Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2007) Field Research: Naturalistic and Case-Study Research Graziano and Raulin Research Methods: Chapter 6 This multimedia product

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2007)Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2007)

Field Research: Field Research: Naturalistic and Naturalistic and Case-Study ResearchCase-Study Research

Graziano and RaulinGraziano and RaulinResearch Methods: Chapter 6Research Methods: Chapter 6This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: (1) Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image prohibited by law: (1) Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; (2) Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in over a network; (2) Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; (3) Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.part, of any images; (3) Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.


Challenge of Challenge of Low-Constraint Low-Constraint ResearchResearch Involves observation of participants Involves observation of participants

in their natural surroundingsin their natural surroundings– Can be difficult to observe behavior in natural Can be difficult to observe behavior in natural

surroundingssurroundings– Often we are not sure what behaviors are Often we are not sure what behaviors are

important until we begin observationsimportant until we begin observations– Without the controls of the laboratory, Without the controls of the laboratory,

participants are free to do what they want to participants are free to do what they want to do, and not what we are hoping to observedo, and not what we are hoping to observe


Naturalistic Naturalistic Observation ExamplesObservation Examples Darwin’s voyage on the HMS Darwin’s voyage on the HMS

Beagle Beagle (the data behind his theory of natural (the data behind his theory of natural selection)selection)

Goodall's study of chimpanzees Goodall's study of chimpanzees Levine’s study of the Love CanalLevine’s study of the Love Canal Davis’s study of public spankingDavis’s study of public spanking Rosenhan’s study of psychiatric Rosenhan’s study of psychiatric

hospitalizationhospitalization


Case-Study ExamplesCase-Study Examples

Freud’s study of patients while he Freud’s study of patients while he formed his psychoanalytic theoryformed his psychoanalytic theory

Witmer’s study of children in the first Witmer’s study of children in the first psychology clinic in North Americapsychology clinic in North America

Piaget’s study of the development of Piaget’s study of the development of childrenchildren

Phillips’s study of people with body Phillips’s study of people with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD)dysmorphic disorder (BDD)

First’s study of people with First’s study of people with apotemnophilia apotemnophilia


When to Use These When to Use These MethodsMethods For questions involving the natural For questions involving the natural

flow of behaviorflow of behavior When first studying a research areaWhen first studying a research area When testing the feasibility of a When testing the feasibility of a

procedureprocedure As a way of discovering contingenciesAs a way of discovering contingencies When interested in a single individualWhen interested in a single individual To test the generalizability of To test the generalizability of

laboratory findingslaboratory findings


Information GainedInformation Gainedfrom These Methodsfrom These Methods Provides new descriptive Provides new descriptive

informationinformation Can suggest hypotheses for later Can suggest hypotheses for later

higher-constraint researchhigher-constraint research Can negate a general propositionCan negate a general proposition Provides information about Provides information about

contingenciescontingencies


Problem StatementsProblem Statementsand Hypothesesand Hypotheses Problem statements are often Problem statements are often

general and flexible in low-general and flexible in low-constraint research studiesconstraint research studies– Problem statements and hypotheses may Problem statements and hypotheses may

evolve (i.e, start out general and become evolve (i.e, start out general and become more specific) as the study progressesmore specific) as the study progresses

Unable to test causal hypotheses Unable to test causal hypotheses with low-constraint researchwith low-constraint research


Making ObservationsMaking Observations

Ways to observe behaviorWays to observe behavior– Unobtrusive observationUnobtrusive observation: observing : observing

behavior without participants’ knowledgebehavior without participants’ knowledge– Participant observationParticipant observation: observing : observing

behavior while participating in the situationbehavior while participating in the situation Want to reduce Want to reduce measurement measurement

reactivityreactivity– People behaving differently when observedPeople behaving differently when observed

Reactive measuresReactive measures: enhance reactivity: enhance reactivity Nonreactive measuresNonreactive measures: minimize reactivity: minimize reactivity


Archival RecordsArchival Records

Exist independent of a research studyExist independent of a research study– Kept for purposes other than researchKept for purposes other than research– May be valuable in some research studiesMay be valuable in some research studies– Examples: government records, school Examples: government records, school

and hospital records, census data, etc.and hospital records, census data, etc. Access to such archival records are Access to such archival records are

restricted by legal and ethical restricted by legal and ethical constraintsconstraints

Valuable data source for some studiesValuable data source for some studies


Ethical Issues with Ethical Issues with Using Unobtrusive Using Unobtrusive MeasuresMeasures Use of unobtrusive measures Use of unobtrusive measures

(including archival records) raises (including archival records) raises ethical issuesethical issues– Participants are not given the right to say noParticipants are not given the right to say no– Some of the archival records contain sensitive dataSome of the archival records contain sensitive data

Researchers need to show the Researchers need to show the necessity for unobtrusive measures necessity for unobtrusive measures and safeguards to protect the rights of and safeguards to protect the rights of the participantsthe participants– Must have IRB approvalMust have IRB approval


Sampling of Sampling of ParticipantsParticipants Try to obtain a representative sampleTry to obtain a representative sample

– Representative samples allow us to Representative samples allow us to generalize findings to the larger groupgeneralize findings to the larger group

Sampling is often not under the control Sampling is often not under the control of the researcher in low-constraint of the researcher in low-constraint researchresearch– Therefore, caution is required in Therefore, caution is required in

interpreting the resultsinterpreting the results– Generalize only to similar participants and Generalize only to similar participants and

NOT to the general populationNOT to the general population


Sampling of SituationsSampling of Situations

People (and animals) behave People (and animals) behave differently in different situationsdifferently in different situations– To get an adequate picture of behavior, To get an adequate picture of behavior,

we need to sample the behavior in many we need to sample the behavior in many situationssituations

Sampling many situations will indicate Sampling many situations will indicate how consistent behavior is how consistent behavior is

It also gives clues about what factors It also gives clues about what factors may be affecting the behaviormay be affecting the behavior


Sampling of BehaviorsSampling of Behaviors

Even in the same situation, people may Even in the same situation, people may behave differently on different behave differently on different occasionsoccasions– Repeated sampling of behavior in a specific Repeated sampling of behavior in a specific

situation will indicate the consistency of the situation will indicate the consistency of the behaviorbehavior

Repeated observation (essentially a Repeated observation (essentially a replication) prevents us from replication) prevents us from developing theories based on a single, developing theories based on a single, unusual behavioral responseunusual behavioral response


Evaluating the DataEvaluating the Data

Low-constraint data sets are a rich Low-constraint data sets are a rich source of informationsource of information– Data usually needs to be coded (i.e., Data usually needs to be coded (i.e.,

simplified and organized)simplified and organized)– Analyses depend on the questions and the Analyses depend on the questions and the

type of datatype of data Must be cautious in interpreting data Must be cautious in interpreting data

from low-constraint researchfrom low-constraint research


LimitationsLimitations

Poor representativenessPoor representativeness Poor replicabilityPoor replicability Ex post facto fallacyEx post facto fallacy Limitations of the observerLimitations of the observer Going beyond the dataGoing beyond the data


Poor Poor RepresentativenessRepresentativeness Most low-constraint studies have Most low-constraint studies have

small, nonrandom samples small, nonrandom samples Rarely do the samples represent Rarely do the samples represent

the populationthe population Consequently, it is dangerous to Consequently, it is dangerous to

generalize your findings too generalize your findings too broadlybroadly


Poor ReplicabilityPoor Replicability

Studies can be replicated only ifStudies can be replicated only if– The procedures are clearly specifiedThe procedures are clearly specified– The procedures were followed exactlyThe procedures were followed exactly

In low-constraint researchIn low-constraint research– Procedures are often not specified Procedures are often not specified – They may change as the study continuesThey may change as the study continues– They are often unique to the observerThey are often unique to the observer

Therefore, replication is difficultTherefore, replication is difficult


Ex Post Facto FallacyEx Post Facto Fallacy

Definition: Interpreting an observed Definition: Interpreting an observed contingency as if it represented a contingency as if it represented a causal connectioncausal connection– Low-constraint observation will never Low-constraint observation will never

provide the controls for such strong provide the controls for such strong conclusionsconclusions

If ex post facto conclusions are If ex post facto conclusions are interpreted as hypotheses to be interpreted as hypotheses to be studied, and not as established facts, studied, and not as established facts, they serve a useful scientific purposethey serve a useful scientific purpose


Limitations of the Limitations of the ObserverObserver Low-constraint studies often rely on Low-constraint studies often rely on

the observational skills of the the observational skills of the researcherresearcher

Detailed procedures are not specifiedDetailed procedures are not specified– Specific procedures decrease flexibilitySpecific procedures decrease flexibility– However, detailed procedures could However, detailed procedures could

constrain the observer in a way that would constrain the observer in a way that would limit experimenter biaseslimit experimenter biases

Give up some control for the flexibility Give up some control for the flexibility


Experimenter BiasExperimenter Bias

It is difficult in low-constraint It is difficult in low-constraint research for the researcher to research for the researcher to avoid influencing participants avoid influencing participants (called (called Experimenter reactivity)Experimenter reactivity)

Experimenter effects can be Experimenter effects can be controlled in higher-constraint controlled in higher-constraint researchresearch


Going Beyond the DataGoing Beyond the Data

Low-constraint data are often Low-constraint data are often intriguingintriguing

Nevertheless, one must be careful in Nevertheless, one must be careful in drawing strong conclusionsdrawing strong conclusions

Rosenhan broadly over-interpreted his Rosenhan broadly over-interpreted his data, even distorting the datadata, even distorting the data

Interpretation should take into account Interpretation should take into account other information we know about a other information we know about a phenomenonphenomenon


SummarySummary

Low-constraint research provide Low-constraint research provide valuable informationvaluable information

Types of low-constraint researchTypes of low-constraint research– Naturalistic observation Naturalistic observation – Case-study researchCase-study research

The inherent limitations of these The inherent limitations of these methods demand appropriate methods demand appropriate caution caution

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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2007) Field Research: Naturalistic and Case-Study Research Graziano and Raulin Research Methods: Chapter 6 This multimedia product