Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2006 Chapter 1 Psychology as a Science

Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2006

Chapter 1Psychology as a Science


1-1aPsychology Is the Scientific Study of Mental Processes and Behavior • The term psychology comes from the Greek words

psyche, meaning “mind,” and logos, meaning “study.” People often confuse psychology with psychiatry:

- Psychiatry is a branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders, practiced by physicians.

- Psychology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of the above disorders, but this interest represents only one area of specialization and has a much broader scope.


1-1bEarly Pioneers Established Paths for Later Discoveries • Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) is associated with structuralism

and is recognized as the “world’s first psychologist.”

• William James (1842–1910) established functionalism, which studied how the conscious mind aids survival.

• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) established psychoanalysis, which studies how the unconscious mind shapes behavior.

• John Watson (1878–1958) helped establish behaviorism, which studies observable behavior and was the dominant perspective in North America from the 1920s through the 1950s.


1-1cWomen and Ethnic Minorities Faced Discrimination as Pioneers in Psychology

• During psychology’s early years, prejudice often impeded the careers of women and minorities. For example, in 1895 Mary Calkins completed all

requirements for a Ph.D. at Harvard University but was denied a degree due to her sex.

Despite racial prejudice, in 1901 Gilbert Jones became the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology.

Today, half of all U.S. psychologists with Ph.D.s are women, and minority group members now account for 16 percent of the new Ph.D.s.


1-2aThe Psychoanalytic and Behaviorist Perspectives Still Influence Theory and Research • Many contemporary psychoanalysts downplay

Freud’s emphasis on sexual drives while still emphasizing the unconscious mind.

• B. F. Skinner and other behaviorists contend that consequences shape behavior. People and other animals repeat behaviors followed by

positive consequences and avoid behaviors followed by negative consequences.

Behaviorism played a key role in psychologists precisely defining and objectively measuring the concepts they study.


1-2bThe Humanistic Perspective Stresses Personal Growth and Conscious Decision Making

Humanistic psychology developed in opposition to psychoanalysis and behaviorism.

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were the primary architects of this perspective.

Although criticized for lacking scientific rigor, this perspective’s emphasis on conscious experience and the essential goodness of people promoted the study of previously neglected topics.


1-2cThe Cognitive Perspective Analyzes How the Mind Organizes and Interprets Experiences • In the 1960s psychologists were discovering some

interesting phenomena that were difficult to explain without reintroducing the concepts of consciousness and cognition.

• The theoretical center of gravity shifted from behaviorism to the cognitive perspective.

• Two of the principal leaders of this “cognitive revolution” in psychology were George Miller and Ulric Neisser.


1-2dThe Neuroscience Perspective Focuses on the Nervous System

• The neuroscience perspective studies how the brain communicates with itself and other body organs and does so by focusing on the most precise microscopic levels of analysis.

• Neuroscientists conduct a good deal of their research using animals with simpler brains.


1-2eThe Evolutionary Perspective Studies How Behavior Can Be Explained by Natural Selection

Evolution is the genetic changes that occur in a species over generations due to natural selection.

Natural selection involves the environment “selecting” which traits of a species are best suited for survival.

The evolutionary perspective is partly based on the writings of biologist Charles Darwin.


1-2fThe Sociocultural Perspective Studies How Behavior Is Shaped by Social and Cultural Forces

Culture is the total lifestyle of people from a particular social grouping—ideas, symbols, preferences, and material objects.

Important cultural belief systems are individualism and collectivism, which concern how the individual is related to her or his group.- Individualism stresses individual needs over group

needs.- Collectivism stresses group needs over individual needs.


1-2gPsychology’s Subfields Can Be Distinguished by Their Emphasis on Research versus Application

Seven areas of research specialization are: - Psychobiology - Developmental psychology- Experimental psychology- Comparative psychology- Cognitive psychology- Personality psychology- Social psychology

Four areas of applied specialization are: - Clinical psychology- Counseling psychology- Industrial-organizational psychology- Educational and school psychology


Figure 1-1 The Percentage of Ph.D.s Awarded in Psychology by Specialty Area

Source: Based on data from the Summary Report: Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities, National Research Council, reported in the APA Education Directorate, 1995, p. 12.


1-3aScientific Methods Minimize Error and Lead to Dependable Generalizations

• Scientific methods are a set of procedures used to gather, analyze, and interpret information. In research:

- Sample: A group of subjects selected to participate in a given study.

- Population: All the members of an identifiable group from which a sample is drawn.

The closer a sample is in representing the population, the greater confidence researchers have in generalizing findings beyond their sample.


1-3aScientific Methods Minimize Error and Lead to Dependable Generalizations (cont.) • Psychologists also approach the study of the mind by

engaging in critical thinking, the process of deciding: What to believe and how to act based on a careful

evaluation of the evidence. - An important aspect of critical thinking is ruling out

alternative explanations.


1-3bThe Research Process Unfolds in a Series of Stages

• Stage 1: Selecting a topic and searching the literature.

Inspiration for research often comes from:- Someone else’s research- Current events- The researcher’s personal experiences

Reviewing past research is greatly accelerated by:- Computer-based programs that catalog recently

published studies- Obtaining unpublished articles from researchers via

computer networks or fax machines


Figure 1-2 Stages in the Psychological Research Process


• Stage 2: Developing a theory and formulating hypotheses. Theory: An organized system of ideas that seeks to

explain why two or more events are related. Hypotheses: Specific propositions or expectations

about the nature of things derived from a theory—the logical implications of the theory.

1-3bThe Research Process Unfolds in a Series

of Stages (cont.)


1-3bThe Research Process Unfolds in a Series of Stages (cont.)

• What makes a good theory? Predictive accuracy—Can the theory reliably predict

behavior? Internal coherence—Are there logical inconsistencies

between the theoretical ideas? Economical—Does the theory include only what is

necessary to explain the phenomenon in question? Fertility—Does the theory generate research, and can

it be used to explain a wide variety of behavior?


Figure 1-3 The Cyclical Nature of the Theory-Hypothesis Relationship


1-3bThe Research Process Unfolds in a Series of Stages (cont.)• Stage 3: Selecting a scientific method and submitting

the study for ethical evaluation. Each scientific method has its advantages and

disadvantages. The proposed study must be submitted to an

institutional review board (IRB), which monitors and evaluates all research involving human and animal subjects.


1-3bThe Research Process Unfolds in a Series of Stages (cont.)

• Stage 4: Collecting and analyzing data and reporting results. Three basic techniques of data collection are:

- self-reports- direct observations- archival information

The two basic kinds of statistics are:- descriptive statistics—summarize and describe the data

of a sample- inferential statistics—make inferences about the larger

population from which the sample was drawn


1-3cDescription Is the Goal of Observational Research

• Scientific methods that involve observational research are: Naturalistic observation: investigating behavior in its

natural environment Participant observation: investigating behavior as it

occurs in its natural environment as a participant of the group being studied

Case study: in-depth analysis of a single subject


1-3cDescription Is the Goal of Observational Research (cont.)

Four advantages of both naturalistic and participant observation research are that researchers can:- Watch behavior in its “wholeness,” providing the full context in

which to understand it.

- Record rare events that may never occur in a controlled laboratory environment.

- Systematically record events previously observed only by nonscientists.

- Observe events that would be too risky, dangerous, or unethical to create in the laboratory.

- One advantage of case study research is that it involves in-depth analysis of a single subject.


1-3cDescription Is the Goal of Observational Research (Cont.)

Three problems in using naturalistic and participant observation methods:- The absence of control requires the researchers to draw

conclusions very carefully - Researchers’ participation or observation of events can

alter the participants’ behavior and taint the data - More than any other scientific method, observational

methods pose the most ethical problems involving invasion of others’ privacy

- One problem with case study research is that researchers must be extremely cautious when generalizing from a single case to the entire population.


1-3dCorrelational Research Analyzes the Direction and Strength of the Relationship Between Variables • The variables in correlational research are not

controlled by the researcher.

• The correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to +1.00 and is a statistical measure of the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.

• A survey is a structured set of questions or statements to measure people’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavioral tendencies.


Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—High Positive Correlation


Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—High Negative Correlation


Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—Low Positive Correlation


Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—Low Negative Correlation


Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—Zero Correlation


Figure 1-4 Plotting the Relationship Between Variable X and Variable Y on a Graph—Zero Correlation (Curvilinear)


Figure 1-5 Difficulties in Determining Causation from Correlation


1-3eExperimental Research Determines Cause-Effect Relationships

• Experimenters manipulate a variable by exposing participants to contrasting levels, and then observe the effect on the other variable not manipulated. Independent variable: the manipulated variable tested

as the possible cause of changes in the other variable Dependent variable: the variable whose changes are

considered to be the effect of the manipulated changes in the independent variable


Figure 1-6 The Basic Elements in an Experiment


1-3eExperimental Research Determines Cause-Effect Relationships (cont.)• Psychologists have begun using virtual environment technology

(VET)—computer technology. Research participants wearing virtual reality equipment are

“immersed” in an imaginary setting. Although completely controlled, the virtual reality has a

“real-world” feel, fostering natural behavior among participants.

VET is currently being used to study conformity, eyewitness testimony, effects of violent video games, and simulated weightlessness.

• The multimethod approach is the best overall strategy to take because it capitalizes on each method’s strengths while controlling for its weaknesses.

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Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2006 Chapter 1 Psychology as a Science