the Orkney-Shetland Channel and adjacent areas. Scottish Journal of Geology, 14,109-123.

Francis, E.A. (1970). Quaternary. In: Johnson, G.A.L. and Hickling, G. (eds) Geology of County Durham. Transactions of theNatural History Society of Northumberland and Durham, 41,134-152.

Funnell, B.M., Norton, P.E.P. and West, R.G. (1979). The Crag atBramerton, near Norwich, Norfolk. Philosophical Transactions ofthe Royal Society of London, B287, 490-534.

Funnell, B.M. and West, RG. (1962). The Early Pleistocene ofEaston Bavents, Suffolk. Quarterly Journal of the GeologicalSociety of London, 118, l25-14l.

Gailey, R.A. (1959). Glasgow University expedition to North Rona.Scottish Geographical Magazine, 75, 48-50.

Qu atern ary Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere 335

Garrard , R.A (1977) . Th e sediments of the south Ir ish Sea andNymphe bank area of the Ce lt ic Sea . In : Kidson, C. and Tooley,M.J. (eds) The Quaternary History of the Irish Sea , pp . 69-92.Seel Hou se Press, Liverpool.

G ascoyne , M .. Schwarcz , H.P. and Ford , D.C. (1983). Uraniumseries ages of speleothem from northwest Engl and: correlationwith Qu atern ary climate. Philosophical Transactions of the RoyalSocie ty of L ondon , B301. 143-1 64.

Gaunt , G .D . (1976) . The Deven sian maximum ice limit in the Valeof York . Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society , 40 ,631- 637 .

Gaunt, G .D . ( 198l) . Quaternary history of the southe rn part of theVale of York . In : Neale , J . and Flenley , J . (eds) The Quaternaryin Britain , pp . 82-97. Pergamon , Oxford.

Gcikie , A (1863). On the phenomen a of the glacial drift of Scotland.Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow, 1, 1-190.

Geikic , J . (1894) . The Great Ice Age. 3rd Edn . Stanford, London .Gemmell . AM.D. and Ralston , I.B .M . (1984). Some recent

discoveri es of ice-wedge cast networks in north-east Scotland.Scottish Journal of Geology, 20,115-11 8.

Gennard , D .E. (1984) . A palaeoecologi cal study of the interglacialdeposit at Benburb , Co. Tyrone . Proceedings of the Royal IrishA cademy , 84D , 43-55.

Genn ard , D .E. (1986). Aghnadarragh . In : McCabe , A.M. andHirons, K.R. (eds) South-East Ulster Field Guide, p . 142, p . 168,Qu atern ary Research Associat ion , Ca mbridge .

George , T .N. (1933 ). The glaci al dep osits of Gower. GeologicalMagazine , 70 , 208-232.

Gi bb ard , P.L. (1977). Pleistocene history of the Vale of St. Albans .Philosoph ical Transactions of the Royal Soci ety of London , B280,445-483.

Gibbard , P .L . (1978). Quaternar y geo logy and landform development of th e Vale of St. Albans. In : Ro se , J. and Gibbard, P.L.(eds) Field Guide to the Vale of St . Albans , pp. 9- 29. Quaternar yResearch Association , London .

Gib bard , P .L. (1979). Middle Pleist ocene drainage in the Th amesValley. Geological Magaz ine , 116, 35- 44.

Gibbard , P .L. (1983) . The diversion of th e T hames - a revie w. In :Ro se , J . (ed.) The Diversion of the Tham es , pp . 8-23. Quatern aryResearch Associati on , Cambridge .

G ibba rd , P.L. (1985). The Pleistocene History of the Middle Tham esValley . Cambridge University Press, Ca mbridge, 155 pp .

Girting, M.A. (1974). Evidence from Lincolnshire of the age andintensity of the mid-Devensian temperate episode. Nature , 250 ,270.

Godwin, H . (1958). Vegetational histor y of Cwm IdwaJ: Welsh plantrefuge. Svensk Botanisk Tidskrrift; 49 , 35- 43.

Graham , D.K. and Gregory, D .M. (1981). A revision of C.F.David son's arctic fauna from Inchcoonans Claypit , Errol , held bythe Museum and Art Gallery , perth. Seal/ish Journal of Geology,17, 215-222.

Gr ay, J.M . (1982). The last glacier s (Loch Lomond Advance) inSnowdonia , North Wales. Geological Journal, 17, 111-133.

Gray , J .M. and Lowe, 1.J . (1917) . Th e Scottish Lateglacial environment : a synthesis. In : Gray, J .M . and Lowe , J .1. (eds) Studies inthe Scottish. Lateglacial Environment , pp. 163-181. Pergamon ,Oxford .

Green, c.P. and McGregor, D .F.M . (1978) . Pleistocene gravel tra insof the river Thames. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association ,89 , 143-156.

Green, C.P . and McGregor, D .F.M. (1980) . The terraces of the riverTh ames and their palaeohydrological impli cations . In : Jones,D.K.C. (ed .) Th e Shaping of Southern England, 172-202.Academi c Press . London.

Gr een , c.P . and McGregor, D .F.M . (1983) . Lithol ogy of theThames gravel s . In : Rose , J . (ed .) The Diversion of the Thames ,pp 24- 38. Quaternary Research Association . London .

Gr een , C .P. , He y, R .W . and McGregor , D .F .M . (1980) . Volcan icpebbles in Pleistocene gravels of the Th ame s in Buckinghamshireand Hertfordshire . Geological Magazine, 117, 59-64.

Gr een, c.P ., McGregor, D .F .M. and Ev ans , A .H. (1982). Development of the Thames drainage system in Early and Middl ePleistocene times. Geological Magazine , 119,281-290.

Green, C .P . , et al . (1984). Evidence of two temperate episodes in lat ePleistocene deposits at Marsworth , U .K . Nature, 309, 778-781.

Gr een , H .S . (1984) . Pontnewydd Cave. Nation al Museum of Wales,Car diff.

Gregory, D . (1980). Assemblages of the ostraco d Cythe ropteronmonotrosiense Brady, Crosskey and Rober tson from offshore

Deven sian deposits in the Min ch , west of Scotland . Sco ttishJournal of Geology , 16, 287- 289.

G rego ry, D. and Harland . R . (1978) . T he late Quatern ar y clima te stratigraphy of IGS borehole SLN 75/33 and its applicati on to thepala eoceanogr aphy of th e north-central North Sea . Sco ttistiJournal of Geology, 14, 147-155.

Greig, D .C. (1981). Ice-wedge cast network in eas tern Berwickshire .Scottisti Journal of Geology , 17, 119-1 22.

Gr esswell , R .K . (1951). T he glacial geomorphology of the sout heastern part of the Lak e Distr ict. Liverpool and Man chesterGeolog ical Journal , I , 57-70.

Griffin , K. (1984). Plant macrofossils from a Quaternary deposit inth e North Sea (abs.) . In : Aa rse th, 1. and Sejrup, H .P . (eds)Quaternary Stratigraphy of the No rth Sea, p. 33. Unive rsi ty ofBergen.

Griffiths , J.c. (1940). The glacial deposits west of the Taff. Ph .D .Thesis, University of London .

H awkins, A.B. and Kellaway, G .A. (1971). Field Meeting at Bri stoland Bath with special referenc e to new evidence for glaciat ion .Proceedings of the Geologists' A ssociation , 82, 267-292.

Hall , A .M. (1984). Introduction . In : H all , A.M. (ed.) Buchan FieldGu ide , pp . 1-26. Quaternary Research Association, Cambridge .

Hall , A.M. and Connell, E .R. (1982). Recent excavations at theGreensand locality of Moreseat , Grampian Region . Scott ishJournal of Geology , 18,291-296.

Hall , A .R. (1980) . Late Pleistocene deposits at Wing, Rutland .Philosophical Transa ctions of the Royal Society of London , 8289 ,153-1 64.

Hey , R .W . (1965) . H ighly qu ar tzose Peb ble Gravels in the Lon donBasin . Proceedings of the Geo logists ' Association, 76 , 403- 420 .

Hey, R .W . (1976). Provenance of far -tr avelled pebbles in the Pr eA nglian Pleistocene of East Anglia . Proceedin gs ofthe Geologists'Assoc iation, 87, 69- 82.

Hey, R .W. (1980) . Equivalents of the We stland Green Gravels inEssex and East An glia. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association , 91, 279-290.

Hey, R .W . (1986) . A re-exam ination of th e Northern Drift ofOxfordshi re. Proceedin gs of the Geologists ' A ssociation, 97 ,291-301.

He y, R .W . (in pres s) . Pre-A nglian glacia l dep osits and glaciat ion inBritain . In : Ehlers , J . , Gibbard , P .L. and Rose , 1. (eds) GlacialDep osits in Great Britain and Ireland. Balkema, Rotterdam.

He y, R .W. and Brenchley, P.J . (1977). Volcanic pebbles fromPlei stocene gravels in Norfolk and Essex . Geological Maga zine,114. 219-225.

Hill, A .R. and Prior, D.B . (1968). Directions of ice movement innorth-east Ireland. Pro ceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 66B ,71-84.

Hinch, J .deW . (1913). The shelly drift of Glenulra and Belderrig,Co . Mayo. Irish Naturalists Journal, 22, 1-16.

Ho are , P .G . (1977) . The glacial stra tigraphy in Shanganagh andadj oining townlands , south-east County Dublin. Proceedings ofthe Royal Irish A cademy , 778, 295- 305.

Hoare , P .G . and McCabe, A .M . (1981). Th e per iglacial record ineast central Ireland . Biuletyn Peryglacjaln y, 28, 57-78.

Holmes, R. (1977). Quaternary deposits o f the central North Sea , 5.Th e Quaternary geol ogy of the UK secto r of the North Seabetween 56" and 58" N. Report of the Institute of GeologicalSciences, 77/14 .

Holyoak , D .T . and Preece , R. c. (1985). Late Pleistocene interglacialdeposits at Tattershall , Lincolnshire . Philosophical Transactionsof the Royal Soc iety of L ondon , B311 , 193-236.

Huddard , D . (1971). Textural distinct ion of Main Glaciation andScottish Re advance iills in th e Cumberland lowland . GeologicalMagazine, 108,317- 324 .

Huddart , D . (1977) , South-east Ireland. X INQUA Congress FieldGuide . Geo Abstracts , Norw ich .

Huddard, D. (1981). Pleistocene for aminifera from so uth-ea stIreland - some problems of interpretation. Quaternary Newsletter, 33, 28-41.

Jami eson, T.F. (1858). On the Pleistocene deposits of Ab erdeenshire. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, 14, 509-532.

Jamieson, T.F. (1865). On the history of the last geological chang esin Scotland . Quarterly Journal of the Geological Societ y, 21 ,161- 203.

Jami eson , T.F. (1882). On the Cra g shells of Aberdeenshire and thegrave l-beds containing th em. Quarterly Journal of the Geo logicalSociety, 38, 145-159.


Jam ieson , T .F . (1906). The glacial period in Aberdeenshire and thesouthe rn border of the Moray Firth . Quarterly Journal of theGeological Society , 62, 13-39.

Jansen, J .H.F. and Hensey, A.M. (198 1). Interglacial and Holocenesedime nta tion in the northern North Sea: an exa mple of Eemiandeposits in the Tartan Field. Special Publication of InternationalA ssociation of Sed imen tologists, 5, 323-334.

Jansen , J .H .F. , Doppert , J.W.c. , Hoogendoorn-Toering, K. , deJong, J . and Spaink , G . (1979) . Lat e Pleistocene and Holocenedeposits in the Witch and H add en Ground area, northern NorthSea . Neth erlands Journal of Sea Research, 13, 1-39.

Johnson , R.H . (1975) . Som e late Ple istocene invo lutio ns at D altonin-Fu rness , northern Engl and. Geo logical Journal , 10, 23-33 .

John son. R .G. (1982) . Brunhes-Matuyam a reversal dated at 790,000yr BP by marine-astronomical co rre lations. Quaternary Research ,17, 135-147.

Jones, R .L. (1977). Late Devensian deposits from Kildale , northeastYorkshire. Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society, 41,185-188.

Keen, D.H., Jones, R.L. and Robinson , J .E. (1984). A LateDevensian fauna and flora from Kildale , north-east Yorkshire.Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society, 44, 385-397.

Kelly, M .R. (1964) . The Middle Pleistocen e of North Birmingham.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Socie ty of London, B247,533- 592.

Kemp, R.A. (1985) . The Va lley Farm Soil in so uthe rn East An glia .In: Boar dm an , J . (ed .) Soils and Quaternary Landscape Evo lution , 179-196. Wile y, Chicheste r.

Keny on , N.H. (1982) . Summar y of results . Leg 1. In : Wilson , J .B.(ed .) R .R.S . Discovery Cruise 123. Cruise Report Institute OceanScience , 131.

Kerney, M.J. (1963). Lateglacial deposits on the Chalk of south-eastEngl and. Philosophical Transacti ons of the Royal Society ofLondon , B248 , 135-204.

Kerney, M .J . , Brown , E .H. and Cha ndler, T .J. (1964). The LateGlacial and Post-Glacial history of the Chalk escarpme nt nearBrook , Ken t. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society ofLondon , 8248, 135-214.

Kesel , R .B. and Gemmell , A .M .D . (19Bl). Th e 'Plioce ne ' gravel s ofBuchan : a reappraisal. Scottish Journal of Geology , 17, 185- 203.

Kidson , C . and Wood , T .R. (1974) . The Pleistocene stratigraphy ofBarn staple Bay. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association , 85,223- 237.

Kirby , R .P . (1969). Morphometric an alysis of glaciofluvial terraces inthe Esk Basin, Midlothian. Transacti ons of the Institute of BritishGeographers, 48,1-18.

Knudsen, K.L. (1985). Foraminifer al stratigraphy of Quaternarydeposits in Roar, Skjold and Dan Fields, central North Sea .Boreas, 14, 311-324.

Krinslcy , D .H . and Funnell, B.M . (1965) . En vironmental history ofqu artz sand grains from th e Lower and Middle Pleistocene ofNor folk , En gland. Quart erly Journal of the Royal So ciety ofLondon, 121, 435-461.

Lawson , T .J . (1981). First Scottish date from the last interglacial.Scottish Journal of Geology , 17, 301-304.

Lawson , T .J . ( 1984). Reindeer in the Scottish Quaternary. Quaternary Newsletter, 42 , 1-7.

Lewis, C .A . (1967). The glacia tion of the Behy valley, Co untyKerry. Irish Geography ,S, 293-307.

Lewis, C.A . (1974) . The glaciations of th e Dingle Peninsula, Co untyKer ry. Scientifi c Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, SA,207-235 .

Lon g, D. and Skinner, A .C. (1985). Gl acial meltwater channels inthe northern isles of Shetl and: comme nt. Scottish Journal ofGeology, 21, 222-224.

Lowe, 1.J . (1984). A crit ical eva luatio n of pollen-strati graphicinvestiga tions of pre-Late Devensian sites in Scotland, Quaternary Science Re views , 3, 405-432.

Lowe . J .1. and Walker, M.J. C. (1981). The earl y postglacialenvironment of Scotland: evide nce fro m a site near Tyndrum,Perthshire. Boreas, 10, 281-294.

Lowe, J.J . and Walker, M.J .C. (1984) . Reconstructing QuaternaryEnvir onments. Longmans, London.

Macl.aren , C. (1841). The glacial theory of Professor Agassiz ofNeuchatel. The Scotsman (Edinburgh).

MacLaren , C. (1855). Notice of ancient mor aines in the parishes ofStr achur and Kilmun, Argylesh ire . Edinburgh New PhilosophicalJou rnal , New Series J, 189-203 .

Madgett , P.A . and Catt , J .A . (1978) . Petrograph y, stra tigraphy andwea the ring of Late Pleistocen e tills in East Yorkshire, Lincoln-

shire and north Norfolk . Proceedings of the Yorkshire GeologicalSociety , 42, 55- 108.

Manle y, G . (1959). The lat e-glacial clima te of north-west England .Li verpool and Man chester Geological Journal, 2, 188-215.

Matth ews , B . (1970). A ge and origin of aeolian sand in th e Va le ofYork . Nature, 227 , 1234-1236.

Mayhew, D.F . (1985) . Preliminary report of research proj ect onsmall mammal rem ain s from British Lower Ple istocene sediment s. Quaternary News letter, 47 , 1-4.

Mayhe w, D.F . and Stuart , A .J . (1986) . Stratigraphic and taxon om icrevision of the fossil vo le rem ain s (Ro de ntia microtinae ) from theLower Pleistocen e dep osits of eastern En gland . PhilosophicalTransactions of the Royal Socie ty of London , 8312, 431-485.

McCabe, A .M . (1969a) . A buried he ad deposit near Lisnaske a ,County Ferrnanagh, Northern Ireland . Irish Natural ists Journal ,16, 232-233.

McCabe, A.M. (1969b). The glacial deposits of the Maguiresbridgearea , County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. Irish Geography, 6,63-77.

McCabe, A.M. (1973). The glacial stra tigraphy of eastern CountiesMeath and Louth. Proceedings of the R oyal Irish Academy, 738 ,355-382.

McCabe , A. M. (1985). Geo mo rpho logy. In: Edward, K.J . andWarr en W.P . (eds) The Qu aternary History of Ireland . pp . 67-93.Academic Pre ss , London.

McCabe , A .M . (1986). Gl aciom arin e facies depo sited by retreat ingtidewater glaciers ; an example from the late Pleistocen e of

. Northern Ireland. Journal of Sedimentqry Petrology ( in press) .McCabe , A .M., Dardis , G .F. and Han vey, P.M . (1984). Sed i

mentology of a late-Pleistocene Submar ine-moraine complex,County Down , Northern Ireland . Journal of Sed imentology , 54,716-730.

McCabe , A.M., Dardis, G .F. and H an vey, P.M. (1986) . Sedimentation at the margins of a Late-Pleistocene ice-lobe terminat ing in shallow marine environments, Dundalk Bay, eas te rnIreland . Sedimentology ; (in pr ess) .

McCabe , A .M ., Ha yne s , J .R. and Macmill an , N. (1986) . La tePleisto cene tidewater glacie rs and glaciom arine sequences fromnorth County Mayo , Republic o f Ireland. Journal of Qu aternaryScience, I , 73-84.

McCab e , A.M. and Hirons, K.R. (1986) Field Guide to theQuaternary deposits in so uth-eastern Ulster. Quaternary R esear chAssociat ion, Cambridge .

McCabe , A.M. and Ho are, P.G. (1978). The Late Quaternaryhistory of east-central Ir eland. Geo logical Magazine, ll5, 397413.

McCabe , A.M., Mitchell , G .F . and Shotton, F.W. (1978) . An int ertill freshwater deposit at Hollymount, Maguiresbridge, CountyFermanagh . Proceedings of the R oyal Irish Academy, 78 , 77-89.

McCann , S.B . (1968) . R aised sho re platforms in the Western Isles ofScotland. In: Bowen , E.G. , Carter , H . and Taylor, J.A. (eds)Geography at A berystwytb , pp . 22- 34. Univ ersity of Wale s Press ,Cardiff.

McGregor, D .F .M . a nd G ree n, C iP. (1978) . Gravels of the riverTh ames as a guid e to Pleistocen e catchment changes. Boreas , 7,197- 203.

McGregor , D .F.M . and Green , C iP . (1983). Post-dep osition almodificati on of Ple istocene terraces of the River Th ames. Boreas ,12, 23-34.

McMillan , A .A . and Me rritt , J. W. (1980). A reappraisal of the'Tertiary' deposits of Bu chan , G rampian Region , Rep ort of theInstitute of Geological Sciences, 80/1, 18-25.

Merritt , J .W . and McMill an , A .A . (1982). Th e 'Pliocene ' gravels ofBuchan : a reappraisal. Scot/ ish Journ al of Geology , 18,329- 332.

Mitchell , G .F. (1948) . Tw o interglacial deposits in south-eastIreland . Proceedings of the Royal Irish A cademy , 52B, 1-14.

Mitchell , G .F. (1960) . The Ple istocene history of the Iri sh Sea .A dvancement of Science, 17,31 3-325.

Mitchell, G .F. (1968). Gl acial gravel o n Lundy island . Transactionsof the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, 20, 65-68.

Mitchell , G .F. (1970). Th e Quaternary deposits between Fenit andSpa on the north shore of Tralee Bay, Co unty Kerry. Proceedin gsof the Royal Irish Academy , 70B , 141-162.

Mitch ell, G.F. (1972). The Pleisto cene history of the Irish Sea:second approximation . Scientific Proceedings of the Royal DublinSociety ,4A, 181-199.

Mitchell , G .F . (1976) . The Irish Landscape. Collins, London.Mitchell , G .F . (1981). The Quaternary - until 10,000 BP In :

Holland , C.H . (ed .) A Geo logy of Ireland , pp. 235-258. Scotti shAca de mic Pre ss, Edinburgh .

Qu aternar y Glaci ations in the Northern Hemisphere 337

Mitchell . G .F. and O rrne , A .R . (1967). The Pleistocene deposits o fthe Isle of Scilly. Quarterly Journal Geological Society of London ,123,59-92.

Mitchell, G.F. , Penny, L.F., Sho tton , F.W. and West, R.G . (1973) .A correlati on of Quaternary deposits in the British Isles .Geological Society of London, Special Report , 4, 99 pp.

Morgan . A . (1973) . The Pleistocene geology of the area north andwest o f Wolverhampton , Staffordshire , England. PhilosophicalTransactions of the Royal Socie ty of London , 8265. 233-297 .

Myku ra , W. and Phernister , 1. (1976) . The Geo logy of WesternShetland . Memoir of th e Geological Survey of G reat Britain .

Norton . P.E .P. and Beck. R .B. (1972) . Lower Pleistocene molluscanassemblages and pollen fro m the Crag of Aldeb y (No rfolk) andEaston Bavents (Suffolk) . Bull etin of the Geological Society ofNo rfo lk , 22 . 4- 31.

Oele , E . and Schutte nhe lm, R.T.E. (1979). Development of theNorth Sea after the Saali an glaciation. In : Quaternary History ofthe North Sea. pp. 191-216. Acta Uni versitatis Uppsaliensis,Uppsala.

Palmer. 1. ( 1956). Tor form ati on at the Bridestones in north-eastYorkshir e and their signi fican ce in relation to pro blems of valleyside dev elopment and region al glaciation. Transactions of theInstitute of British Geograph ers , 22, 55-71.

Pantin , H.M . and Evans . C. D .R (1984) . Th e Qu aternary history ofthe centra l and south western Celtic Sea. Marine Geology , 57,259-293 .

Pat erson , LB . (1974). T he suppos ed Perth Read vance in the Perthdistrict. Sco ttish Journal of Geo logy, 10, 53-66.

Paters on . LB .. Armstrong, M. and Brown , M.A .E . (1981) . Qu aternary estua rine deposits in the Tay-Earn area. Scotland . Report ofthe Institut e of Geological Scie nces, 8117.

Peacock. J .D . (1966). Note on the drift sequ ence near Portsoy,Banffshire . Sco ttish Journ al of Geology, 2. 35-37.

Peacock, 1.0 . (1975) . Scott ish late and post-glacial marine dep osits.In : Gemmell. A .M .D . (ed .) Quaternary Studies in No rth EastSco tland, pp . 45-48. Q ua te rnary Research Association .Ab erdeen .

Peacock , 1.0 . ( 1981). Sco ttish Late-glaci al marine deposits and theirenvironmental significance . In: Ne ale , 1. and Flenley, 1. (eds) TheQuaternary in Britain , pp . 222-236 . Pe rgam on , Ox ford .

Peacock. 1.D. , Grah am , D .K . and Wilkinson . LP . (1978) . Lat eglaci al and post -glacial mar ine enviro nments at A rdy ne , Scotland ,and their significa nce in the int erpretation of the history of theClyde sea area . Report of the Institute of Geo logical Sciences ,78/17.

Peake, D .S . (1961) . Glacial cha nges in the Alyn river system andtheir signifi cance in the glaciology of the north Welsh bord er.Quarterly Journal Geological Soc iety of L ondon, 117, 335-366 .

Pennington , W. (1970) . Vegetati on al histor y in the north-west ofEn gland: a regional synt hes is. In: Walker , D. and West , R .G .(eds) Studies in the Vegetational History of the British Isles , pp.41- 79. Ca mbridge University Pres s , Ca mbridge.

Pennington , W . (1978) . Quaternar y Ge ology. In : Mosele y. F. (ed.)The Geo logy of the La k e District , pp . 207-225 . YorkshireGeological Societ y , Leeds.

Pennington , W. and Bonny, A .P . (1970) . Absolute pollen diagramfrom the British Late Gl acial. Nature, 226. 871-873 .

Penny , L.F. (1964). A re view of the Last Gl aciati on in Great Brit ain.Proceedings of the Yorkshir e Geological Society, 34, 387-411.

Penny, L.F., Co ope , G.R. and Catt, 1.A. (1969) . Age and insectfauna of th e Dimlington Silts , East Yorkshire. Nature, 224 ,65-67.

Perrin , R .M .5. , Ro se , 1. and D avies , H. (1979) . The distribution ,variatio n and o rigins o f pre -Deven sian tills in eas tern England.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Socie ty of London , 8287 ,535-570 .

Pocock , R.W. , Whitehead, T .H., Wedd , c a., and Robertson , T.( 1938) . Geo logy of the Country around Shr ewsbury . Mem oir ofthe Ge ological Surveys U .K.

Portlock , 1.E. ( 1843) . Report on the geology of Londonderry andparts of Tyron e and Fermanagh , Dublin .

Praeger, RL. (1895) . Report of the sub- committee appointed toinvestigate the gravels of Ballyrudder, County Antrim. Proceedings Belfast Naturalists Field Club, 198-209 .

Price, R.1 . ( 1983). Scotland's Environment During the Last 30,000Years . Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh .

Pringl e , 1. and George , R .N . (1961) . British Regional Geology , So uthWales. Her Majest y's Sta tione ry Offi ce , London .

Prior , D .B . (1968). The Late Pleistocene geomorphology ofnorth-eastA ntrim . Ph .D . thesis, Queen 's University Belfast.

Rai strick , A . (1934). Corr e latio n of glacia l retreat stages ac ross thePennine s. Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Socie ty , 22,199-214 .

Ramsay, A .C. (1852). On the superficial accumulations and sur facemarkings of North Wales. Quarterly Journal Geological Society ofL ondon , 8, 371-376.

Re ad , H.B . (1923) . The Geo logy of the Country Round Banff,Huntly and Tu rriff. Mem oir of the Ge ological Survey o f Scotl and.

Rice , R .l . (1968). The Quaternary deposits o f central Leices te rshire . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Lo ndon,A262 , 459- 509 .

Rice , R .l . (1981) . The Pleistocen e deposits of the area aro und Croftin so uth Leicester shire . Ph ilosophical Transactions of the RoyalSociety of London , 8293, 385- 418.

Robinson , M. and Ball antyne , C. K. (1979) . Evidence fo r a glacia lread van ce pre-dating the Loch Lomond Advance in Weste r Ross .Sco ttish Journal of Geo logy , 15,271-277 .

Rolfe. W.O.!. (1966). Woolly rhinoceros from the Scottish Pleistocen e . Scot tish Journal of Geology , 2, 253- 258.

Rose, 1. (1985) . The Dirnlington StadialiDimlington Chron ozone: aproposal for naming the main glacia l e pisode o f the LateDeven sian in Britain . Boreas , 14, 225-230.

Ro se , 1. (in press) . Stadi al type section s in the Briti sh Quaternary.In : Schlueter, Ch . (ed .) Quaternary Type Sections . Rotterdam ,Balk ema.

Rose , 1. and Allen , P . (1977) . Middle Pleistocen e stratigra phy insouth-east Suffolk . Journ al of the Geological So ciety of London ,133, 83-102 .

Rose . 1. , Allen , P. and Hey. R .W . (1976) . Middl e Pleistocenestra tigra phy in southern East Anglia . Nature . 263 . 492-494.

Ros e , J . , Allen, P .. Kemp, RA., Whiteman, C.A. and O wen, N.(1985a) . The early Angli an Barham Soil of Eastern England. In:Boa rdman, 1. (ed.) Soils and Quaternary L andscape Evolution.pp . 197-229. Wiley, Chic heste r.

Ro se , 1. , Boardman. 1., Kemp, R .A. a nd Whiteman , C. A . (I 985b) .Palaeosols and the int erpret ati on of British Qu aternar y stra tigra phy . In : Rich ards , K.S. , Arnett . R .R . and Ellis. S. (eds)Geom orph olog y and So ils , pp . 348-375. Ge orge A llen andUnwin , London.

Rose , 1.. Turner , C .; Coope , G .R . and Bryan , M.D . (1980) . Cha nne lcha nges in a lowl an d river ca tchment over the last 13.000 yea rs .In : Cullingford , R .A ., Davidson , D .A. and Lewin . 1. (eds)Tim escales in Geom orph ology , pp . 159- 175. Wiley, Chiches te r.

Row ell , A .l . and Turne r , 1.S . (1953) . Co rrie-glaciation in the upperEden valley, Westmoreland. Liverpool and Man chester Geological Journal. 1,200-207 .

Rowlands, P .H . (1971) . Rad ioc arbon Eviden ce of the Age of an IrishSea Gl aciation in Vale of Clwyd . Natur e, 230 . 9-11 .

Ruddiman , W.F. , Sancetta. C. D . and Mclntyre , A . (1977) . G lacial/Interglacial response rat e of subpo lar North Atlant ic wate r toclim atic cha nge : the rec ord in ocean sed ime nts. Philosph icalTransactions of the Royal Soc iety of L on don . 8280.119-142 .

Saunder s, G .E. (1968a) . A reappraisal of Gl acial Drain agePhenom en a in th e Lleyn Peninsula. Proceedings of the Geo logists'Association , 79 , 305- 324.

Saunders, G .E. (1968b) . A fabric ana lysis o f the gro und mor ainedeposits of the Lleyn Pen insula of South West Caernar von shire .Journ al of Geology , 6, 105-18.

Seddon, B. (1957). Late-glacial cwm glaciers in Wales. Journal ofGlaciology, 3, 94-99.

Shackleton , N.l. and Opdyke , N.D. (1973). Oxygen isotop e andpal aeomagnetic strat igraphy of equatori al Pacific core V28-238:oxyge n isoto pe temper atures and ice vo lumes on a 10-' and 106

yea r scale . Quaternary Research , 3, 39- 55.Shack leton , N.J . and O pdy ke , N .D . (1976). Ox ygen isoto pe and

palaeom agnetic stra tigra phy of Pacific cor e V28-239, Lat e Pliocen e to Late Holocen e. Geo logical Socie ty of America Memoirs .145, 449-464.

Shotton, F .W . (1953) . Ple istocene dep osits of the area be twee nCov entry , Rugby, and Leamington and their be aring on thetopographic development of the Midl an ds . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Socie ty of London , 8237, 209-260 .

Shotton, F .W. (1967). Ag e of the Irish Sea Glaciation of theMidl an ds. Nature, 215 .

Shotton, F .W. (1976 ). Amplification of th e Wolstonian Sta ge of theBriti sh Pleistocen e . Geo log ical Magazine, 113. 241-250.

Shouon . F .W . ( 1977) . T he Devensian stage : its de velopment , limit sand substages. Philosophical Tran sactions of the Royal Socie ty ofLondon , B280 , 107-11 8.


Shotton , F.W., Goudie , A.S . , Briggs, D .J . and Osmaston , H.A.(1980) . Cromerian interglacial deposits at Sugworth, nearOxford, England, and their relation to the Plateau Drift of theCotswolds and the terrace sequence of the upper and middleThames. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society ofLondon , B289, 55-86.

Shotton , F.W. (1983a). United Kingd om contribution to the International Geological Correlation Programme, Project 23,Qu aternary Glaciations of the Northern Hemisphere. QuaternaryNewsletter , 39, 19-25.

Shotto n, F.W . (1983b). The Wolstonian Stage of the BritishPle istocene in and around its type area of the English Midlands.Quaternary Scien ce Re views , 2, 261- 280.

Shotton , F.W., Blundell, D .J . and Williams, R.E.G. (1970) . Birmingham University Radiocarbon Dates IV. Radiocarbon, t2 ,385-399.

Simpson , I.M. and West, R .G . (1958) . On the stratigraphy andpa laeobotany of a Late-Pleistocene organic deposit at Chelford .New Phytologist, 57, 239-250.

Simpson , J .B . (1933). The late-glacial readvance moraines of theHighland border west of the River Tay. Transactions of the RoyalSociety of Edinburgh , 57, 633-645.

Singh , G . (1970) . Late-glacial vegetat ion al history of Lecale , Co.Down . Proceedings of the R oyal Irish A cademy , 69B, 189-216.

Sissons , J.B. (1963). The Perth Re advanc e in central Scotland .Scottish Geographical Magazine, 79, 151-163.

Sissons , J .B . (1964) . The Perth Re advance in Central Scotland, PartII . Scott ish Geographical Magazine , 80, 28- 36.

Sissons , J .B. (1967a) . The Evolution of Scotland's Scenery . Oliverand Boyd, Edinburgh , 259 pp.

Sissons, J .B. (1967b) . Glacial stages and radiocarbon date s inScotl and. Scottish Journal of Geology , 3, 375-381 .

Sissons, J.B . (1974). Late-glacial marine erosion in Scotland. Boreas ,3,41-48.

Sissons , J.B . (1976) . The Geomorphology of the British Isles:Scotland. Methuen , London.

Sissons , J .B . (1979a) 'Palaeoclimatic inferences from former glaciersin Scotland and the Lake District. Nature, 278, 518-521.

Sissons, J .B. (1979b) . The Loch Lomond Stadial in the British Isles.Nature , 291, 473-475 .

Sissons, J .B . (1980a). The Loch Lomond Advance in the LakeDistrict, northern England . Transactions of the Royal Society ofEdinburgh: Earth Sciences , 71, 13-27.

Sissons , J.B. (1980b). Palaeoclimatic inferences from Loch LomondAdv ance glaciers. In: Lowe, J .J. , Gray, J .M. and Robinson, J.E.(eds) Studies in the Lateglacial of North-west Europe, pp. 31-43.Pergamon, Oxford.

Sissons , J .B. (1981). British shore platforms and ice-sheets. Nature ,291,473-475.

Sissons , J .B . (1982a). The so-called high 'inte rglacial' rock shorelineof western Scotland. Transa ctions of the Institute of BritishGeograph ers, NS 7, 205-216.

Sisson s, J .B . (1982b). A former ice-da mmed lake and associatedglacier limits in the Achn asheen area , central Ross -shire. Transactions of the Institute of Brit ish Geographers , NS 7, 98-116.

Sissons, J .B . (1983) . Quaternary . In : Cr aig, G .Y . (ed.) Geology ofScotland, 2nd Edn, pp . 399-424. Scottish Academic Press,Edinburgh.

Sissons, J.B. and Dawson , A .G . (1981). Former sea-levels and icelimits in part of Wester Ross, northwest Scotland . Proceedings ofthe Geologist's Association , 92, 115-1 24.

Sissons, J .B . and Smith , D .E. (1965). Raised shorelines associatedwith the Perth Readvance in the Forth valley and their relation toglacial isostasy. Transactions of the Royal So ciety of Edinburgh,66, 143-168.

Sissons, J .B . , Smith , D .E. and Cull ingford , R.A . (1966). Late-glacialand post-glacial shorelines in South-East Scotl and . Transactionsof the Institute of British Geograph ers, 39, 9-18.

Skinner, A .e. and Gregory, D .M . (1983). Quaternary stratigraphy inthe northern North Sea . Boreas , 12, 145-152.

Smith, A .J . (1984). Structural Evolution of the English Channelregion. Annals Societe Geologique Nord, t03, 253-264.

Spark s, B.W. and West R.G. (1959) . The palaeoecology of theInt ergl acial deposits at Histon Road , Cambridge. Eiszeitalter undGegenwari, 10, 123-143.

Spark s, B.W. , Williams, R.B.G . and Bell , F.G. (1972). Pre sumedground-ice depressions in East Angl ia. Proceedings of the R oyalSocie ty of London, A327, 329-343.

Stephens , N. (1957) . Some observa tions on the ' interglacial' platformand the earl y post-glacial ra ised beach on the east coast ofIreland. Proceedings of the Royal lrisn A cadem y , 58B, 129-149 .

Stephens, N. (1966) . Some Pleistocene deposits in North Devon.Biulytin Periglacjalny , 15, 103-114.

Stephens, N. (1968). Late -glacial and post-glacial shorelines inIreland and south-west Scotland. In : Means of Correlation ofQuaternary Successions, pp . 437-456.

Stephens , N. , Cre ighton , J .R . and Hannon , A. (1975). Th e LatePleistocene Period in north-eastern Ireland: an Assessment , 1975.Irish Geograph y , 8, 1-23.

Stephens, N. and McCabe, A .M . (1977) . Late-Pleist ocene iccmovements and patterns of Late- and post -glacial shorelines onthe coast of Ulster. In: Kidson , C. and Tooley, M.J . (eds)Quaternary History of the Irish Sea , pp. 179-198. Seel HousePress, Liverpool.

Stephens, N. and Synge, F .M . (1958) . A Quaternary succession atSutton, County Dublin. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy ,59B,19-25.

Stephens, N. and Synge, F .M . (1965) . Late-Pleistocene shorelinesand drift limits in north Donegal. Proceedings of the Royal IrishA cademy , 64B, 131-151.

Stephens , N. and Synge, F .M . (1966). Late- and post-glacialshor elines and ice limits in Arygll and north-east Ulster. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers , 39, 101-125.

Stevenson , A.e. and Moore , P.D . (1982) . Pollen analysis of aninterglacial deposit at West Angle, Dyfed , Wales. New Phytolagist , 90, 327-337 .

Stewart , M. (1932). Notes on the geology of North Rona. GeologicalMagazine, 69, 179- 185.

Stewart , M. (1933) . Notes on the geology of Sula Sgeir and theFlann an Islands. Geological Magazine, 70, 110-116.

Stoker, M.S. and Ben t, A. (1985) . Middle Pleistocene glacial andglaciomarine sedimentation in the west central North Sea ,Boreas , 124, 325- 332.

Stoker, M.S. and Long, D. (1984). A relict ice-scoured erosionsurface in the Central North Sea. Mar ine Geology , 61, 85-93.

Stoker, M.S., Long, D. and Fyfe , J .A. (1985). The Quaternarysuccession in the central North Sea . Ne wletters on Stratigraphy ,14, 119-128.

Stoker, M.S. , Skinner , A. e. , Fyfe , J .A. and Long , D. (1983) .Palaeomagnetic evidence for early Pleistocene in the central andnorthern North Sea . Nature, 304 , 332-334.

Strahan, A . and Cantrill, T .e. (1904). The Geology of the Countryaround Bridgend. Memoirs of the Geological Survey, G.B.

Straw, A. (1979a). An Early Devensian glaciation in easternEngland. Quaternary Newsletter , 28, 18-24.

Straw, A . (1979b). The geomorphological significance of theWolstonian glaciation of eastern England. Transactions of theInstitut e of British Geographers , New Series 4,540-549.

Str aw, A . .(1983). Pre-Devensian glaciation of Lincoln shire (Eas ternEngland) and adj acent areas . Quaternary Science Re views, 2,239- 260.

Sumbler, M.G . (1983) . A new look at the type Wolstoni an glacialdepo sits of central England . Proceedings of the Geologists'A ssociation , 94, 23-31.

Sutherland , D .G. (1980). Problems of Radio carbon dating depositsfrom newly degla ciated terrain: examples from the ScottishLateglaciaI. In : Lowe , J.J . , Gray, J .M. and Robinson, J.E. (eds)Studies in the Lateglacial of North-West Europe , pp. 139-149.Pergamon , Oxford.

Sutherland , D.G. (1981). The high-level marine shell beds ofScotland and the build-up of the last Scotti sh ice sheet. Boreas,10, 247-254.

Sutherland, D.G. (1984). The Qu aternary deposits and landforms ofScotland and the neighbouring shelves : a review. QuaternaryScience Rev iews , 3, 157- 254.

Suth erl and , D .G. (in press) . The glaciat ion of the Shetl and andOrkney islands . In : Ehlers, J ., G ibbard , P.L. and Ros e, J. (eds)Glacial Deposits in Great Britain and Ireland. Balkema ,Rotterdam.

Suth erl and, D.G. and Walker , M.J. e. (1984). A late Devensian icefree area and possible interglacial site on the Isle of Lewis,Scotland. Nature, 309, 701-703.

Sutherland, D.G., Ballantyne, e. K. and Walker, M .l.e. (1984).Late Quaternary glaciation and environmental change on StKilda , Scotland, and their palaeoclimatic significance. Boreas, 13,261-272.


Synge, F.M. (1963). The Quaternary succession round Aberdeen,North-East Scotland. Report ofthe Vlth International Congress onQuaternary, Volume Ill: Geomorphological Section, pp. 353-361.

Synge, F.M. (1963). A correlation between the drifts of south-eastIreland and those of West Wales. Irish Geography, 4, 360-366.

Synge, F.M. (1964). Some problems concerned with the glacialsuccession in south-east Ireland. Irish Geography,S, 73-82.

Synge, F.M. (1968). The glaciation of West Mayo. Irish Geography,5,372-386.

Synge, F.M. (1969). The Wurrn ice limit in the West of Ireland. In:Quaternary Geology and Climate, Publ, l70I, pp. 89-92,National Academy of Sciences, Washington.

Synge, F.M. (1970). The Irish Quaternary: current views 1969. In:Stephens, N. and Glasscock, R.E. (eds) Irish GeographicalStudies in Honour of E. Estyn Evans, pp. 34-38. The Queen'sUniversity, Belfast.

Synge, F.M. (1973). The glaciation of south Wicklow and theadjoining parts of the neighbouring counties. Irish Geography, 6,561-569.

Synge, F.M. (1977). The coasts of Leinster. In: Kidson, C. andTooley, M.J. (eds) Quaternary History of the Irish Sea, pp.199-222. Seel House Press, Liverpool.

Synge, F.M. (1979a). Quaternary Glaciation in Ireland. QuaternaryNewsletter, 28, 1-18.

Synge, F.M. (1979b). Quaternary glaciation in Ireland. In: Prospecting in Areas of Glaciated Terrain 1979, Institute of Mining andMetallurgy, pp. 1-7.

Synge, P.M. (1981). Quaternary glaciation and changes of sea level inthe south of Ireland. Geologie en Miinbouw , 60,305-315.

Synge, F.M. and Stephens, N. (1960). The Quaternary Period inIreland - an assessment, 1960. Irish Geography, 4, 121-130.

Ter Wee, M.W. (1983). The Saalian Glaciation in the northernNetherlands. In: Ehlers, J. (ed.) Glacial Deposits in North-WestEurope, pp. 405-412. Pergamon, Oxford.

Thomas, G.S.P. (1985). The Quaternary of the northern Irish SeaBasin. In: Johnson, R.H. (ed.) The Geomorphology of North westEngland, pp. 143-158. Manchester University Press.

Thomas, G.S.P. and Summers, A.J. (1981). Pleistocene foraminiferafrom south-east Ireland - a reply. Quaternary Newsletter, 34,15-18.

Thomas, G.S.P. and Summers, A.J. (1982). Drop-stone and alliedstructures from Pleistocene waterlain till at Ely House, CountyWexford. Journal of Earth Sciences Royal Dublin Society, 4,109-122.

Thomas, G.S.P. and Summers, A.J. (1983). The Quaternarystratigraphy between Blackwater Harbour and Tinnaberna,County Wexford. Journal of Earth Sciences Royal Dublin Society,5, 121-134.

Thomas, G.S.P. and Dacombe, R. (1985). Comment on 'Glaciomarine sediments of the Isle of Man as a key to late Pleistocenestratigraphic investigations in the Irish Sea Basin'. Geology, 13,445-446.

Thomas, M.E. (1978). IGS studies of the geology of the Firth ofForth and its Approaches. Report of Institute of GeologicalSciences, 77/17.

Thomson, M.E. and Eden, R.A. (1977). Quaternary deposits of thecentral North Sea, 3. The Quaternary sequence in the westcentral North Sea. Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences,77/12.

Trail!, W.A. (1875). On the occurrence of a lower boulder-clay ortill, with shells, in the counties of Down and Mayo, Ireland.British Association Report, 1875, 83-84.

Trotter, F.M. (1929). The glaciation of eastern Edenside, AlstonBlock and the Carlisle Plain. Quarterly Journal Geological Societyof London, 88, 549-607.

von Weymarn, J .A. (1979). A new concept of glaciation in Lewis andHarris, Outer Hebrides. Proceedings of the Royal Society ofEdinburgh, 778, 97-105.

von Weymarn, l.A. and Edwards, K.J. (1973). Interstadial site onthe island of Lewis, Scotland. Nature, 246, 473-474.

Walker, M.J.C. (1982). The Late Glacial and early Flandriandeposits at Traeth Mawr, Brecon Beacons, South Wales. NewPhytologist, 90,177-194.

Walker, M.J.C. (1984). Pollen analysis and Quaternary research inScotland. Quaternary Science Reviews, 3, 369-404.

Walker, M.J.C. and Lowe, J.1. (1981). Postglacial environmentalhistory of Rannach Moor, Scotland. III. Early- and midF1andrian pollen stratigraphic data from sites on western RannochMoor and near Fort William. Journal of Biogeography, 8,475-491.

Walker, R.G. (1985). Facies Models, Geoscience Canada ReprintSeries, 1, Geological Survey of Canada.

Warren, W.P. (1979a). The stratigraphic position of the GortianInterglacial deposits. Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Ireland,2, 179-180.

Warren, W.P. (1979b). Moraines on the northern slopes and foothillsof the Macgillycuddy's Reeks, south-west Ireland. In: Schlueter,Ch. (ed.) Moraines and Varves, pp. 223-236. Balkema,Rotterdam.

Warren, W.P. (1985). Stratigraphy. In: Edwards, K.J. and Warren,W.P. (eds) The Quaternary History of Ireland, pp. 39-65.Academic Press, London.

Watts, W.A. (1959). Interglacial deposits at Kilbeg and Newtown,County Waterford. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 60B,79-134.

Watts, W.A. (1963). Late-glacial pollen zones in western Ireland.Irish Geography, 4, 367-376.

Watts, W.A. (1964). Interglacial deposits at Baggotstown, nearBruff, County Limerick. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,63B, 167-189.

Watts, W.A. (1967). Interglacial deposits in Kildromin townland,near Herbertstown, County Limerick. Proceedings of the RoyalIrish Academy, 658, 339-348.

Watts, W.A. (1977). The Late-Devensian vegetation of Ireland.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 2808,273-293.

Watts, W.A. (1985). Quaternary Vegetational cycles. In: Edwards,K.J. and Warren, W.P. (eds) The Quaternary History of Ireland,pp. 55-185. Academic Press, London.

West, R.G. (1970). Pleistocene history of the British Flora. In:Walker, D.D. and West, R.G. (eds) Studies in the VegetationalHistory of the British Isles, pp. 1-11. Cambridge University Press,Cambridge.

West, R.G. (1977a). Pleistocene Geology and Biology. Longmans,London.

West, R.G. (1977b). East Anglia, X INQUA Excursion Field Guide,Geo Abstracts, Norwich.

West, R.G. (1980a). The pre-glacial Pleistocene of the Norfolk andSuffolk Coasts. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

West, R.G. (1980b). Pleistocene forest history in East Anglia. NewPhytologist, 85, 571-622.

West, R.G. and Banham, P.H. (1968). Short field meeting on thenorth Norfolk coast. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association,79, 493-512.

West, R.G., Dickson, C.A., Catt, J.A., Weir, A.H. and Sparks,B.W. (1974). Late Pleistocene deposits at Wretton, Norfolk. II.Devensian deposits. Philosophical Transactions of the RoyalSociety of London, 8267, 337-420.

West, R.G., Funnell, B.M. and Norton, P.E.P. (1980). An EarlyPleistocene cold marine episode in the North Sea: pollen andfaunal assemblages at Covehithe, Suffolk, England. Boreas, 9,1-10.

West, R.G. and Whiteman, C.A. (1986). The Nar Valley and northNorfolk. Field Guide. Quaternary Research Association,Coventry.

Whiteman, C.A. (1983). Great Waltham. In: Rose, J. (ed.) TheDiversion of the Thames, pp. 162-169. Quaternary ResearchAssociation, London.

Wilson, P., Bateman, R.M. and Catt, J.A. (1981). Petrography,origin and environment of deposition of the Shirdley Hill Sand ofsouthwest Lancashire, England. Proceedings of the Geologists'Association, 92, 211-229.

Wintle, A.G. (1981). Thermoluminescence dating of late Devensianloesses in southern England. Nature, 289, 479-480.

Wintle, A.G. and Catt, J.A. (1985). Thermoluminescence dating ofthe Dimlington Stadial deposits in eastern England. Boreas, 14,231-234.

Wooldridge, S.W. (1938). The glaciation of the London Basin andthe evolution of the lower Thames drainage system. QuarterlyJournal of the Geological Society of London, 94, 627-667.

Worsley, P. (1967). Problems in naming the Pleistocene deposits ofthe North-East Cheshire Plain. Mercian Geologist, 2, 51-55.

Worsley, P. (1970). The Cheshire-Shropshire lowland. In: Lewis,C.A. (ed.) The Glaciations of Wales and Adjoining Regions, pp.83-106. Longmans, London.

Worsley, P. (1975). An appraisal of the glacial Lake Lapworthconcept. In: Phillips, A.D.M. and Turton, B.J. (eds) Environment, Man and Economic Change, pp. 90-118. Longrnans.:London.


Worsley, P . (1985) . Pleistocene histor y o f the Cheshire-ShropshirePlain. In: Johnson , R.H. (ed .) The Geomorphology of NorthWest England, pp . 201-221. Manchester University Press,Manchester.

Worsley, P., Coope, G .R., Good , T.R., Holyoak, D.T. andRobin son , J.E. (1983). A Plei stocene succession from beneathChelford Sands at Oakwood Quarry, Chelford, Cheshire. Geological Journal, 18, 307-324.

Wright , W.B . and Muff, H .B . (1904) . The pre-glacial raised beach ofthe south coast of Ireland. Scientific Proceedings of the RoyalDublin Society , 10,250-307.

Wright , W.B . (1914) . The Quaternary lee Age. Macmillan , London .Wymer , J .J . (1968). Lower Palaeolithic Archaeology in Britain; as

Represented by the Thames Valley . John Baker, London .Wymer, J.J. (1974). Clactonian and Acheulian industries in Britain :

their chronology and significance . Proceedings of the Geologists'Association, 85, 391-421.

Wymer, J.J . (1985). Palaeolithic Sites of East Anglia. Geo Books,Norwi ch .

Wymer , J.J. and Str aw, A . (1977) . Hand axes from beneath glacialtill at Welton-Ie-Wold , Lincoln sh ire , and the distribution ofpalaeoliths in Britain . Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society , 43 ,355-360.

Zagwijn , W.H . (1974). The palaeogeographic evolution of TheNetherlands during the Qu aternary. Geologiie en Mijnb ouw , 53,369-385.

Zagwijn , W.H. (1975) . Variati ons in climate as shown by pollenana lysis in the Lower Pleistocene of Europe. In : Wright , A .E .and Moseley, F . (eds) Ice A ges: Ancient and Modern, pp .137-152.See I House Press, Liverpool.

Zagwijn , W.H . (1986). The Plei stocene of the Neth erl ands withspecial reference to glaciati on and terrace formation. Thisvolume.

Zagwijn, W.H. and De Jong , J . (1984) . Die interglaciale von Bav elund Leerdam und ihre str atigraphische stellung im Niederland ischen, Iruh-Pleistozan, Mededelingen Rijks Geologische Dienst ,37, 155-169.

Zeuner, F .E. (1945). The Pleistocene Period. Hutchinson, London.

Documents

Correlation of Quaternary glaciations in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales