Corpus Linguistic Development with reference to Cameroon Prof. Dr Daniel A. Nkemleke Department of English Ecole Normale Supérieure University of Yaounde

Corpus Linguistic Corpus Linguistic Development with Development with reference to Cameroonreference to Cameroon

Prof. Dr Daniel A. NkemlekeProf. Dr Daniel A. NkemlekeDepartment of EnglishDepartment of EnglishEcole Normale SupérieureEcole Normale SupérieureUniversity of Yaounde IUniversity of Yaounde I

Humboldt "Kolleg" Nov. 19 Humboldt "Kolleg" Nov. 19 - 21, 2009- 21, 2009

Prof. Dr Daniel A. NkemlekeProf. Dr Daniel A. Nkemleke 22

OutlineOutline

1. 1. Definition/Nature: Corpus Linguistics, CorporaDefinition/Nature: Corpus Linguistics, Corpora

2. Development of Corpus Linguistics: History, 2. Development of Corpus Linguistics: History, CriticismCriticism

3. Some uses of Corpora3. Some uses of Corpora

4. Some existing Corpora4. Some existing Corpora

5. The Cameroon Experience in corpus research5. The Cameroon Experience in corpus research

6. Achievements: publications, students’ projects6. Achievements: publications, students’ projects

7. Conclusion: International collaborative efforts7. Conclusion: International collaborative efforts



1.1. Definition:Definition:What is Corpus What is Corpus Linguistics?Linguistics?

the study of language based on the study of language based on examples of “real life“ language useexamples of “real life“ language use

• Basis analysis: Listing, Sorting, Basis analysis: Listing, Sorting, Counting of Concordances (KWIC) Counting of Concordances (KWIC)

• Complex analysis: Processing using Complex analysis: Processing using complex programs (e.g. Complex Ana, complex programs (e.g. Complex Ana, WordSmith Tools)WordSmith Tools)



Definition, con‘tDefinition, con‘t

4 main characteristics: 4 main characteristics: • sampling and representativeness; sampling and representativeness; • finite size; finite size; • machine-readable form; machine-readable form; • standard reference.standard reference.



Definition con‘t: Sampling & Definition con‘t: Sampling & representativenessrepresentativeness

Interest in whole variety of EnglishInterest in whole variety of English

Attempt to construct a “representative“ Attempt to construct a “representative“ dadabasedadabase

Aim: Picture as accurate and reasonable Aim: Picture as accurate and reasonable as possible of a language populationas possible of a language population

Sampled to maximally represent varietySampled to maximally represent variety



Definition con‘t: Finite sizeDefinition con‘t: Finite size

Body of finite amount of words, e.g. Body of finite amount of words, e.g. 1,000,0001,000,000

Figure determined at beginning of projectFigure determined at beginning of project Once grand total is reached, collection Once grand total is reached, collection

stops, no increase in sizestops, no increase in size

Exceptions:Exceptions:

monitor corpus: constant addition of textsmonitor corpus: constant addition of texts

e.g. London-Lund corpus, Birmingham corpuse.g. London-Lund corpus, Birmingham corpus



Definition con‘t: Standard Definition con‘t: Standard referencereference

Silent understanding: corpus Silent understanding: corpus constitutes a standard referenceconstitutes a standard reference

Presupposition: wide availability to Presupposition: wide availability to other researchersother researchers

Direct comparison of new resultsDirect comparison of new results



2. Development: History of 2. Development: History of

Corpus LinguisticsCorpus Linguistics

Before 1940s/1950s: Before 1940s/1950s: ““early corpus early corpus linguistics“ linguistics“ corpus-based methodology corpus-based methodology

Several studies predating 1950sSeveral studies predating 1950s Language acquisition: child language Language acquisition: child language

(1870s-1920s)(1870s-1920s) Diaries recording child‘s locutions Diaries recording child‘s locutions Primitive corporaPrimitive corpora



History of Corpus History of Corpus Linguistics : CriticismsLinguistics : Criticisms

Chomsky‘s theoretical criticism:Chomsky‘s theoretical criticism:• Corpus = a collection of external Corpus = a collection of external

utterances, thus a poor guide to utterances, thus a poor guide to modelling linguistic competencemodelling linguistic competence

• Corpus as a source of evidence Corpus as a source of evidence invalidatedinvalidated



History of Corpus History of Corpus Linguistics: Criticisms con‘tLinguistics: Criticisms con‘t

Further practical criticism: Further practical criticism: (Abercrombie: 1963)(Abercrombie: 1963)

• Time-consuming, prone to errorTime-consuming, prone to error

• Unavailable data processing abilitiesUnavailable data processing abilities

Corpus Linguistics largely abandonedCorpus Linguistics largely abandoned



History of Corpus History of Corpus Linguistics, con‘t: RevivalLinguistics, con‘t: Revival

Between 1950s and 1980s: minority of Between 1950s and 1980s: minority of linguists continued working on corpus-linguists continued working on corpus-based work (Quirk: SEU, Francis & Kucera: based work (Quirk: SEU, Francis & Kucera: Brown corpus, Svartik: London-Lund Brown corpus, Svartik: London-Lund corpus)corpus)

Computer: major support for CLComputer: major support for CL computerized corpus: increase in computerized corpus: increase in

computing facilities computing facilities revival of CL revival of CL



3. Uses of corpora3. Uses of corpora

Corpora in speech researchCorpora in speech research Corpora in lexical studies Corpora in lexical studies Corpora in the teaching of languagesCorpora in the teaching of languages Importance dueImportance due to empirical datato empirical data ““objective” statements on languageobjective” statements on language



Uses I: Corpora in Speech Uses I: Corpora in Speech ResearchResearch

Importance of spoken corpus: Importance of spoken corpus:

Broad samples of speech Broad samples of speech generalizations about spoken languagegeneralizations about spoken language

Samples of naturalistic speech Samples of naturalistic speech reflection of language in real lifereflection of language in real life



Uses II: Corpora in Lexical Uses II: Corpora in Lexical StudiesStudies

Quicker production and revision of Quicker production and revision of dictionariesdictionaries

more complete and precise definitionsmore complete and precise definitions Keep informed about new words, Keep informed about new words,

changing meaningschanging meanings Call up word combinations, co-Call up word combinations, co-

occuringsoccurings wordswords



Uses III: Corpora in Uses III: Corpora in TeachingTeaching

Real life language data for textbook Real life language data for textbook examplesexamples

Critical look at existing language teaching Critical look at existing language teaching materialmaterial



4. Some Existing Corpora4. Some Existing Corpora

Brown CorpusBrown Corpus Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen corpus (LOB)Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen corpus (LOB) London-Lund corpusLondon-Lund corpus International Corpus of English (ICE)International Corpus of English (ICE) British National Corpus (BNC)British National Corpus (BNC) ICE-EAST Africa (ICE-EA)ICE-EAST Africa (ICE-EA) Corpus of Cameroon English (CCE)Corpus of Cameroon English (CCE) ICE-CAM,on-goingICE-CAM,on-going



Brown CorpusBrown Corpus

published in 1964: Brown University published in 1964: Brown University Standard Corpus of Present-Day Standard Corpus of Present-Day American English by Francis/KuAmerican English by Francis/Kučeračera

First computer corpus compiled for First computer corpus compiled for linguistic researchlinguistic research

About 1,000,000 words “representative“ About 1,000,000 words “representative“ of American English textsof American English texts

500 samples of each 2,000 words500 samples of each 2,000 words



Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen corpus Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen corpus (LOB)(LOB)

1970-19781970-1978

corpus of written British English corpus of written British English

University of Lancaster/University of University of Lancaster/University of Oslo/Norwegian Computing Centre for Oslo/Norwegian Computing Centre for Humanities at BergenHumanities at Bergen

500 texts of 2,000 words each500 texts of 2,000 words each



British National CorpusBritish National Corpus

100,000,000 words from British 100,000,000 words from British English from the later part of 20th English from the later part of 20th century, both spoken (10%) and century, both spoken (10%) and written (90%)written (90%)

carried out and managed by the BNC carried out and managed by the BNC ConsortiumConsortium

1991-1994 1991-1994 Samples of about 45,000 wordsSamples of about 45,000 words



5. Cameroon Experience: 5. Cameroon Experience: Corpus of Cameroon EnglishCorpus of Cameroon English

About 1,000,000 words (all written) About 1,000,000 words (all written) 1992-19941992-1994 Tagged, but not all verifiedTagged, but not all verified Developer(s):Developer(s):- Prof. Dr Daniel Nkemleke & ColleaguesProf. Dr Daniel Nkemleke & Colleagues- Group of research studentsGroup of research students Hosted in Yaounde and Tu-ChemnitzHosted in Yaounde and Tu-Chemnitz Funding agencies: British Council + AvHFunding agencies: British Council + AvH



Cameroon Experience: ICE-Cameroon Experience: ICE-CAM, on-goingCAM, on-going

Started in Feb. 2008Started in Feb. 2008 Funded by AvHFunded by AvH Developer (s)Developer (s)- Prof. Dr Daniel Nkemleke Prof. Dr Daniel Nkemleke - Group of research studentsGroup of research students Written (400,000 words) Written (400,000 words) On-going collection of texts for a sample of On-going collection of texts for a sample of

Cameroon Spoken Corpus (estimate: 600,000 Cameroon Spoken Corpus (estimate: 600,000 words)words)



Composition of ICE-CAMComposition of ICE-CAM(written, 400,000 words)(written, 400,000 words)

Students’ EssaysStudents’ Essays Skills and HobbiesSkills and Hobbies

Examination scriptsExamination scripts EditorialsEditorials

Social LettersSocial Letters NovelsNovels

Business LettersBusiness Letters Humanities (Academic)Humanities (Academic)

Humanities (Popular)Humanities (Popular) Social Sciences Social Sciences (Academic)(Academic)

Social Sciences Social Sciences (Popular)(Popular) Natural Science Natural Science (Academic)(Academic)

Natural Science Natural Science (Popular)(Popular) Technology Technology (Academic)(Academic)

Technology Technology (Popular)(Popular) Press ReportsPress Reports

Administrative writingAdministrative writing



Composition of ICE-CAMComposition of ICE-CAM(spoken, 600,000 words)(spoken, 600,000 words)

Conversations (Private)Conversations (Private)

Broadcast Interviews (Public)Broadcast Interviews (Public)

Legal cross Examination (Public)Legal cross Examination (Public)

Class Lessons (Public)Class Lessons (Public)

Broadcast Discussion (Public)Broadcast Discussion (Public)

Commentaries (Unscripted)Commentaries (Unscripted)

Unscripted Speech (Unscripted)Unscripted Speech (Unscripted)

Demonstrations (Unscripted)Demonstrations (Unscripted)

Legal presentations (Unscripted)Legal presentations (Unscripted)

Broadcast News (Scripted)Broadcast News (Scripted)

Broadcast Talks (Scripted)Broadcast Talks (Scripted)

Non-broadcast Talks (Scripted)Non-broadcast Talks (Scripted)



Students‘ contribution: Students‘ contribution: Smaller specialized corporaSmaller specialized corpora

Dissertations (BIS 2009)Dissertations (BIS 2009)

Students‘ Essays (Tayuh 2009)Students‘ Essays (Tayuh 2009)

Students‘ Essays (Mafor 2009)Students‘ Essays (Mafor 2009)

Editorials (Fuh Che, 2009)Editorials (Fuh Che, 2009)

Students‘ Essays (Pone 2010)Students‘ Essays (Pone 2010)



6. Achievements: Some 6. Achievements: Some publications on the CCEpublications on the CCE

(2008) “Milestones in the corpus of Cameroon (2008) “Milestones in the corpus of Cameroon English: research possibilities in an ESL Context”. English: research possibilities in an ESL Context”. Annals of the Faculty of Arts, Letters & Social Annals of the Faculty of Arts, Letters & Social Sciences.Sciences. (Special edition: Festschrift in honour (Special edition: Festschrift in honour of Professor Paul Mbangwana University of of Professor Paul Mbangwana University of Yaounde I Press, 173-188Yaounde I Press, 173-188

(2008) “Modality in novice academic writing: the (2008) “Modality in novice academic writing: the case of African and German university students”. case of African and German university students”. Research in English & Applied Linguistics REAL 4: Research in English & Applied Linguistics REAL 4: English Projects in Teaching and Research in English Projects in Teaching and Research in Central EuropeCentral Europe.. Göttingen: Cuvillier, 43-64.Göttingen: Cuvillier, 43-64.



Some publications Con‘tSome publications Con‘t

(2008) “Frequency and variety of if-constructions in (2008) “Frequency and variety of if-constructions in Cameroon English”. Cameroon English”. English Studies and Language English Studies and Language TeachingTeaching.. Plzen: University of West Bohemia, 27-40.Plzen: University of West Bohemia, 27-40.

(2008) “Please-request in Cameroonian and (2008) “Please-request in Cameroonian and Kenyan private (social) letters”. Kenyan private (social) letters”. Discourse Discourse InteractionInteraction 1(2). Brno: Masaryk University, 63-74.1(2). Brno: Masaryk University, 63-74.

(2007) “Frequency and use of modals in Cameroon (2007) “Frequency and use of modals in Cameroon English and application to language education”. English and application to language education”. Indian Journal of Applied LinguisticsIndian Journal of Applied Linguistics, vol. 33, no. 1, , vol. 33, no. 1, 87-105.87-105.




(2005) “(2005) “MustMust and and ShouldShould in Cameroon English”. in Cameroon English”. Nordic Journal for African StudiesNordic Journal for African Studies, vol. 14 no. 1, , vol. 14 no. 1, 27-67.27-67.

(2004) “Context and function of (2004) “Context and function of NeedNeed and and Be Be ableable to in Cameroon English”. to in Cameroon English”. Indian Journal of Indian Journal of Applied LinguisticsApplied Linguistics, vol. 12 no. 2, 23-34, vol. 12 no. 2, 23-34

(2004) “A corpus-based study of the modal (2004) “A corpus-based study of the modal verbs in Cameroonian and British English”. verbs in Cameroonian and British English”. CASTALIA: Ibadan Journal of Multicultural & CASTALIA: Ibadan Journal of Multicultural & Multidisciplinary StudiesMultidisciplinary Studies, vol. no.19, 1-23., vol. no.19, 1-23.




(2001, with Paul Mbangwana) “The modals of (2001, with Paul Mbangwana) “The modals of obligation and necessity in Cameroon English”. obligation and necessity in Cameroon English”. CASTALIA: Ibadan Journal of Multicultural & CASTALIA: Ibadan Journal of Multicultural & Multidisciplinary StudiesMultidisciplinary Studies, Vol. 6, 1-14., Vol. 6, 1-14.

(2008) (2008) Manual of information to accompany the Manual of information to accompany the corpus of Cameroon Englishcorpus of Cameroon English. Department of . Department of English, Chemnitz University of Technology, English, Chemnitz University of Technology,

Germany: 47 pagesGermany: 47 pages




(2003) (2003) A corpus-based study of the modal verbs A corpus-based study of the modal verbs in Cameroon written Englishin Cameroon written English. Unpublished PhD . Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Yaounde I.thesis. University of Yaounde I.



Forth-coming publicationsForth-coming publications

(2010 in press) “Frequent collocates and major (2010 in press) “Frequent collocates and major senses of two prepositions in ESL and ENL senses of two prepositions in ESL and ENL corpora”. corpora”. Language ForumLanguage Forum . .New Delhi.New Delhi.

(2010 in press) “Variation in written discourse(2010 in press) “Variation in written discourse:: comparing Cameroonian, East-African and comparing Cameroonian, East-African and British English on the basis of text corpora. British English on the basis of text corpora. Discourse and Text StudiesDiscourse and Text Studies. University of West . University of West Bohemia.Bohemia.



Forth-coming con’tForth-coming con’t

(2010 in press) “The expression of modality in (2010 in press) “The expression of modality in Cameroon English”. In: Achimbe, E. (ed.) Cameroon English”. In: Achimbe, E. (ed.) Approaches to Cameroon English: Features, Approaches to Cameroon English: Features, Structure, and New PerspectivesStructure, and New Perspectives (for the series (for the series Varieties of English around the WorldVarieties of English around the World (John (John Benjamins) Edited by Edgar W. Schneider. Benjamins) Edited by Edgar W. Schneider.

(2010 in press, with Josef Schmied). (2010 in press, with Josef Schmied). “Prepositions in Cameroon and Kenyan English: “Prepositions in Cameroon and Kenyan English: corpus-linguistic comparisons of simplification corpus-linguistic comparisons of simplification and expressivity”. and expressivity”. World Englishes: Problems-World Englishes: Problems-Properties-ProspectsProperties-Prospects, to be published by John , to be published by John BenjaminsBenjamins



Forth-coming con’tForth-coming con’t

(2010, with Josef Schmied). “Reference, (2010, with Josef Schmied). “Reference, coherence and complexity in students’ academic coherence and complexity in students’ academic writing: examples from Cameroon and East-writing: examples from Cameroon and East-Africa corpus”. Africa corpus”. Pragmatics, Language and Pragmatics, Language and Literature: A Festschrift for Efurisibina Literature: A Festschrift for Efurisibina AdegbijaAdegbija..



Corpus-based research Corpus-based research supervisedsupervised

““The Semantics and Syntax of Syndetic The Semantics and Syntax of Syndetic Coordination in the Corpus of Cameroon Coordination in the Corpus of Cameroon English”English” (2005) (2005)

““Modality in Students’ Dissertations: A Corpus-Modality in Students’ Dissertations: A Corpus-based Approach”based Approach” (2009) (2009)

““The Expression of Stance in Newspaper The Expression of Stance in Newspaper Editorials”Editorials” (2009) (2009)

Conjunction Resources in Students’ Conjunction Resources in Students’ Dissertation: A Corpus-based approachDissertation: A Corpus-based approach (2009) (2009)



Corpus-based research Corpus-based research supervised, con’tsupervised, con’t

A Linguistic Study of Dissertation A Linguistic Study of Dissertation Abstracts (2009)Abstracts (2009)

The Expression of Stance in The Expression of Stance in Postgraduate Students’ Dissertations in Postgraduate Students’ Dissertations in CameroonCameroon (for 2010) (for 2010)

A Corpus-based Study of Directives in A Corpus-based Study of Directives in Students’ Essays (for 2010)Students’ Essays (for 2010)



7. Conclusion: International 7. Conclusion: International collaborative effortscollaborative efforts

CCE affiliated to ICE (International Corpus CCE affiliated to ICE (International Corpus of English) project, founded in 1988of English) project, founded in 1988

MembershipMembership: : 17 countries17 countries

Australia, Cameroon, Canada, East Africa Australia, Cameroon, Canada, East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania), Fiji, Ghana, Great (Kenya, Tanzania), Fiji, Ghana, Great Britain, Ireland, Hong Kong, India, New Britain, Ireland, Hong Kong, India, New Zealand, Nigeria, Philippines, Singapore, Zealand, Nigeria, Philippines, Singapore, South Africa and the United States of South Africa and the United States of America America



Conclusion: International Conclusion: International collaborative efforts con’tcollaborative efforts con’t

Long standing links with GermanyLong standing links with Germany (Technische Universiät Chemnitz, (Technische Universiät Chemnitz,

TUC)TUC) 1999 visit Prof Dr Josef Schmied1999 visit Prof Dr Josef Schmied 1992 visit of 2 Cameroonian 1992 visit of 2 Cameroonian

academics to TUCacademics to TUC 2006-2008 Avh Grant (Prof Dr 2006-2008 Avh Grant (Prof Dr

Daniel Nkemleke)Daniel Nkemleke) Nov-Dec, 2008 return visit of a Nov-Dec, 2008 return visit of a

German scientist/colleague to Cam.German scientist/colleague to Cam.



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Corpus Linguistic Development with reference to Cameroon Prof. Dr Daniel A. Nkemleke Department of English Ecole Normale Supérieure University of Yaounde