Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 14 Social Psychology This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Chapter 14Chapter 14

Social Psychology

This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:

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• ISBN: 0-131-73180-7


Social PsychologySocial Psychology

Social psychology – The branch of psychology that studies the effects of social variables and cognitions on individual behavior and social interactions

Social context – The combination of(a) People

(b) The activities and interactions among people

(c) The setting in which behavior occurs, and

(d) The expectations and social norms governing behavior in that setting


How Does theHow Does theSocial Situation Social Situation

Affect our Behavior?Affect our Behavior?

We usually adapt our behavior to the demands of the social situation, and in ambiguous situations we take our cues from the

behavior of others in that setting


How Does theHow Does theSocial Situation Social Situation

Affect our Behavior?Affect our Behavior?

Situationism –The view that environmental conditions influence people’s behavior as much or more than their personal dispositions do (remember: fundamental attribution error…)


Social Standards of BehaviorSocial Standards of Behavior

Social role –One of several socially defined patterns of behavior that are expected of persons in a given setting or group (read about the Stanford prison experiment at the start of this chapter)

Script –Knowledge about the sequenceof events and actions that isexpected in a particular setting


Social Standards of BehaviorSocial Standards of Behavior

Social norms – A group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for its members’ attitudes and behavior (think: socially “normal”)

Social norms influence these students’views on just about any topic


A 1 2 3

Standard line Comparison lines

Conformity:Conformity: The Solomon Asch studies The Solomon Asch studies

Which line matches the line on the left?


Conformity:Conformity: The Asch studies The Asch studies

What would you say if you were in a room full of people who all picked line number three?

A 1 2 3

Standard line Comparison lines


ConformityConformity

No opposition (control)No opposition (control)

Alone against majorityAlone against majority

With partnerWith partner

Critical trials1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Co

rre

ct e

stim

ate

d (

perc

ent) 100

80

60

40

20

0


Group Characteristics That Produce Group Characteristics That Produce ConformityConformity

Conformity=tendency to adopt the behaviors, attitudes, and opinions of other members of a group

Asch identifies three factors that influence whether a person will yield to pressure:• The size of the majority• The presence of a partner who dissented from the

majority• The size of the discrepancy between the correct

answer and the majority position


GroupthinkGroupthink

In “groupthink,” members of the group attempt to conform their opinions to what each believes to be the consensus of the group. This means each person in the group changes their opinion to match what they think is the entire group’s agreement.


Conditions Likely to Promote Conditions Likely to Promote GroupthinkGroupthink

Conditions likely to promote groupthink include:• Isolation of the group• High group cohesiveness• Directive leadership• Lack of norms requiring methodical

procedures• Homogeneity of members’ social

background and ideology• High stress from external threats with low

hope of a better solution than that of the group leader


Obedience to AuthorityObedience to Authority

Imagine if an experimenter studying “the effects of punishment on memory” asked you to deliver painful electric shocks to a a middle-aged man who had been treated for a heart condition

Each time the man missedan answer, you would beinstructed to deliver anincreasingly powerful shock


Shock GeneratorCaution

Amps

On

Intensity Resistance

Amp Meter

SlightShock

ModerateModerateShockShock

StrongShock

VeryStrongShock

IntenseShock

ExtremeShock

Danger XXX

Stanley Milgram’s ShockStanley Milgram’s ShockGenerator (Yale)Generator (Yale)

Would you deliver a “Moderate Shock?”



Amps

On


Amp Meter

SlightShock

ModerateShock

StrongShock

VeryStrongShock

IntenseShock

ExtremeExtremeShockShock

Danger XXX

Milgram’s ShockMilgram’s ShockGeneratorGenerator

Would you refuse the experimenter’s instruction to deliver an “Extreme Shock?”



Amps

On


Amp Meter

SlightShock

ModerateShock

StrongShock

VeryStrongShock

IntenseShock

ExtremeExtremeShockShock

Danger XXX


What if the victim was screaming in agony?



Amps

On


Amp Meter

SlightShock

ModerateShock

StrongShock

VeryStrongShock

IntenseShock

ExtremeShock

Danger XXXXXX


Two thirds of participants delivered the maximum 450 volts to the learner


Obedience to AuthorityObedience to Authority

In Milgram’s experimentThe victim was an actorThe victim received no actual shocks

Nevertheless, this controversial experiment demonstrated how powerful effects of obedience to authority are

Situational factors, and not personality variables, appeared to effect people’s levels of obedience


Obedience in Milgram’s Obedience in Milgram’s ExperimentsExperiments


Ten Steps Toward Evil--Ten Steps Toward Evil--Getting Good People to Harm OthersGetting Good People to Harm Others

1. Provide people with an ideology to justify beliefs for actions

2. Make people take a small first step toward a harmful act with a minor, trivial action and then gradually increase those small actions

3. Make those in charge seem like a “just authority”

4. Slowly transform a once compassionate leader into a dictatorial figure

5. Provide people with vague and ever changing rules


Ten Steps Toward Evil-Ten Steps Toward Evil-Getting Good People to Harm OthersGetting Good People to Harm Others

6. Re-label the situation’s actors and their actions to legitimize the ideology

7. Provide people with social models of compliance

8. Allow verbal dissent but only if people continue to comply behaviorally with orders

9. Encourage dehumanizing the victim

10.Make exiting the situation difficult


The Bystander ProblemThe Bystander Problem

Diffusion of responsibility –Dilution or weakening of each group member’s obligation to act when responsibility is perceived to be shared with all group members


The Bystander ProblemThe Bystander Problem

In one experiment, a student was led to believe that the he or she was taking part in an experiment with between one and five other students (over an intercom)

The student then heard what sounded like another student having a seizure and gasping for help

The researchers timed how long it would take the students to ask for help


Bystander Intervention in an EmergencyBystander Intervention in an Emergency

2-person groups2-person groups



20 80 120 160 200 240 280

Seconds from beginning of emergency

80

40

60

100

20

0

Per

cent

age

help

ing


Increasing your chances to receive help…Increasing your chances to receive help…

1) Ask for help

2) Reduce ambiguity

3) Identify specific individuals


Constructing Social Reality:Constructing Social Reality:What Influences OurWhat Influences Our

Judgments of Others?Judgments of Others?

The judgments we make about others depend not only on their behavior but also on

our interpretation of their actions within a social

context


Constructing Social Reality:Constructing Social Reality:What Influences OurWhat Influences Our

Judgments of Others?Judgments of Others?

Social reality – An individual’s subjective interpretation of other people and of relationships with them


Interpersonal AttractionInterpersonal Attraction

Reward theory of attraction – A social learning view that says we like best those who give us maximum rewards at minimum cost

ProximityProximity SimilaritySimilarity

Self-DisclosureSelf-Disclosure Physical Physical AttractivenessAttractiveness


Expectations and theExpectations and theInfluence of Self-EsteemInfluence of Self-Esteem

Matching hypothesis – Prediction that most people will find friends and mates that are about their same level of attractiveness

Expectancy-value theory – Theory that people decide whether or not to pursue a relationship by weighing the potential value of the relationship against their expectations of success in establishing the relationship


Self-Esteem…Self-Esteem…

People with low opinions of themselves tend to establish relationships with people who share their views, often with people who devalue them


Attraction and Self-JustificationAttraction and Self-Justification

Cognitive dissonance – A highly motivating state in which people have conflicting cognitions, especially when their voluntary actions conflict with their attitudes


Making CognitiveMaking CognitiveAttributionsAttributions

Fundamental attribution error – Tendency to emphasize internal causes and ignore external pressures

Self-serving bias – Attributional pattern in which one takes credit for success but denies responsibility for failure


Prejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice – A negative attitude toward an individual based solely on his or her membership in a particular group

Discrimination – A negative action taken against an individual as a result of his or her group membership


Prejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and Discrimination

In-group – The group with which an individual identifies

Out-group – Those outside the group with which an individual identifies

Social distance – The perceived difference or similarity between oneself and another person


Causes of PrejudiceCauses of Prejudice

Dissimilarity and Social DistanceDissimilarity and Social Distance



Dissimilarity and Social Distance

Economic CompetitionEconomic Competition




Economic Competition

ScapegoatingScapegoating





Scapegoating

Conformity to Social NormsConformity to Social Norms





Scapegoating

Conformity to Social Norms

Media StereotypesMedia Stereotypes


Other Topics in Social PsychologyOther Topics in Social Psychology

Social facilitation –An increase in an individual’s performance because of being in a group

Social loafing –A decrease in performance because of being in a group



Deindividuation –Occurs when group members lose their sense of personal identity and responsibility and the group “assumes” responsibility for their behavior



Group polarization –When individuals in a group have similar, though not identical, views, their opinions become more extreme

Groupthink –An excessive tendency to seek concurrence among group members


Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love…Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love…for example—romantic love, infatuation, for example—romantic love, infatuation,

complete love complete love

PassionPassion

IntimacyIntimacy CommitmentCommitment


The power of the situation can help us understand violence

and terrorism, but the broader understanding requires

multiple perspectives that go beyond the boundaries of

traditional psychology

What Are the Roots of What Are the Roots of Violence and Terrorism?Violence and Terrorism?


The Robbers’ Cave: The Robbers’ Cave: An Experiment in ConflictAn Experiment in Conflict

In the Robbers Cave experiment, conflict between groups arose from an intensely competitive situation

Cooperation, however, replaced conflict when the experimenters contrived situations that fostered mutual interdependence and common goals for the groups



Violence and aggression – Terms that refer to behavior that is intended to cause harm

Cohesiveness – Solidarity, loyalty, and a sense of group membership



Mutual interdependence – Shared sense that individuals or groups need each other in order to achieve common goals


TerrorismTerrorism

Terrorism – The use of violent, unpredictable acts by a small group against a larger group for political, economic, or religious goals

Taking multiple perspectives can provide important insights on the problems of aggression, violence, and terrorism


End of Chapter 14End of Chapter 14

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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 14 Social Psychology This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are