Copyright 2016, Macy Waltz

The Efficacy of a Stress Management and Self-Care Training on Student Teachers’ Stress Levels

by

Macy E. Waltz, BS, MEd

A Dissertation

In

COUNSELOR EDUCATION

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Approved

Janet Hicks, PhD, LPC, CSC Chair of Committee

Charles Crews, PhD, LPC, CSC

Hansel Burley, PhD

Mark Sheridan Dean of the Graduate School

May, 2016

Copyright 2016, Macy Waltz

Texas Tech University, Macy Waltz, May 2016

ii

ACKNOWEDGEMENTS

First, I would like to thank God for giving me direction and purpose in this crazy,

beautiful thing called life. All glory, praise, and honor to Him. I thank Him for believing

in me and providing such great family, friends, and mentors to support me through this

process. I am forever grateful for it, Lord.

To my committee, thank you for your patience as I stumbled through this

adventure. Your encouragement, guidance, and wisdom are the reason I have made it this

far. Dr. Hicks, you are a true example of a woman of character. I admire you for so many

reasons, and hope to inspire students in the future the way you have inspired me. Dr.

Crews, your personality and pizazz have always been qualities I enjoyed whether I was

sitting in your class or receiving help for my dissertation. You make teaching fun and I

hope to do the same! Dr. Burley, bless you for the patience and kindness you have shown

to me when discussing statistical analysis. I could not have chosen a better professor to be

on my committee for this role. I have learned so much from each of you as professors and

advisors. Thank you all for being my biggest cheerleaders and supporting me until the

very end of this adventure.

A special thanks goes out to Amber Lancaster and Lesley Shelton from the

Doctoral Support Center. It is likely that Amber read through my dissertation just as

many times as I did. You have been there for me since the beginning of this process, by

helping me develop the idea and a plan to make it happen. You have spent hours

reviewing this dissertation over the last year, multiple times. I thank you for your never-


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ending support and encouragement. To Lesley Shelton, thank you for helping this

dissertation get into tip-top shape! You are the formatting-queen!

To my family who have supported me financially, emotionally, physically, and

mentally for the past decade of college, THANK YOU! You are one of the greatest

examples of love and this would not be possible without you. To my lovely friends, thank

you for pushing me to never give up. Thank you for the late night pep talks, dance party

breaks, and endless encouragement. I will always be grateful for you.

There were a number of other people who made this research study possible from

the College of Education. Thank you Sherre Heider and other staff members for helping

me with the details of this study. I cannot thank you enough for giving up your time and

energy to help me.

This is one of my greatest accomplishments and each one of you deserves all the

praise in the world for the kindness and patience you have shown. Thank you!


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TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... ii

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... ix

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... x

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1

Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 2

Stress and Teachers .............................................................................................. 2The Statement of Problem ......................................................................................... 4

The Purpose of the Study .......................................................................................... 4

Statement of Hypotheses ........................................................................................... 5

Significance of the Study .......................................................................................... 6

Population and Sample .............................................................................................. 7

Sampling ............................................................................................................... 7Treatment .................................................................................................................. 8

Site Supervisor Curriculum: The Control Group. ................................................ 8Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................. 8

Model of Burnout ................................................................................................. 8Wellness Model .................................................................................................... 9Self-Construct: Self-Efficacy ............................................................................. 10

Instrumentation ....................................................................................................... 10

Data Collection and Analysis .................................................................................. 11

Structure of Experimental and Control Groups .................................................. 11Delimitations ........................................................................................................... 12

Limitations .............................................................................................................. 12

Definitions of Key Terms ........................................................................................ 13

Basic Assumptions .................................................................................................. 15

Organization of the Study ....................................................................................... 15

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ......................................................................... 17

History of Stress and Counselors ............................................................................ 17


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Community Leaders: LPCs and CSCs ............................................................... 19Balancing Work and Stress ................................................................................ 21Student Teacher Background ............................................................................. 22Stress and Strain ................................................................................................. 24

History of Stress and Teachers ................................................................................ 25

Causes of the Stress Problem ............................................................................. 27Society, Teachers, and Stress ............................................................................. 31Teacher Preparation Programs ........................................................................... 33

Role of Counseling .................................................................................................. 35

Relevant Theories to the Field of Counseling .................................................... 35Maslach’s Model of Burnout .............................................................................. 36Osipow’s Theory of Occupational Stress ........................................................... 37Wellness Training: The Experimental Group .................................................... 39Wellness: Theories and Techniques ................................................................... 41Self-Construct: Self-Efficacy ............................................................................. 43

Components and Rationale of Treatment ................................................................ 43

Ethical Issues ........................................................................................................... 44

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................. 46

Overview ................................................................................................................. 46

Hypotheses .............................................................................................................. 47

Setting ..................................................................................................................... 47

Participants .............................................................................................................. 50

Materials .................................................................................................................. 51

Instrumentation ....................................................................................................... 52

Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised (OSI-R) ............................................... 53Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short form) .............................................. 54Stress Overload Scale (SOS) .............................................................................. 56Demographic Survey .......................................................................................... 56

Design ..................................................................................................................... 56

Threats to Validity ................................................................................................... 57


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Internal Validity ................................................................................................. 58External Validity ................................................................................................ 59

Procedure ................................................................................................................. 60

The Experimental and Control Groups .............................................................. 60The Experimental Group .................................................................................... 61The Control Group ............................................................................................. 63

Risk Factors of Study .............................................................................................. 64

Data Analysis .......................................................................................................... 64

RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 66

Research Design ...................................................................................................... 66

Demographic Data .................................................................................................. 67

Age, Gender, and Ethnicity ................................................................................ 68Teaching Certification Level, Relationship Status, Education, and Number of Children .......................................................................................................... 70GPA, Block, and Type of School ....................................................................... 73

Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................... 75

Scoring Scales .................................................................................................... 75Hypothesis Testing .................................................................................................. 78

Results ................................................................................................................ 79Summary of the Statistical Analyses .................................................................. 83

FINDINGS .................................................................................................................. 84

Summary of the Findings ........................................................................................ 84

Discussion of the Findings ...................................................................................... 86

Hypotheses ......................................................................................................... 86Significance of the Results ...................................................................................... 91

Implications for Practice and Research .............................................................. 91Limitations of the Study ..................................................................................... 95

Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................. 96

Recommendations .............................................................................................. 96Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 98

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 100


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APPENDICES .......................................................................................................... 108

Recruitment Envelope Materials-Flyer ................................................................. 108

Recruitment Envelope Materials-Participant Instructions .................................... 109

Recruitment Envelopment Materials-Gift Card Information ................................ 110

Recruitment Envelope Materials- Letter to Participants ....................................... 111

Recruitment Envelope Materials- Informed Consent Form .................................. 112

Research Packet Materials- Packet Instructions ................................................... 115

Research Packet Materials- Demographic Survey ................................................ 116

Training Materials-PowerPoint Presentation and Commentary ........................... 117

Training Materials-Solution Focused Brief Therapy Technique .......................... 143

Training Materials- Relaxation Therapy Technique ............................................. 145

Instrument Permission Letters-Stress Overload Scale .......................................... 147

Instrument Permission Letters-Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short

form) ................................................................................................................. 148

Instrument Permission Letters-Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised ............... 149

Reminder Emails and Flyers- Email Reminder for Experimental Group: Group

A ....................................................................................................................... 150

Reminder Emails and Flyers- Email Reminder for Control Group: Group B ...... 151

Reminder Emails and Flyers-Flyer Reminder for Research Project ..................... 152

Reminder Emails and Flyers-Email Reminder for Delayed Posttest .................... 153

Reminder Emails and Flyers-Flyer Reminder for Delayed Posttest ..................... 154

Reminder Emails and Flyers-Email Reminder for Control Group Spring 2016

Training ............................................................................................................ 155

Pretest Box Plots ................................................................................................... 156


viii

ABSTRACT

Teachers who experience long-term stress and have not developed healthy coping skills

are more likely to leave the profession (Coronado, 2011). New teachers make up

significant percentage of those leaving (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014). This

dissertation studied student teachers’ overall wellness by examining the effectiveness of a

stress training on participants’ overall scores of psychological strain, coping resources,

self-efficacy, and stress overload. The proposed study looked at student teachers rather

than in-service teachers by taking a preventative stance on new-teacher attrition. Stress

curriculum is often not a primary focus within teacher preparation programs, leaving new

teachers to “learn as they go” while transitioning into their new role. This study provided

a foundation for developing curriculum to be included in teacher preparation programs in

the future. A MANCOVA was used to test the four hypotheses listed and the alpha level

used was .05.


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Six Dimensions of Wellness .......................................................................... 40

Table 2: Age and GPA by Group ................................................................................. 69

Table 3: Gender by Group ........................................................................................... 69

Table 4: Ethnicity by Group ........................................................................................ 70

Table 5: Teaching Certification Level by Groups ....................................................... 72

Table 6: Relationship Status by Groups ....................................................................... 72

Table 7: Education by Groups ..................................................................................... 73

Table 8: Number of Children by Groups ..................................................................... 73

Table 9: Block by Groups ............................................................................................ 75

Table 10: Type of School by Groups ........................................................................... 75

Table 11: Summary of Results ..................................................................................... 82


x

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Percent Annual 1st-Year Teacher Attrition, 1988-98 and 2008-09 ............. 26

Figure 2: Age of School Teachers, 1987, 2007, and 2011 ........................................... 27

Figure 3: Cumulative Percent Attrition of Beginning Teachers by Years of

Experience, 1993-2003 ............................................................................... 29

Figure 4: ABC Model .................................................................................................. 42

Figure 5: Map Big- Lubbock, Texas ............................................................................ 49

Figure 6: Tech is Best in West- College of Education ................................................. 49

Figure 7: Stress Overload Scale (SOS) Total ............................................................ 156

Figure 8: Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ) Mean ............................................... 157

Figure 9: Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) Mean ....................................... 157

Figure 10: Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ) Mean ...................................... 158


1

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

“Progress means getting nearer to the place you want to be. And if you have taken a wrong turning, then to go forward does not get you any nearer. If you are on the wrong road, progress means doing an about-turn and walking back to the right road; and in that case the man who turns back soonest is the most progressive man.” -C.S. Lewis

Life is a constant balancing act when it comes to making decisions. Healthy

decisions are made when individuals are taking care of their overall wellness. Unhealthy

decisions are usually made when individuals are not dealing with their own stress or

using appropriate self-care skills. When an individual feels stressed, often times his or her

own personal wellness is tainted first. The decisions become less about what they need to

do and more about what other people need from them. Research has shown stress to be

connected to multiple disorders, illnesses, and diseases. It is also a cause of numerous

psychological and physical symptoms. Because people deal with various amounts of

stress on a daily basis, they experience various emotions and have to make decisions in

the midst of them.

This dissertation describes a research study that investigated student teachers’

knowledge on stress management, self-care, and self-efficacy, while providing them with

additional education on each of these areas through an experiential stress training.

Following the treatment, student teachers were assessed on whether the training improved

their levels of psychological strain, coping resources, self-efficacy, and stress overload.


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Overview of the Study

Stress impacts people in the United States on a daily basis by negatively affecting

their personal well-being. According to a report by the American Psychological

Association in 2015, the top four sources of stress were money, work (if employed),

family responsibilities, and health concerns (American Psychological Association, 2015).

These sources of stress negatively impacted individuals’ well-being by increasing stress

levels. Stress levels continued to increase over the years and statistics from a national

study conducted in 2015 revealed 77% of people regularly experience physical symptoms

caused by stress, and 73% experience psychological symptoms caused by stress (Statistic

Brain Research Institute, 2015). It is clear stress has affected a significant number of

people all over the nation. Stressors, or causes of stress, effect communities, and

particularly impact the school system through educators and student outcomes (Sass et

al., 2012). Teachers are vital members of a community, and the teaching profession is one

being drastically influenced by stress.

Stress and Teachers

Teachers in Texas experienced less satisfaction in their profession due to the

pressures of high-stakes testing and accountability (Sass, Flores, Claeys, & Perez, 2012),

among a multitude of other stressors. Coping with professional and personal stressors

puts individuals’ health in jeopardy and lowers their self-efficacy. In fact, stress has

become a part of everyday life and is now accepted as a norm. Teachers try to minimize

or “put up” with symptoms, whether in a healthy or unhealthy manner, rather than

alleviating or preventing them all together. Their stress emanates from family, friends,


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school, finances, or work. Occupational or work stress adds a number of additional

stressors to teachers’ previously stress filled lives. If a teacher’s occupational stress is not

dealt with early on, stress can develop into strain, which eventually leads to burnout.

Stress, strain, and burnout. When researching stress, readers saw a debate

existed on whether stress is a stimulus or a response (Sharit & Salvendy, 1982). This

debate has been around for years and many definitions stemmed from both viewpoints.

McGrath (1970) defines stress as “a perceived, substantial imbalance between demand

and response capability, under conditions where failure to meet the demand has

important, perceived consequences.” Mental or bodily tension from stress stemmed from

stressors on a personal and professional level. Occupational stress originated from the

workplace and causes psychological and physiological strain (French, 1976). Stress turns

into stress overload and stress overload turns into strain if the symptoms are not dealt

with quickly. Strain occurs when excessive stress starts to interfere with one’s life over

an extended period of time (American Psychological Association, 2013). When constant

strain occurs, one consequence for a working professional is burnout. For this study,

burnout was characterized as emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced

personal accomplishment (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). Teachers are experiencing

higher levels of burnout at a quicker rate now than ever before; new teachers are leaving

the profession within the first five years and experienced teachers are leaving before

retirement-age (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014). This growing issue needs to be

addressed soon or else the impact of teachers’ stress and their leaving the profession is

likely to have a vast negative influence on individuals, families, and communities.


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The Statement of Problem

According to the Alliance for Excellent Education, almost half a million U.S.

teachers move or leave the profession each year and between 40-50% of new teachers

leave within the first five years (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014). Teachers leave

the profession for various reasons, but one reason noted among researchers is job-related

stress (McCarthy, Lambert, O'Donnell, & Melendres, 2009; Sass et al., 2012). Teachers

face multiple challenges throughout their career from dealing with student behavior to

complying with complex federal and state mandates. The amount of stress teachers

undertook from administrators, parents, and students while working in an adamant

environment lead to feelings of isolation, disrespect, low levels of morale and job

satisfaction, increased job strain, and low self-efficacy—factors that contributed to a

teacher’s decision to leave the profession.

The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is three-fold: (1) to investigate student teachers’

knowledge on stress, self-care, and self-efficacy; (2) to educate them through a stress

training; and (3) to assess the effects of the stress training on student teachers’

psychological strain, coping resources, self-efficacy, and stress overload. Teachers are

dealing with constant stress throughout their career and many are unable to effectively

manage stress. However, providing early training to student teachers, or teacher

candidates in the later phase, during their teacher preparation program may increase their

awareness of stress symptoms and provide new coping strategies. Student teachers can

manage stress before and throughout their career by using these strategies. This training


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provided student teachers with effective coping strategies that decreased stress levels and

increased their sense of self-efficacy, thus, possibly increasing the longevity of teachers’

careers and improving the quality of education for students.

Statement of Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were investigated:

1. There will be no significant difference between the mean pretest and mean

posttest overall scores of student teachers in the experimental group and control

group with regards to psychological strain as measured by the Occupational

Stress Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R)-Personal Strain Questionnaire.



group in regard to coping resources as measured by the Occupational Stress

Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R)-Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ).

3. There will be no significant difference between the overall scores of student

teachers in the experimental group and control group in teacher self-efficacy as

measured by the Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short form).


teachers in the experimental group and control group in stress overload as

measured by the Stress Overload Scale (SOS).


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Significance of the Study

When teachers prematurely leave the teaching profession, students, school

districts, and communities are negatively impacted. Many teachers are ill prepared for the

job strain of teaching and leave the profession when they can no longer cope. Some

believe one reason teachers are leaving is due to job-related stress, and their current

schooling is lacking a training program that emphasizes stress management and self-care.

Proper training can start within a teacher certification program and grow throughout

one’s career. Their training begins and ends in a classroom, and what happens between

the certification program and starting out as a new teacher may make all the difference

between a teacher staying or leaving the profession.

Teachers’ training begins before they step foot in a classroom, through a

university teacher preparation program or an alternative teacher certification program.

This training continues throughout their career during professional development and

other continuing education opportunities. Training varies depending upon the district and

needs within each school. There are many areas professionals may not be educated on,

such as how to identify symptoms of stress. However, no guarantee exists student

teachers and in-service teachers are taught self-care before and during their career in this

profession. One method of self-care is teaching educators stress management techniques,

which may also promote higher self-efficacy. If teachers are shown support by learning

these techniques before their career begins and throughout their career, we may see an

increase in retention for new and experienced teachers.


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This study focused on student teachers rather than in-service teachers, due to vast

amounts of new teachers leaving the profession. This study took a preventative stance by

providing education and preparation to student teachers before they stepped into full-time

teaching positions. Student teachers were able to practice techniques taught during the

stress training as they gained real teaching experience through student teaching. Student

teaching is a valuable time for these up-coming teachers. They have more time to learn

and apply these skills than current teachers. In-service teachers find themselves lacking

the time to practice stress management and self-care techniques due to busy schedules

and high demands from work and home.

Population and Sample

Sampling

This study’s population consisted of student teachers, or teacher candidates in the

later phase, in student teaching from Texas Tech University’s College of Education in

Lubbock, Texas. Student teachers were in their first or second semester of student

teaching. The participants were in their last year of Texas Tech’s teacher preparation

program. The researcher or research assistant went to 4-6 site supervisors’ classrooms for

recruitment in the College of Education. The researcher or research assistant explained

the study and asked students if they were willing to participate. They were then asked to

sign an informed consent, and write their name and email address on a pre-numbered

notecard. The researcher or research assistant collected the informed consents and

notecards. Notecards with participants’ names and email addresses were divided using a

random number generator into two groups: the control group and experimental group.


8

Adults between the ages of 18-50 were included. There was a mix of male and female

participants, including different ethnicities, socioeconomic status, and cultures in the

control and experimental groups. If participants did not wish to participate in the study or

training, they were asked to go back to their site supervisor’s classroom.

Treatment

The treatment consisted of one session that utilized Maslach’s Model of Burnout,

Hettler’s independent model of wellness, and the self construct-self efficacy. This one

session pre-post control experimental group design began with the administration of the

pretest and was followed by a stress training for the experimental group. This stress

training was 60 minutes and participants were asked to partake in various activities about

self-care and stress management. The training ended with the administration of the

posttest.

Site Supervisor Curriculum: The Control Group.

The control group participants were with their site supervisors learning about a

topic unrelated to the experimental group training. Site supervisors from the teacher

preparation program decided on what topic to teach their students. Participants were

given a pretest before class started and posttest after class was dismissed.

Theoretical Framework

Model of Burnout

Maslach’s Model of Burnout described three phases a person experiences due to

job stress: stress, strain, and burnout (Gil-Monte, Peiró, & Valcárcel, 1998). This model


9

viewed the burnout syndrome as a response from job stress and strain. Maslach and

Jackson defined burnout by using three constructs: emotional exhaustion,

depersonalization, and personal accomplishment (Maslach et al., 1996). In Maslach’s

Model of Burnout, stress, strain, and coping strategies were connected with emotional

exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment (Gil-Monte et al.,

1998; Lee & Ashforth, 1990; Cox, Kuk, & Leiter, 1993). One theory that agreed with

Maslach’s research on stress, strain, and burnout was Osipow’s occupational stress

theory. This theory measured three key dimensions: occupational stress, psychological

strain, and coping resources. Maslach’s model and Osipow’s occupational stress theory

provided a theoretical framework and justification for use of the OSI-R, which measured

if student teachers experienced a change within the personal strain and personal resources

domains. The Stress Overload Scale was also used to measure factors related to stress.

Wellness Model

Hettler’s interdependent model of wellness provided six dimensions to help

student teachers become aware of their personal well-being. Each dimension is related to

shape each individual’s overall wellness. The six dimensions included were spiritual,

intellectual/mental, emotional, physical, social, and occupational (Hettler, 1976). This

model divided wellness into six areas and provided an appropriate framework when

creating a stress training for stress and self-care. Techniques from Solution Focused Brief

Therapy, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, and Relaxation Therapy were used to

support pre-service teachers and develop their stress management and self-care skills.


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Self-Construct: Self-Efficacy

Multiple constructs were considered when looking at self-constructs. Crews noted

self-beliefs included self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-concept, and the universal self

(Crews, 2006). Generally, the construct self-efficacy looked at the belief or level of

confidence people had in their abilities. Carey and Forsyth noted self-efficacy “reflects

confidence in the ability to exert control over one’s own motivation, behavior, and social

environment” (Carey & Forsyth, 2015). One of the additional outcomes of this study’s

training with student teachers was an increase in their self-efficacy levels. This was done

through teaching and training student teachers how to handle stress and improve their

self-care behaviors. The Teachers’ Sense Efficacy Scale 1 was used to measure whether

student teachers’ self-efficacy increased or decreased from the training compared to the

control group.

Instrumentation

This dissertation looked at student teachers’ knowledge, understanding, and

application of stress management and self-care skills as a result of a training and assessed

by the use of three different instruments. These instruments included the Occupational

Stress Inventory-Revised (OSI-R). It also measured student teachers self-efficacy through

the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (TSES) and stress overload through the Stress

Overload Scale (SOS). The OSI-R gathered data from student teachers through Osipow’s

Personal Strain Questionnaire and Personal Resources Questionnaire. The Personal

Strain Questionnaire included the following sub-scales: vocational strain, psychological

strain, interpersonal strain, and physical strain. These focused on whether an individual


11

was having problems vocationally, psychologically/emotionally, relationally, and

physically. The Personal Resources Questionnaire included the following sub-scales:

recreation, self-care, social support, and rational/cognitive coping. This measured if an

individual was involved in recreational activities, personal activities, had community

support or help, and if they had cognitive skills to help cope with stress at work. The

Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 measured individuals’ self-efficacy by looking at

their efficacy in student engagement, instructional practices, and classroom management

(Duffin, French, & Patrick, 2012). This assessment was also used with in-service

teachers, but had been a part of other studies with student teachers. The Stress Overload

Scale looked at two factors that caused overload: personal vulnerability and event load

(Amrikhan, 2012). Each instrument used in this study provided valuable data for future

researchers studying student teachers and in-service teachers.

Data Collection and Analysis

Structure of Experimental and Control Groups

There was one experimental group and one control group for the study. The

control group’s participants remained in class with their site supervisor, while the

experimental group received a stress training. Training for the experimental group was 60

minutes, while the control group’s participants were with their site supervisor for the

same amount of time. The researcher conducted the experimental group’s training, while

control group participants were lead by their site supervisors. The ideal sample size for

the control group and experimental group was 35 participants each (N=70).


12

Data was collected before and after the stress training for both groups. Data was

analyzed by running a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) and additional

follow up statistics to test the four hypotheses.

Delimitations

1. All participants were student teachers selected from a university within one rural

area in Texas. While results may not be generalizable to populations outside this

group, this delimitation allowed researcher to be conducted on a previously

overlooked group in the literature.

2. The Occupational Roles Questionnaire was not included in this study.

Participants were still in training and scores for this measure would not have been

found reliable.

3. Participants volunteered to be a part of the study, and data was only used from

participants who offered to give the researcher permission to use their

information.

Limitations

1. Because of the time limit and availability of participants, this training was

compressed to fit into a single 60-minute presentation. Techniques used in

previous research studies were done over multiple sessions.

2. Because this study involved student teachers from one single university, it is

unclear if the results will be generalizable to other populations. Additional studies

should be conducted in order to generalize results of this study.


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3. This study was in a large group setting; therefore, future studies conducted in

smaller groups (classroom size) will be necessary in order to generalize results to

smaller group settings.

Definitions of Key Terms

The following definitions were offered to clarify terminology used in this

dissertation:

Burnout: “A condition of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal

accomplishment that can occur among individuals who work with people in some

capacity” (Maslach et al., 1996).

Mentor Teacher (MT): “The P-12 classroom teachers in the partner school district who

have agreed to have a Teacher Candidate in their classroom” (Texas Tech University

Tech Teach, 2015, p.iii).

Occupational stress: stress originating or caused by one’s work environment (Osipow,

1998).

Self-Care: “Regular activities an individual engages in which reduce or alleviate chronic

stress” (Osipow, 1998).

Self-Efficacy: “An individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors

necessary to produce specific performance attainments” (Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying

theory of behavioral change, as cited in Carey & Forsyth, 2015)

Site Coordinator (SC): “TTU faculty member assigned to supervise, coach, and evaluate

Teacher Candidates during the student-teaching placement. Site Coordinators are trained

and certified by the National Institute for Excellence in Teaching on administration of the


14

TAP rubric. Site Coordinators function as links between schools, school districts, and the

university program” (Texas Tech University Tech Teach, 2015, p. iv).

Strain: “When stress starts interfering with your ability to live a normal life for an

extended period” (American Psychological Association, 2013); “the result of chronic

stress” (Gold & Roth, 1993).

Stress: “A perceived, substantial imbalance between demand and response capability,

under conditions where failure to meet the demand has important, perceived

consequences” (McGrath, 1970).

Stress awareness: Being knowledgeable about the factors that can cause someone bodily

or mental tension.

Stress management: A program or technique used to help one manage emotional,

physical, intellectual, spiritual, social, or occupational stress.

Stress overload: Occurs when demands overwhelm resources; excessive stress

(Amirkhan, 2012; Lunney, 2006).

Stressors: Causes of stress.

Student teacher: A teacher candidate in their later phase of blocks or first/second

semester of student teaching.

Teacher or in-service teacher: An educator who is currently instructing students between

grade levels P-12.

Teacher Candidate (TC): “A student admitted into the teacher preparation program at

Texas Tech University. Teacher Candidates may be in an “early phase” consisting of

blocks or semesters that take place prior to the student teaching year; or in a “later phase”


15

consisting of blocks or semesters when they are completing the student-teaching year”

(Texas Tech University Tech Teach, 2015, p. iv).

Teacher self-efficacy: “The teacher’s belief in his or her capability to execute courses of

action required to successfully accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context”

(Tschannen-Moran, Hoy & Hoy, 1998).

Teacher stress: “A physical, emotional, or mental reaction resulting from one’s response

to certain pressures in the environment and how well one can manage those pressures”

(Borg, Riding, & Falzon, 1991, p. 60).

Wellness: “An active process through which people become aware of, and make choices

toward, a more successful existence” (Hettler, 1976).

Basic Assumptions

For the purposes of this dissertation, the following assumptions were made:

1. Student teachers had experience in the classroom setting.

2. Student teachers passed their TExES General or Content exam.

3. Student teachers were under current supervision by university staff, a site

supervisor, and a mentor teacher.

4. Student teachers accurately filled out instrumentation.

Organization of the Study

The following study is organized beginning with an overview of the study in

chapter one and then a review of the literature in chapter two. Chapter three provides

information on the research methodology, following with the findings from this study in


16

chapter four. Chapter five closes the study with conclusions, discussions, and suggestions

for future research.


17

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Chapter II provides a general overview of teacher attrition and its effect on the

teaching profession. Specific terms are addressed concerning teacher attrition, including

stress, strain (chronic stress), and burnout (due to strain). Next, each term is explained

with regard to the teaching profession. The terms self-efficacy and teacher self-efficacy

are also discussed. School counselors and mental health counselors know teachers face

stressful situations on a daily basis. Unless stress is dealt with appropriately, stress can

lead to low self-efficacy and teacher burnout (Aloe, Amo, & Shanahan, 2014). This

review highlights the history of stress and counselors, history of stress as a problem for

teachers, and the ways society have tried to solve the issues that stress on teachers causes.

Several members in the community have the resources to help teacher’s stress levels.

Counselors are an integral part of helping teachers decrease stress levels, increase stress

awareness and self-care coping skills, and in turn see teachers have higher levels of self-

efficacy.

History of Stress and Counselors

Teachers on all levels (primary, middle, and secondary) experience stress

symptoms at some point during their time as educators (Curry & O'Brien, 2012; Fisher,

2011). The severity of symptoms might differ, meaning one may feel temporarily stressed

while another experiences chronic stress symptoms, also known as strain. Research has

been collected on teacher stress and burnout for decades, leading to where they are

now—new teachers are leaving the profession early in their career at an alarming rate.


18

Research confirms school counselors, other faculty, and administrators are aware of this

issue, but may not know an effective way to change it (Pelsma, 2000; Stauffer & Mason,

2013). This dissertation is directly related to licensed professional counselors (LPCs) and

certified school counselors (CSCs) by offering or referring an alternative training or

program for professionals to use in order to help retain teachers and decrease teacher

stress and strain. In order to help this population with their overall wellness, community

leaders, such as Licensed Professional Counselors and Certified School Counselors, can

step up and become a helpful resource or referral agent to teachers.

Two valued sources urge LPCs and CSCs to make a priority to advocate not only

for their clients and students, but also for the good of society. According to the American

Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics (2014), LPCs should work to benefit

individuals and the community. It is a LPC’s responsibility to advocate for people if it

will improve their quality of life (American Counseling Association, 2014). This ethical

standard holds true for school counselors as well. School counselors have a responsibility

to develop professional relationships with faculty and staff if it is going to benefit their

students (American School Counselor Association, 2010). These ethical codes also

include school counselors working with community agencies, organizations, and

individuals; being competent in advocacy, collaborating, teamwork, program

coordination, and referring teachers for counseling (American School Counselor

Association, 2010). These sources are respected by both LPCs and CSCs as standards

that should be upheld by all members of the counseling profession.


19

Counselors play a vital role in the community by advocating and collaborating

with one another to positively change society. Teachers have always been essential

members of society and will continue to be for decades to come. But, over the years

research has shown a problem with teachers leaving the profession. Various interventions

from LPCs and CSCs attempted to improve these attrition rates (Clemens, 2007;

Froeschle & Crews, 2010; Tatar, 2009). The role of these community leaders, LPCs and

CSCs, can drastically help this profession in a positive way if given the right tools and

opportunities.

Community Leaders: LPCs and CSCs

Licensed Professional Counselors (LPCs) and Certified School Counselors

(CSCs) will play an important role with helping or referring teachers now and in the

future. LPCs and CSCs are two support groups that are able to help or refer this

population so they can manage stress and promote healthy decision making at work and

home. Counselors can work with teachers to design professional development

opportunities to help teachers meet their needs. Teachers can also talk with a LPC or get

a referral from a CSC about an issue before it escalates in the classroom or their personal

life. If teachers discuss issues with counselors early on, the problem may not escalate and

cause the teacher even more stress and increase their anxiety levels. Counselors can also

provide opportunities for teachers to support one another, whether inside or outside of the

classroom.

LPCs are able to see what a community needs inside and outside of a school

district. These professionals care about the community and are ethically required to


20

“work for the good of the individual and society by promoting mental health and well-

being” (American Counseling Association, 2014). CSCs understand what teachers are

experiencing inside the school and how those experiences can affect student outcomes.

CSCs are able to help teachers with student misbehavior, class scheduling, and multiple

other areas. School counselors can schedule professional development opportunities for

teachers to learn stress management and self-care strategies or contract out with a LPC to

lead trainings. CSCs must collaborate and advocate for the good of their teachers and

students (American School Counselor Association National Model, 2008). LPCs and

CSCs can help reduce stress and strain for student teachers and in-service teachers by

educating and teaching them stress management and self-care techniques. They can play

a role in decreasing burnout and teacher attrition rates on a community, state, and

national level.

CSCs and LPCs have been known to help teachers cope with stress throughout the

literature (Clemens, 2007; Froeschle & Crews, 2010; Tatar, 2009). Froeschle and Crews

(2010) describe a relaxation training conducted with teachers. They discovered teachers’

stress levels decreased after the intervention; teachers felt peace, restfulness, and control

afterwards (Froeschle & Crews, 2010). Tatar wrote an article on three ways teachers cope

with work: individual coping strategies, group-mediated coping strategies, and turning for

help (Tatar, 2009). Teachers were inclined to turn to school counselors, teacher

colleagues, psychologists, or principals for help, which in turn decreased their stress

levels and increased their support systems. Clemens recognized why teachers were

stressed out and used a model to help when consulting with teachers (Clemens, 2007).


21

The use of this model supported teacher’s needs and provided a framework for school

counselors to help alleviate teacher stress. CSCs and LPCs are important pieces to the

puzzle when decreasing teacher’s stress levels. They can both be very useful to the

profession and provide immeasurable support to teachers.

Balancing Work and Stress

Stress is found in a multitude of areas, but for a teacher it can be found inside the

school. Teachers do a lot of behind-the-scenes work to prepare for their classes in order

to provide a healthy learning environment for students. Sometimes this preparation

includes taking assignments home to be graded or creating worksheets to help students

learn material better. Teachers also deal with confrontation on a daily basis, whether it is

with other faculty and staff members or students. They have to be ready to make choices

in the midst of chaos, even if they feel overwhelmed. Teachers also wear multiple hats

during the school day. For example, roles such as educator, disciplinarian, counselor, or

academic advisor are common. Clearly, teachers have many responsibilities and are

asked to multi-task every single day. It would be easy to slip into a lifestyle of unhealthy

habits with this kind of pressure. Teachers would likely benefit from the help a counselor

might offer for establishing a professional and personal balance.

University students also have a difficult time finding balance between being a

student and working. Some schools require students who want to become a teacher to

take basic coursework before applying to a teacher preparation program. After being

accepted, students are seen as teacher candidates and begin their block schedules. A

teacher candidate is a student admitted into a teacher preparation program at a university.


22

Candidates can be in an early phase, which consists of blocks or semesters that take place

the year before student teaching. Then candidates move into the later phase that consists

of blocks or semesters when they are completing the student-teaching year (Texas Tech

University Tech Teach, 2015). Teacher candidates in the later phase must be present at a

school to help and learn from a mentor teacher. Mentor teachers are “P-12 classroom

teachers in the partner school district who have agreed to have a Teacher Candidate in

their classroom” (Texas Tech University Tech Teach, 2015, p. iii). Teacher Candidates

are also taking coursework throughout student teaching and are not able to hold jobs

during this time.

Student Teacher Background

Teacher candidates are students attending a university teacher preparation

program. During this program, students are required to take multiple courses geared

toward proficient teaching and the culmination of a successful future in the teaching

profession. Students must complete basic level coursework and then apply to get into a

teacher preparation program. After being accepted into the program, students start their

block program schedule. For this study, the university requires students to take a Pre

Admission exam, the TExES Pedagogy and Professional Responsibilities TExES Content

or General grade level exam before they start student teaching. The General exam was

faded out in August 2015 and teacher candidates must now pass the TExES Content

exam. Finally, teacher candidates (in the later phase) spend an academic year co-teaching

with a mentor teacher (Texas Tech University Tech Teach, 2015). The literature also


23

refers to teacher candidates as pre-service teachers, or student teachers, learning from

mentor teachers during student teaching (Bates & Burbank, 2008; Jenkins, 2014).

Teacher preparation programs have a unique opportunity to educate students

accepted into their program on stress management, self-care, and self-efficacy. Programs

can take a preventative stance by instilling positive coping behaviors into students before

they step foot in a classroom or before they graduate from a program. Students can be

well equipped to handle stressors found in the teaching profession long before starting

their teaching career. In-service teachers find themselves too busy and overwhelmed to

focus on stress management skills, their personal self-care, and sense of self-efficacy.

Many experience stress overload or excessive stress with having to manage student

behavior; district, state, and national requirements; demanding schedules, etc. that they

are too exhausted to even comprehend new learning techniques taught through

professional development opportunities (Lunney, 2006). Learning and implementing

techniques becomes more of a stressor than an opportunity to gain coping skills.

Teaching these techniques and strategies to students accepted into a teacher preparation

program and continuing it throughout their career may become a beneficial option.

These techniques can be taught during undergraduate courses for basic

requirements and coursework for the teacher preparation program. Professors can also

integrate these skills into their curriculum instead of developing a course primarily for

wellness. It is important for teacher candidates to implement these skills during student

teaching so they can get an idea of how to apply them. School districts can then integrate

wellness into their new teacher programs and professional development opportunities to


24

promote long-term benefits. Stress training for this population has to start at the

beginning and continue throughout a teacher’s career in order to increase retention rates

(Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014, July).

Stress and Strain

Stress occurs when bodily tension is felt mentally and/or physically. Stressors are

causes of stress; they can occur for a variety of reasons ranging from a parent trying to

find a babysitter for their children to dealing with a loved one who was in a tragic

accident. If these stressors are not managed, then stress overload can occur, which will

lead to strain from the ongoing stress. Strain keeps an individual from living a normal life

(American Psychological Association, 2013) and can lead to multiple illnesses and

diseases. One’s job or occupation can be the cause of multiple stressors or strain.

According to Osipow (1998), occupational stress is “stress originating or caused by one’s

work environment.” The Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised Edition has been used to

measure occupational adjustment for several occupations. Among those occupations are

retail workers, military, office workers, supervisors, firefighters, and teachers (Alkhadher

& Al-Naser, 2006; Osipow, 1998).

Teachers experience varying levels of occupational stress and it can affect a

school district’s faculty, staff, and, most importantly, students. Teachers across the nation

may feel high levels of occupational stress because of district, state, and national

demands. This causes teachers to minimize their stressors and slip into unhealthy coping

habits. Some stressors for teachers include student misbehavior, inadequate

administrative support, heavy workloads, demanding schedules, lack of training, and low


25

salaries (Curtis, 2012; Dagli, 2012; Sass, Flores, Claeys, & Perez, 2012; Hartwick &

Kang, 2013; Ingersoll et al., 2014). Professionally, these stressors can lead to strain,

strain can lead to burnout, and burnout can lead to higher teacher attrition rates when

teachers leave the profession (Maslach et al., 1996). Personally, stressors can negatively

affect a teacher socially, emotionally, physically, mentally/intellectually, financially and

spiritually (Hettler, 1976)

History of Stress and Teachers

Teacher attrition has been recognized as a problem in the United States since the

1970’s (Sass, Flores et al., 2012). An immense amount of research has been done since

then, between 1988-2012. A Consortium for Policy Research in Education report

evaluated data over a 25-year period using the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) with

available teachers between 1988-1989, 1991-1992, 1994-1995, 2000-2001, 2004-2005,

and 2008-2009 (Ingersoll et al., 2014). Information from 2011-2012 was also included in

the updated report. The report provided evidence stating first-year teacher attrition has

steadily increased since 1988-1989 and the trend is still continuing. Figure 1 shows a

graph of first-year teacher attrition annual percentages between particular years.

According to Figure I, in the 2000-2001 school year teacher attrition had the highest

percentage for 1st-year teachers when compared to five other school years. It decreased in

the 2004-2005 school year by 2.7 percent, but increased by 1.2 percent in the 2008-2009

school year. Teacher attrition has been fluctuating since 1988, but seems to be rising

significantly according to Figure I. Attrition has been an issue with teachers for decades

and the turnover rate doesn’t seem to be slowing down anytime soon.


26

Figure 1: Percent Annual 1st-Year Teacher Attrition, 1988-98 and 2008-09

Ingersoll, R., Merrill, L., & Stuckey, D. Consortium for Policy Research in Education, University of Pennsylvania (2014). Seven trends: The transformation of the teaching force (RR-80).

The Alliance for Excellent Education states, “Since the mid-1980’s the significant

expansion of the teaching workforce has been accompanied by increased turnover among

beginning teachers” (2014, July). The report also claims attrition rates have only

increased over the past two decades for first-year teachers and experience levels from

model teachers have gone from around 15 years of experience in 1987-1988 to 5 years of

experience in 2011-2012 (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014, July). Figure 2 shows a

graph with the number of teachers and ages for 1987-1988, 2007-2008, and 2011-2012.

According to Figure 2, there are a higher number of younger teachers than older ones in

2011-2012, which may not be a good sign because almost half of new teachers leave the

profession within five years. According to Curtis (2012), young, new teachers have a

higher attrition rate than older, more experienced ones. Whatever the case, old and new

teachers are continuing to leave or move each year and stress may be one of the main


27

sources for these actions. Kipps-Vaughan’s study found that teacher stress is linked to

absenteeism, turnover, and early retirement (2013). It is important for researchers to

understand the causes of teacher stress before fully comprehending the teacher attrition

problem.

Figure 2: Age of School Teachers, 1987, 2007, and 2011

Ingersoll, R., Merrill, L., & Stuckey, D. Consortium for Policy Research in Education, University of Pennsylvania (2014). Seven trends: The transformation of the teaching force (RR-80).

Causes of the Stress Problem

There are multiple reasons teachers are leaving the profession in the United

States. The most common reason is pressure from testing (Pas, Bradshaw, Hershfeldt, &

Leaf, 2010; Tye & O’Brien, 2002). Since the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act,

which required students to be tested in reading and math every year from third to eighth

grade then once again in high school (Edwards, 2015), teachers have felt stressed about

students’ scores and job security (Hartwick & Kang, 2013). Teachers at higher-risk

schools feel this stress and are even more likely to leave due to testing, lack of resources,


28

workload stressors, and issues regarding student populations (Dagli, 2012; Sass et al.,

2012). The profession faces numerous reasons for teachers leaving; several include job

satisfaction, administration, environment, and problems with students.

Teachers who leave have reported feeling dissatisfied with their job (Hartwick &

Kang, 2013) and the lack of administrative support (Curtis, 2012). Others felt unease

about the work environment (Dagli, 2012) and lack of student motivation (Curtis, 2012).

The CPRE report cites the most frequent reasons for leaving: school and working

conditions (isolation), low salaries, classroom resources, student misbehavior,

accountability, development opportunities, input into decision making, and school

leadership (Ingersoll et al., 2014). Many of these causes have been mentioned in literature

on an international level.

Teachers are leaving the profession in the United States and multiple other

countries around the world due to stress-related causes. Countries such as Australia

(Buchanan, 2012), Belgium (Struyven & Vanthournout, 2014), Canada (Vesely,

Saklofske, & Nordstokke, 2014), China (Leung, Chiang, Chui, & Wong, 2011), Italy

(Zurlo, Pes, & Cooper, 2007) and numerous others are facing similar challenges, which

could lead to teacher burnout or more severe issues, such as anxiety or depression. The

gravity of this problem is apparent and is affecting several people in other countries, but

for this study we are focusing primarily on the United States.

A recent press release stated, “Roughly half a million U.S. teachers either move or

leave the profession each year—attrition that costs the United States up to $2.2 billion

annually” (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014). Perda (2013) found between 1993-


29

2003 more than 41% of new teachers left the profession within five years of entry.

Ingersoll, Merrill, and Stuckey created a graph (see Figure 3) based off information from

Perda. Figure 3 shows the graph displaying cumulative percent attrition of beginning

teachers by years of experience (Ingersoll et al., 2014; Perda, 2013). Perda’s data,

displayed in Figure 3, was based off teaching spells; spells can include multiple teaching

jobs as long as the time between jobs does not exceed three months. Between 1993-2003,

11.9 percent of beginning teachers had a teaching spell less than a year; 23 percent had a

teaching spell less than two years, 28.4 percent less than 3 years, 36.8 percent less than 4

years, and 41.3 percent less than 5 years. This suggests the more experience a beginning

teacher has, the higher the attrition rates are going to be. This issue hurts the economy on

a financial level and threatens the educational quality of teaching for students. The

teaching profession, counselors, communities, individual states, and nation suffer

significantly on a financial, personal, and professional level.

Figure 3: Cumulative Percent Attrition of Beginning Teachers by Years of Experience, 1993-2003

Perda, D. (2013). Transitions into and out of teaching: A longitudinal analysis of early career teacher turnover (doctoral dissertation). University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.


30

Teacher attrition causes a concern in the teaching profession, because if teachers

are not willing to stay then schools may not be staffed with quality educators (Allen,

2005). This can keep students from receiving an equal education opportunity and

possibly leave them learning from teachers who are uncertified and on emergency

waivers (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014). For example, math, science and special

education teachers leave the field more frequently compared to other teachers (Brown &

Wynn, 2007), which may cause schools to quickly hire teachers uncertified in these

subject areas.

In addition to the teaching profession, CSCs and LPCs are also being impacted by

teacher attrition. School counselors work with students, staff, and administrators to make

schools run efficiently. School counselors wear a variety of different hats in order to

benefit the overall school environment. A few ways counselors help the school

environment are by supporting students academically and emotionally; assisting teachers

and other staff members; and working with administrators on standardized testing

(American School Counselor Association, 2010). School counselors are constantly

juggling multiple roles throughout the day. If teacher attrition is high, school counselors’

workload increases due to teachers leaving and new teachers being hired. This means

school counselors may have less time to work with students on academics and developing

life skills. Students may graduate without learning critical life skills and healthy coping

mechanisms. This may lead to LPCs getting an influx of adolescents and adults that have

higher levels of depression, anxiety, unemployment, and relationship issues.


31

Communities, individual states, and the nation feel effects from adolescents, with

or without a high school degree, who are unprepared to face world problems. This may

be evidenced by an increase in crime rates and health costs due to inadequate education

(Rebell, 2012). Clearly, teacher attrition is a significant issue that impacts not only the

individual but the nation as well. In order to address this problem, we must look at what

kind of professional development training, stress management programs, and self-care

skills have been available for teachers. Teachers should be given opportunities

throughout the year to help with symptoms of stress so they can be well equipped to cope

with the stress related to teaching. The district and school administrators should support

teachers and want them to seek continuing education related to teaching.

Society, Teachers, and Stress

District officials or a school’s administration often caters professional

development training depending on each district or school’s needs. The state of Texas

offers professional development online through a website called Project Share

(http://projectsharetexas.org/). Teachers can visit this website and search for a specific

subject and age/course. Subjects include: English Language Arts and Reading,

Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. Select grades range from kindergarten to eight

grade; courses vary depending upon the subject chosen. Most districts only require

teachers to attend professional development trainings a few times throughout the year.

Some of those days are used for standardized test training. Usually, teachers must sign up

for additional training programs in order to further their education. The only other

opportunity they have during school is to consult with teachers and faculty during their


32

planning period. Training regarding self-efficacy, self-care, and stress awareness is not

taught during professional development days unless the district decides to include it into

professional development or teacher in-service times.

Outside of professional development, teachers can learn during teacher in-service,

continuing education opportunities, taking their own initiative to be educated or by going

back to school. Teachers are required to attend in-service times throughout the year, but

they do not get to choose what topics will be covered during training. They do get to

choose how to earn their continuing education hours. Each state requires teachers to earn

a specific number of continuing education hours. This study focuses on the state of Texas

for this information. According to the Texas Education Agency (TEA) website,

classroom teachers are required to earn 150 Continuing Professional Education (CPE)

hours and those who hold a professional certificate must earn 200 CPE hours in order to

renew their standard certificate. This certificate must be renewed in Texas every five

years. The Texas Administration Code has a set rule (232.11) about the number and

content required for these hours. This website includes a list of topics for professional

development; CPE hours; professional ethics and standards of conduct; and content area

knowledge and skill (Texas Administration Code, 2012).

In Texas, the only mention of health-related education for teachers is listed at the

bottom of this website. According to the Texas Administration Code, “(g) An educator

may fulfill up to 12 clock-hours of required CPE activities by participating in a mental

health first aid training program offered by a local mental health authority under the

Texas Health and Safety Code, 1001.203” (Texas Administration Code, 2014). There was


33

no mention in the rule of self-care, stress awareness/management, or self-efficacy.

Teachers are not required to seek out education for themselves regarding these topics

unless they choose them for CPE hours.

Teachers can choose to educate themselves about specific topics outside of school

by attending trainings, workshops, seminars, or going back to school to earn a post-

bachelor/graduate degree. These outside educational opportunities can include an array of

topics addressing areas that would benefit someone in the profession. Content taught

during a teaching preparation program might also include topics not listed in the Texas

Administration Code rule 232.11, which is dependent upon each school and program.

Teacher Preparation Programs

After searching for teacher preparation programs and ways they are addressing

self-care and stress awareness, the researcher found only two studies. In 2000, a study

was published on teacher preparation programs changing their curriculum to better

prepare candidates on what to expect in the classroom (Wilkins-Canter, Edwards, &

Young, 2000). The authors discussed changes that were being made to decrease attrition

rates and meet the psychological and personal needs of novice teachers at this particular

university. Professional development workshops for novice teachers were developed

during this study to address self-care, stress awareness and stress management. Yacapsin

(2010), a pre-service teacher supervisor, wrote an article about including self-care

practices within the school’s teacher preparation program. Their program was changed to

include reflective practice and bi-monthly group counseling sessions (Yacapsin, 2010).

This part of the program focused on alleviating stress for pre-service teachers and


34

promoting self-care practices. An additional author mentioned in Yacapsin’s article

discussed the importance of including stress management and self-care techniques into

teacher preparation programs, but did not provide a study or data for how they

implemented such practices.

Brown and Nagel (2004) wrote an article about the need to prepare future teachers

on how to handle stress. The authors included a definition of stress, sources and

predictors of stress, mediators of stress, and teacher preparation program responses

(Brown & Nagel, 2004). Within these responses, suggestions were made as to how stress

management could be taught to future teachers. Benefits of creating a course dedicated to

this health issue or integrating techniques into current curriculum were encouraged.

Outside of the United States, Canada has discussed the need for developing these courses

into teacher preparation programs, too (Harris, 2011).

A research study was conducted in Canada to see which universities and colleges

offered teacher preparation programs; then each university and college was examined to

discover which programs included a course on individual stress management (Harris,

2011). Few courses were found through course descriptions related to stress management.

The author developed potential course topics and assignments for future use, but only

provided suggestions and no actual training. According to research, few colleges or

universities have included a stress awareness, stress management, or self-care component

into their teacher preparation programs. There are some studies in the literature that

focus primarily on teaching pre-service teachers about stress, self-care and overall

wellness rather than only stress awareness and stress management.


35

Role of Counseling

Relevant Theories to the Field of Counseling

Literature has shown for decades how essential it is for people to acquire healthy

coping skills in order to decrease stress levels, increase self-efficacy, and attain holistic

wellness. Studies focused on educating in-service teachers on stress management or relief

through the use of cognitive behavioral therapy, rational emotive behavior therapy,

mindfulness, and relaxation therapy (Forman, 1990; Gold et al., 2010; Kaspereen, 2012;

Leung., 2011; Shimazu, Okada, Sakamoto, & Miura, 2003). Solution Focused Brief

Therapy has been used as a framework for programs to help teachers manage their

classroom by improving student behavior and relationships (Brown, Powell, & Clark,

2012; Metcalf, 2008), which can decrease teacher’s stress levels in the classroom.

However, few research studies have looked at preparing student teachers on managing

stress and personal wellness through a training.

Harris (2011) created an individual stress management coursework for teacher

preparation programs after researching universities to see if they offered some type of

stress management education courses (Harris, 2011). She was unable to find universities

that emphasized stress management fifty percent or more of the class time. Some

professors have incorporated stress alleviating activities into their curriculum through

journaling, modeling, talking with second-year teacher candidates, collaborative teaching,

classroom management techniques, simulation lessons, debriefing, and non-threatening

evaluation procedures (Wadlington, 1998). But overall, literature related to student

teachers coping with stress is limited. Studies exist that focus on emotional intelligence


36

and pre-service teacher well-being (Vesely, Saklofske, & Nordstokke, 2014), but few

programs are known dealing specifically with stress and holistic wellness. The training

created and used in this study is developed from Maslach’s Model of Burnout, Osipow’s

theory of occupational stress, Hettler’s Six Dimensions of Wellness, and the self

construct: self-efficacy. The stress training incorporates techniques from Solution

Focused Brief Therapy, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, and Relaxation Therapy.

Maslach’s Model of Burnout is a main part of the theoretical framework for this study.

Maslach’s Model of Burnout

Christina Maslach created the proposed model and it is seen as the “most widely

used and accepted theoretical model of burnout” (Gates & Wolverton, 2002). It is

composed of three key constructs: emotional exhaustion (EE), depersonalization (DP),

and personal accomplishment (PA); it also includes three phases: stress, strain, and

burnout (Gil-Monte et al., 1998; Maslach et al., 1996). These three constructs outline how

the model connects to the instrument used for this study and treatment modality. The

model focuses on the phases a person goes through because of job stress; stress to strain

to burnout (Gil-Monte et al., 1998). Other studies on burnout found that lack of PA and

EE are a type of strain and DP is a coping strategy (Cox, Kuk, & Leiter, 1993; Gil-Monte

et al., 1998; Lee & Ashforth, 1990). In Maslach’s model, a connection is made between

the three phases and three constructs (Gil-Monte, Peiró, & Valcárcel, 1998; Leiter &

Maslach, 1988). Lack of PA is seen as a stress and strain and it takes place before

depersonalization; stress occurs before depersonalization when other coping strategies do

not work (Gil-Monte et al., 1998). When a tense situation arises, a person may start to


37

feel stress, he or she may try to use coping skills to decrease stress levels. When these

coping skills fail (lack of PA), it can lead to strain, which leads to depersonalization.

Depersonalization is a type of coping strategy when a person cannot cope in a healthy

way. Lack of PA can lead to emotional exhaustion, which is seen as a strain. Emotional

exhaustion also occurs when an individual is unable to cope effectively, and this

exhaustion connects to DP as a coping mechanism (Gil-Monte et al., 1998). One theory

that agrees with Maslach’s research on stress, strain, and burnout is Osipow’s

Occupational Stress theory.

Osipow’s Theory of Occupational Stress

This theory was developed in 1981 with the Occupational Stress Inventory (OSI)

and the inventory was revised in 1998, and then renamed the Occupational Stress

Inventory-Revised (OSI-R) (Osipow & Spokane, 1981, 1998). This inventory measures

three dimensions: occupational stress, psychological strain, and coping resources. It

scores 14 different scales total; six in occupational stress, four in psychological strain,

and four in coping resources.

The Occupational Role Questionnaire (ORQ) measures occupational stress with the

following sub-scales: role overload (RO), role insufficiency (RI), role ambiguity (RA),

role boundary (RB), responsibility (R), and physical environment (PE). This scale will

not be used as a measure during this study because it focuses on people who are currently

in a working role. These student teachers are preparing to become teachers; therefore this

questionnaire would not be pertinent for them to take at this point. The following

domains/scales will be used to measure pre-service teachers psychological strain and


38

coping resources in this study.

The Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ) measures psychological strain with the

subscales vocational strain (VS), psychological strain (PSY), interpersonal strain (IS),

and physical strain (PS). Vocational strain measures the attitude and problems individuals

experience through their work quality or output (Osipow, 1998). Psychological strain

measures the psychological and/or emotional problems; interpersonal strain measures

disruption in personal relationships; physical strain measures complaints about physical

illness and/or self-care habits (Osipow, 1998). The last domain/scale looks at coping

resources by using four subscales.

The Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ) measures coping resources through

the following subscales: recreation (RE), self-care (SC), social support (SS) and

rational/cognitive coping (RC). Recreation measures how a person gets pleasure and

relaxation from routine recreational activities (Osipow, 1998). The OSI-R subscale self-

care provides the definition used within this study and measures how an individual

reduces or alleviates stress through personal activities (Osipow, 1998). According to the

OSI-R manual, social support measures if the individual feels support through

relationships; rational/cognitive coping looks to see if an individual possesses and uses

cognitive skills to cope with stress at work (Osipow, 1998). The two OSI-R domains and

eight subscales are connected to this study’s treatment model by categorizing them into

one of the six dimensions of wellness.


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Wellness Training: The Experimental Group

Bill Hettler created an interdependent wellness model in 1976 called the Six

Dimensions of Wellness. Dr. Hettler is the co-founder of the National Wellness Institute

(NWI), which helps provide a definition of the term wellness used throughout this study.

According to Hettler and the NWI, wellness is defined as “an active process through

which people become aware of, and make choices toward, a more successful existence”

(Hettler, 1976). There are six dimensions to this model: spiritual, intellectual/mental,

emotional, social, physical, and occupational. It is also a holistic model that focuses on

helping an individual see the interconnectedness of each dimension. Hettler’s model

(1976) explains the following:

1. How a person contributes to his or her environment and community, and

how to build better living spaces and social networks.

2. The enrichment of life through work, and its interconnectedness to living

and playing.

3. The development of belief systems, values, and creating a world-view.

4. The benefits of regular physical activity, healthy eating habits, strength and

vitality as well as personal responsibility, self-care and when to seek

medical attention.

5. Self-esteem, self-control, and determination as a sense of direction.

6. Creative and stimulating mental activities, and sharing your gifts with

others.


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Each dimension is important and helps create and develop a person’s overall

wellness. The six dimensions provide a framework and examine how wellness may

contribute to proper self-care and stress prevention. The six dimensions and their

definitions are provided in Table 1.

Table 1: Six Dimensions of Wellness

Dimension Definition Spiritual Search for meaning and purpose in human existence Intellectual/Mental One’s creative, stimulating mental activities Emotional Awareness and acceptance of one’s feelings Social Awareness of ways one contributes to their environment and community Physical The need for regular physical activity Occupational Personal satisfaction and enrichment in one’s life through work

Hettler, B. (1976). The Six Dimensions of Wellness Model handout. Retrieved from http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.nationalwellness.org/resource/resmgr/docs/ sixdimensionsfactsheet.pdf

Hettler’s dimensions are used to categorize Osipow’s personal strain and personal

resources domains/scales and their individual subscales with the OSI-R. Many of these

subscales can be categorized in multiple dimensions. For example within the PSQ, VS

can fit into Hettler’s occupational and emotional dimensions. There will be many

overlaps between each subscale and dimension, which provides a strong theoretical

framework for this study’s treatment. PSY is connected with the emotional,

intellectual/mental, and spiritual domains; IS to the social and intellectual/mental

domains; PHY to Hettler’s physical domain. The PRQ’s subscales are RE, SC, SS, and

RC; they will also overlap into multiple dimensions. RE connects to the physical and

social domains; SC to the social, intellectual/mental, emotional and spiritual; SS to the

social and occupational; RC to the intellectual/mental, emotional, and spiritual domains

located in the handout (Hettler, 1976). The wellness model developed by Hettler


41

provides a framework for this study’s training and connects Osipow’s Occupational

Stress theory to wellness. Techniques were chosen from various theories supported by

research, which were previously used in other studies to help individuals manage stress.

Wellness: Theories and Techniques

Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) has been used to help teachers manage

classroom activities and student behavior (Brown, Powell, & Clark, 2012; Metcalf,

2008). SFBT focuses on solutions rather than problem solving (Molnar & De Shazer,

1987; Corey, 2009). This therapy allows clients to create and choose their own goals; it

does not look at the history of a problem or a diagnosis. The SFBT technique used in this

study is based off the Six Dimensions of Wellness. Participants will write down what

actions they are taking in each dimension that contributes to their overall wellness. Then

participants will write down what goals they want to accomplish in the future and create a

specific plan to accomplish those goals. Other therapies are used within the treatment to

help participants manage stress, including Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy.

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is a form of Cognitive Behavioral

Therapy (CBT) and both have been used in multiple research studies (Forman, 1990;

Leung et al., 2011). Aaron Beck’s CBT combines cognitive and behavioral standards and

methods in a brief treatment approach (Corey, 2009). It focuses on the client being aware

of thoughts and emotions by recognizing how circumstances, thoughts, and behaviors

influence emotions. REBT was created by Albert Ellis and is one of the initial cognitive

behavior therapies (Corey, 2009; Ellis, 2001). This therapy uses the ABC model shown in

Figure 4 to determine whether a person has rational or irrational beliefs.


42

Figure 4: ABC Model

Corey, G. (2009). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (eighth edition). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

This study uses the R technique as a tool to help participants handle difficult

situations inside and outside of the classroom. It focuses on steps to take when a conflict

arises by using the three r’s: retreat, rethink, and react/respond. Participants are able to

slow down by retreating/relaxing away from the situation then rethinking about what

occurred before taking any action. The last techniques used in the treatment are from

Relaxation Therapy.

Relaxation Therapy (RT) or relaxation training is used to decrease participant’s

stress response by releasing muscle tension and providing mental relaxation (Corey,

2009). Relaxation techniques have been used in many research studies (Kaspereen, 2012;

Shimazu et al., 2003). Some techniques included in this therapy are mindfulness (Gold et

al., 2010), breathing exercises, progressive muscle relaxation, guided imagery, systematic

desensitization, assertion training, biofeedback-induced relaxation, hypnosis, and

autogenic training (Corey, 2009). This treatment will use the following relaxation

techniques: breathing, progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), and guided imagery (GI).

Breathing techniques allow a person to control the flow of oxygen that enters and

leaves his or her body. Participants learn how to take deep breaths and equalize their


43

breathing through two simple techniques (Varvogli & Darviri, 2011). The second

relaxation therapy technique is called Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR). It reduces

stress and anxiety by alternately tensing and relaxing the muscles (Varvogli & Darviri,

2011). PMR teaches a person how to become aware of muscle tension and provides a

method to relax each muscle group. The final technique, Guided Imagery, is explained by

a counselor or professional through the use of an audio or written script. It uses stress

reduction and breathing techniques to relax an individual through his or her senses. By

incorporating each therapy and their associated techniques into a person’s daily routine,

an individual may notice a positive change in how he or she handles conflict, deals with

stress, and an increase in his or her overall wellness. Another outcome of applying these

techniques into a person’s life is an increase in a person’s sense of self-efficacy.

Self-Construct: Self-Efficacy

Albert Bandura included the term self-efficacy in his Social Learning Theory,

which is now called the Social Cognitive Theory. Self-efficacy is defined as “an

individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce

specific performance attainments” (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997; Carey & Forsyth, 2015).

An increase in a person’s self-efficacy levels may be one natural outcome from using this

study’s stress training. The training may cause an increase in teacher retention rates and

address issues related to pre-service teacher’s confidence levels.

Components and Rationale of Treatment

The proposed models and construct regarding stress, wellness, and self-efficacy

are supported in theory. Several theories are integrated within each model and construct


44

in order to form a balanced foundation for this study’s treatment design. Two models and

one construct are used for this theoretical approach, including Maslach’s alternative

model of burnout, Six Dimensions of Wellness Model, and the self-construct: self-

efficacy. Maslach’s Model of Burnout focuses on three key parts, which outlines how the

model connects to the OSI-R and treatment modality.

Solution Focused Brief Therapy, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, and

Relaxation Therapy techniques were used during the stress training. The delivery of these

techniques was influenced by Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning (2015). Research

stated this learning theory was beneficial for teaching students in higher education

(Healey & Jenkins, 2000). The cycle included the following elements: concrete

experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active

experimentation. Experiential learning was known to help participants increase

knowledge, understanding, and his or her ability to apply what was learned (Kolb, 2015).

During the stress training, participants were taught the material, walked through an

activity for each technique, asked to process what was learned, and then shown how to

apply it in a real life situation. The goal was to follow the framework Kohl provided

through his experiential learning theory.

Ethical Issues

According to the American Counseling Association Code of Ethics (2014),

counselors are to “plan, design, conduct, and report research in a manner that is

consistent with pertinent ethical principles, federal and state laws, host institutional

regulations, and scientific standards regarding research” (p. 15). This includes


45

confidentiality, precautions to avoid injury, explaining a research participants rights, and

managing and maintaining boundaries with participants. Researchers must explain the

purpose of the study and provide participants with a clear understanding of the study’s

process. Participants must know how the researcher plans to keep participants’ personal

information and instrument data confidential. The researcher must also take precautions

to keep all participants from experiencing any type of harm. Participants will be aware of

their rights by reading the informed consent. Because students are involved in this study,

an explanation will be provided that their participation in this research will not affect

their academic standing in any way. Lastly, it is the researcher’s responsibility to manage

and maintain appropriate boundaries with research participants by creating and

implementing preventative measures prior to the study. University faculty and staff have

approved this research study before it was sent to the Institutional Review Board for

further approval. IRB approval was granted on October 11, 2015 and the project number

is 505419.


46

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Overview

The study investigated student teachers’ overall wellness, the independent

variable, by examining the effectiveness of a stress training on the following four

dependent variables for student teachers: overall score of psychological strain, coping

resources, self-efficacy, and stress overload. This chapter describes the methods used to

investigate hypotheses in this study. The study design as outlined below includes the null

hypotheses, setting, participants, materials, instrumentation, design, data collection

procedure and analysis.

The researcher used two domains/scales from the OSI-R: PSQ and PRQ, the TSES

(short form), and SOS. IBM SPSS 22.0 was used for data analysis (IBM Corp, 2013).

Descriptive statistics were reported for the following demographic variables: age, gender,

ethnicity, education, relationship status, number of children, teaching certification level,

GPA, block, and type of school the student is placed at for student teaching. An

experimental design of pretest, treatment, and posttest was conducted within the setting

of Texas Tech University’s College of Education. Teacher candidates student-teach for a

full academic year within Texas Tech’s teacher preparation program. They also attended

regular professional development on campus with their site supervisor, which was where

the training was conducted.


47

Hypotheses















Setting

The study took place in the College of Education at Texas Tech University in

Lubbock, Texas (see Figure 5). The student Co-PI or a researcher assistant visited 4-6 site

supervisors’ classrooms for recruitment in the College of Education (see Figure 6).

During recruitment student teachers who volunteered to be a part of the study signed the

informed consent then wrote their name and email address on a pre-numbered notecard.


48

They were instructed to place the informed consent and notecard back into their envelope

until the student Co-PI or research assistant collected the materials.

For the experiment, student teachers in the experimental group met in the large

lecture hall room-001 or classroom in the College of Education. Participants in the

experimental group and control group were given directions from the Student Co-PI

through a general information email and a reminder email to where the training or pretest

and posttest were located. Student teachers were informed of what room the training was

held. They went to this designated room on the day of training. Control group participants

attended their cluster meeting with their site supervisor. The large lecture hall room-001

had 10 round tables with 6 chairs at each table; the classroom had multiple tables and

chairs for a smaller group of students. Student teachers who did not want to participate in

the study or training went to their site supervisor’s classroom for their cluster meeting.


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Figure 5: Map Big- Lubbock, Texas

Seal-Nyman, K. (2015). Strong Regional Recruitment Strategy Key to Competing for Texas Students (map big). Retrieved from http://www.depts.ttu.edu/ communications/newsletter/images/07Mar/map_big.jpg

Figure 6: Tech is Best in West- College of Education

Post, S. (2009). Texas Tech Named A Best in the West College by the Princeton Review (Tech is the Best in West). Retrieved from http://today.ttu.edu/ posts/2009/08/princeton-review-tech-is-best-in-west


50

Participants

Each year universities accept new students into teacher preparation programs.

Students go through coursework, which prepared them for teaching, taking state exams,

and gaining experience in the classroom with Mentor Teachers (MT). Their last year of

school consisted of student teaching for a full academic year as student teachers. Student

teachers were required to assist Mentor Teachers for a certain amount of hours each week

and continued their program coursework (Block requirements). All teacher

candidates/student teachers at Texas Tech University attended professional development

during the 2015-2016 academic year. The researcher went to multiple classrooms to tell

students about this opportunity. The training took place in room 001 or a small meeting

room in the Education building at Texas Tech University from 3:00-4:30 PM on

November 4th and November 11th; an additional training was held from 4-5:30 PM on

November 19th.

Teacher candidates/student teachers who were willing to be a part of the study

were the sample. The computed sample (N=70) for this experimental study consisted of

two groups of student teachers, one control group (n=35) and one experimental group

(n=35). Three training days were available to the participants on November 4th,

November 11th, and November 19th. Demographically, the student teachers varied in age,

gender, ethnicity, education, relationship status, number of children, teaching certification

level, GPA, block, and type of school he/she was placed at for student teaching. Random

sampling was used to select subjects in order to ensure “each member of the population

from which the sample is drawn has an equal and known probability of being selected”


51

(Slavin, 2007). An ethical consideration for this study was data protection. All necessary

precautions were made in order to protect individual’s information. Records were stored

in a secure area with limited access. If it was feasible, all identifiable information was

changed. Informed consents were kept in a separate file from instrument data in a locked

filing cabinet. Data entered online was kept in password protected files on the

researcher’s personal computer. Identification codes were used instead of participant’s

names on each assessment and demographic survey. The notecards were permanently

discarded after the drawing for a $50.00 gift card.

Materials

During recruitment an envelope that contained a flyer, participant instructions,

gift-card information, a letter to participants, an informed consent form, and a notecard

were provided to student teachers. Student teachers who were willing to participate in the

study signed the informed consent then wrote their name and email address on the

notecard. A number was placed on each notecard prior to disseminating to student

teachers. Participants placed the informed consent and notecard back into the envelope.

The Student Co-PI or research assistant picked up their envelope from potential

participants.

A packet was provided to participants before the stress training began for the

pretest materials. Inside the packet was a copy of the instructions, a demographic survey,

Stress Overload Scale, Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short form), Occupational

Stress Inventory-Revised item booklet, Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised rating

sheet, and a loose copy of the OSI-R directions. The word “omit” was placed on a sticker


52

or written on the questionnaire participants did not fill out on the OSI-R rating sheet.

Participants were advised not to write on the OSI-R item booklet. The same packet was

provided after the training to participants for the posttest.

During training, the researcher used a PowerPoint presentation to guide

participants (See Appendix H). This stress training required a writing utensil, piece of

plain paper, and a Self-Care Survey document, which was provided for each participant

by the Student Co-PI. A piece of 2x2 butcher paper for each group and a pencil for each

participant were also provided for the training.

Instrumentation

The stress training utilized a pre-post control group experimental design.

Instruments were administered to all participants one time before and two times after

implementation of the stress training. The OSI-R-Personal Strain Questionnaire and

Personal Resources Questionnaire were used to measure participants’ pre and post

psychological strain and coping resources (Osipow, 1998). The Teachers’ Sense of

Efficacy Scale 1 was used to measure student teacher self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran &

Hoy, 2001). The Stress Overload Scale was used to measure stress overload (Amirkhan,

2012). All data was hand-scored by the Student Co-PI and IBM SPSS 22.0 was used for

data analysis. Scores were examined to measure if a preventative-based stress training

affected these variables. Assessment instruments given to the participants were placed in

an envelope in the following order for both pre and posttests:

1. Demographic Survey

2. Stress Overload Scale (SOS)


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3. Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short form)

4. Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised (OSI-R): Personal Strain Questionnaire

(PSQ) and Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ)

Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised (OSI-R)

The OSI-R was created by Samuel H. Osipow and Arnold R. Spokane. This

instrument was revised in 1998 and its purpose is to measure three dimensions of

occupational adjustment: occupational stress, psychological strain, and coping resources

(Osipow, 1998). The OSI-R has been utilized with a number of occupations; including the

following occupational groups: executive, professional, technical, marketing,

administrative support, public service/Safety, and agricultural/production/laborer

(Osipow, 1998). More studies have used this inventory with different occupations since

its revision. It has provided quality data to researchers for decades and continues to do so.

The OSI-R included three questionnaires: Occupational Roles Questionnaire

(ORQ), Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ), and Personal Resources Questionnaire

(PRQ). Each domain/scale included different sub-scales in order to best identify where

someone experiences stress or strain, and if they were participating in activities (coping

resources) to help with it. For this study, only two domains/scales were used: Personal

Strain Questionnaire and Personal Resources Questionnaire.

The OSI-R was normalized with a sample of 983 participants in 130 different

occupations. The following information was from the Occupational Stress Inventory-

Revised Professional Manual by Samuel Osipow (1998). The total questionnaire had a


54

coefficient alpha of .88 for Occupational Roles Questionnaire, .93 for Personal Strain

Questionnaire, and .89 for Personal Resources Questionnaire. Individual scales were also

tested and their coefficients ranged from .70 to .89. One study sample showed a test-

retest correlation of .74 for the Personal Strain Questionnaire and .68 for the Personal

Resources Questionnaire. The Personal Strain Questionnaire subscales correlations were

.59 for Vocational Strain, .65 for Psychological Strain, .55 for Interpersonal Strain, and

.67 for Physical Strain. The Personal Resources Questionnaire subscales correlations

were .64 for Recreation, .39 for Self-Care, .52 for Social Support, and .71 for

Rational/Cognitive. Multiple sources were used to gather validity data for the OSI-R.

Data from the original OSI and revised OSI-R were compared. Osipow and Spokane

found that the two versions were similar enough to generalize validity from the original

inventory to the revised one. The OSI-R can be administered in an individual or group

setting, and it is a pencil and paper assessment. Instructions were included in the booklet

and it can be completed in less than 20 minutes.

Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short form)

Megan Tschannen-Moran and Anita Woolfolk Hoy developed the Teachers’

Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) at Ohio State University. It was called the Ohio State

Teacher Efficacy Scale (OSTES), but was changed to the TSES. It was designed to help

researchers recognize what causes teachers the most difficulty during school day

activities. This scale measures efficacy in student engagement, instructional practices,

and classroom management skills. There was a long version (24 items) and short version

(12 items) available. Pre-service and in-service teachers’ responses were used in separate


55

factor analyses (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). This scale was both reliable and valid

for both the long and short versions. The alpha level overall for the long form was .94,

and each subscale scale was as follows: engagement .87, instruction .91, and management

.90. The short scale had an overall alpha of .90, and each subscale score was as follows:

engagement .81, instruction .86, and management .86. Researchers suggested focusing on

the total score when using this instrument with pre-service teachers. Each item is

measured on a 9 point Likert scale ranging from “nothing”, “very little”, “some

influence”, “quite a bit”, to “a great deal”. Directions are written at the top of the TSES

and participants used a paper-and-pencil format.

Past studies using the TSES with pre-service teachers suggest they respond to each

item based off their current ability (Duffin, French & Patrick, 2012) rather than thinking

how an experienced teacher would answer each one. Duffin, French, and Patrick’s study

used the TSES once with pre-service teachers during the beginning of an introductory

psychological course between fall 2007 and spring 2008; fall 2009 to spring 2011. They

suggest for future research using pre-service teachers’ scores at a different period of time

(2012). This study furthers research regarding student teachers and the use of TSES at a

new point in time. Student teachers will take the scale two times during their first

semester of student teaching. The population will be asked to take the TSES before

training and immediately afterward. The short scale (12 items) can be completed in less

than 10 minutes.


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Stress Overload Scale (SOS)

The Stress Overload Scale was developed by James Amirkhan to measure two

factors related to overload: personal vulnerability and event load (Amirkhan, 2012). It has

excellent internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha level >.94 for both subscales and

the measure as a whole. It has good test-retest reliability; coefficients average .75 over

one week. Amirkhan found the SOS’ construct validity has been demonstrated in

significant correlations with other measures of stress and illness (Amirkhan, 2012). Also,

the instrument’s criterion validity has the ability to predict illness after a stressful event.

The scale includes 30 items and uses a 5-point Likert scale to specify feelings and

thoughts experienced over the previous week. It can be completed in less than 10

minutes.

Demographic Survey

The Demographic Survey consisted of background questions about the study’s

participants. These questions included age, gender, ethnicity, education, relationship

status, number of children, teaching certification level (secondary, middle, primary),

GPA, block, and type of school the student is placed at for student teaching. This survey

was included in the assessment packet. Directions were listed above the set of questions

and a paper-and-pencil format was utilized.

Design

This study used a randomized experimental design including a pretest, posttest

control group with random assignment (Slavin, 2007). The study focused on student

teachers overall wellness; it investigated how a stress training effects the overall scores of


57

student teachers’ psychological strain, coping resources, self-efficacy, and stress

overload. The experimental group received the stress training and control group

curriculum on a completely different topic from their site coordinator. Both groups

completed a pretest and posttest. Overall scores of psychological strain, coping resources,

self-efficacy, and stress overload were measured with three instruments. The OSI-R

included three different questionnaires: Occupational Roles Questionnaire (ORQ),

Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ), and Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ)

(Osipow, 1998). Only the PSQ and PRQ were used for this study. The PSQ measured

pre-service teachers’ psychological strain and PRQ measured coping resources. The

TSES 1 (short scale) was used to measure self-efficacy and SOS for stress overload

(Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001; Amirkhan, 2012).

Threats to Validity

Researchers aspire to add knowledge to the literature and must do so by satisfying

two principles, internal and external validity. Internal validity is the “degree to which the

results of a study can be attributed to the treatments or other independent variables

identified in the hypothesis” (Slavin, 2007). External validity ensures the study is

generalizable and can be used in other settings or samples. There are many threats to

validity including different types of internal and external threats (Slavin, 2007). Internal

threats include: history, maturation, testing effects, ceiling effects, floor effects,

instrumentation effects, selection bias, statistical regression, mortality (attrition), teacher

effects, school effects, and class effects. External threats to validity include: lack of

internal validity, nonrepresentativeness, artificiality, reactivity, the Hawthorne effect, and


58

John Henry effect. Below is a list and description of the internal and external threats to

validity related to this study.

Internal Validity

History and maturation. The control group and experimental group experienced

the same current events and developmental processes. Three training times were available

for the student teachers, but no event occurred between each training time. Maturation

was not a concern, because the trainings were conducted within the same month for the

experimental group participants.

Testing. The control group and experimental group received a pretest and

posttest. Testing was conducted before training or class began and immediately after

training or class was finished for the experimental group and control group. The pretest

for the experimental group may have made the participants more sensitive to the

treatment, and may affect scores on the posttests. The pretest for the control group may

have affected scores on the posttest, because there was little time between testing, and the

curriculum taught to participants between testing was unknown. There were three

opportunities for participants to attend the training. There was an opportunity for

participants to discuss the training with other participants who had previously partaken in

the stress training. Some of the material may have been discussed between trainings.

Instrumentation. All of the measures, methods, and instruments were the same

for each group. Experimental group participants were tested under different conditions

than control group participants. Participants were in different rooms when taking the

pretest and posttest.


59

Selection bias and mortality (attrition). The subjects were assigned by random

selection and all had equal chance of getting the treatment or control condition. Groups

were initially equal but participants may have shown up late or left early between the


External Validity

Lack of internal validity. Research has been established in regards to teachers

and stress for decades.

Nonrepresentativeness- The population (teachers) has been used in experimental

research for years, but pre-service teachers have not. Few studies have been found

regarding student teachers’ coping skills when it comes to feeling stressed.

Reactivity- Student teachers may behave differently in front of their Mentor

Teacher and program staff members. They interacted with their Mentor Teacher and

program staff members between the pretest and delayed posttest.

Hawthorne effect- Student teachers in the experimental group may alter their

answers on the posttest because they know they are in an experiment.

John Henry effect- Student teachers in the control group may alter their answers

on the posttest because they do not want their scores to come out worse than the

experimental group’s scores.


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Procedure

The Experimental and Control Groups

Recruitment. The Student Co-PI or research assistant visited 4-6 classrooms for

recruitment at the College of Education. The Student Co-PI or a research assistant

provided a verbal explanation to pre-service teachers about confidentiality, the informed

consent, and purpose of the study. An envelope with the following documents was given

to prospective participants: a flyer, participant instructions, gift card information, a letter

to participants, informed consent and a notecard. Afterwards, participants were asked to

sign the informed consent and then write their name and email address on a notecard if

they would like to participate. The Student Co-PI or research assistant asked participants

to place the signed informed consent and notecard inside the envelope. The Student Co-

PI or research assistant walked around the room to collect all informed consents and

notecards. The Student Co-PI or research assistant thanked participants and left the room.

All signed informed consents were taken to the Student Co-PI’s private office and put

away in a locked filing cabinet.

Sampling. Each notecard had a number written on it before recruitment. The

Student Co-PI used a random number generator to divide participants into the

experimental and control groups. Participants were divided based off the numbers given

by the random number generator. Two documents were created, one for the experimental

group and one for the control group. Each document had the participant’s name and email

address on it. The control group participants went to their site supervisor’s classroom for


61

their cluster meeting and the experimental group participants went to the large lecture

hall room 001 or a small classroom for the stress training.

Training day. Participants were sent an email with information regarding where

to go on training day. Control group participants went to room 253-LRC reading room or

a classroom to complete the pretest then were dismissed to their cluster group. After their

site supervisor dismissed them, participants returned to room 253-LRC reading room or

the classroom for the posttest. Experimental group participants went to the large lecture

hall room 001 or a small classroom for the stress training. Participants took the pretest,

and then participated in the stress training. After the stress training they took the posttest.

The Experimental Group

Pretest. Participants sat in a chair at one of the tables in the large lecture hall-

room 001 or in a small classroom. If a participant did not want to participate in the study

or training, the researcher assistant provided an opportunity for the individual to step out.

They were asked to walk to their site coordinator’s classroom. If student teachers did not

want to participate in data collection, but wanted to attend the training they were asked

not to fill out materials in the packet. The researcher assistant disseminated packets to

each participant and a writing utensil if needed. The researcher used an Administrator’s

Guide to explain what to do during the pretest. Participants filled out each instrument in

the order it was placed inside the packet. They were asked to place all materials back

inside the envelope after they were finished. The pretest packet took 20 minutes to

complete. The research assistant asked participants to place their packet in a container


62

located near the front of the room and pencil beside the container. Training began once

all packets were placed in the container and the research assistant left the room.

Stress training. For the experimental group, a PowerPoint presentation was used

to guide participants through the training (see Appendix H). The Student Co-PI led a

stress training for 60 minutes. Participants were asked to partake in multiple activities

throughout the training. The first few minutes of the training was used for an

individual/group activity, followed by definitions and statistics. Participants then

discussed how to know when a person is stressed and physical, emotional, and mental

symptoms a person may display. Afterwards, participants discussed how ongoing stress

affects certain areas of a person’s life. Next, a definition of strain, wellness, and self-care

was explained. Participants were asked questions regarding self-care and their knowledge

about it. A scenario was read aloud, and participants were asked questions about ways a

teacher might display stress symptoms. A brief learning opportunity on teachers and

stress followed with a short discussion.

After participants had an understanding of stress, strain, wellness, and self-care

they were asked to participate in a Solution Focused Brief Therapy technique. Following

this activity, participants walked through techniques from different therapies, including

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy and Relaxation Therapy. The training outline and

PowerPoint presentation (see Appendix H), followed by a posttest schedule and data

collection directions, was included.

Posttest. Immediately after the training, participants were given a packet by the

research assistant. The research assistant referred back to the Administrator’s Guide to


63

direct participants through the posttest. Participants were reminded of the identification

code and asked to write it on the designated area on each document in the packet. Then

participants completed each instrument. After all participants were finished, they were

asked to put all of their forms back into the envelope and place their packet into a

designated container located near the front of the room. Participants were welcome to

leave after turning in his or her packet. The posttest packet took less than 20 minutes to

complete.

The Control Group

Pretest. Participants were asked to meet in room 253-LRC reading room or a

classroom in the College of Education at Texas Tech University to take the pretest. A

research assistant used an Administrator’s Guide to direct participants through the pretest.

If a participant did not want to participate in data collection, the research assistant asked

the pre-service teacher not to fill out materials in the packet. The research assistant

disseminated packets to each participant and a writing utensil if needed. The research

assistant explained what is in each packet and gave directions to participants. Participants

filled out each instrument in the order it was placed inside the packet. They were asked to

place all materials back inside the envelope after they were finished. The pretest packet

took less than 20 minutes to complete. After completing the packet, participants brought

their envelope and writing utensil to a designated container near the front of the room.

After everyone was finished, participants were dismissed to their cluster group meetings.

Alternative curriculum. The control group received curriculum from their site

supervisor during their cluster meeting for 60 minutes.


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Posttest. After participants cluster meetings were dismissed by their site

coordinator, participants returned to room 253-LRC reading room or a classroom for the

posttest. The research assistant used the Administrator’s Guide to direct participants

through the posttest. Participants were reminded of the identification code and asked to

write it on the designated area on each document in the packet. Then participants began

completing each instrument. After all participants were finished, they were asked to put

all of their forms back into the envelope and place their packet into a designated

container located near the front of the room. The posttest packet took less than 20

minutes to complete. Participants were dismissed after they completed the posttest.

Risk Factors of Study

There was a recognized risk factor in this study. Personal wellness may be a

difficult topic for some people to discuss in a large group setting. On the one hand, they

may feel a range of emotions when participating in activities that could cause shame or

guilt. On the other hand, participating in activities could make someone feel encouraged

because their personal wellness is healthy. Nonetheless, if participants needed to take a

break from the topic, they were able to step out of the training at any time. There was

TTU staff in the area if a participant needed to consult with someone. Participants were

welcome to exit the study if they felt it necessary.

Data Analysis

This study required 58 pre-service teachers, 18 years of age or older, in the Texas

Tech University Tech Teach program. An analysis using G*Power software and fixing

the effect size f=0.3, α err prob = 0.05, power= 0.8, number of groups= 2, number of


65

measurements= 4, and correlations among repeated measures= 0.5 provided a result

stating that the total sample size equals 58. In order to help with attrition, an extra 6

participants were needed in each group, which made the desired total number of

participants equal 70 (Dumville, J., Torgerson, D., & Hewitt, C., 2006). Participants

varied in demographic characteristics (e.g. age, gender, ethnicity, education, relationship

status, number of children, teaching certification level, GPA, block, and type of school

the student is placed at for student teaching). A multivariate analysis of covariance and

the appropriate follow up statistics were run to test the four hypotheses. The experimental

and control group was compared to see if there was statistical significance of the mean

differences between each group. The four hypotheses were tested to determine if

significant mean differences existed.


66

CHAPTER IV RESULTS

This chapter includes a report for statistical analyses for the current study. The

results are reported in the following sections: research design, demographic data,

descriptive statistics from the Stress Overload Scale (SOS), Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy

Scale 1(short form), two scales from the Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised (OSI-R)-

Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ) and Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ),

results of hypothesis testing, and a summary of the statistical analyses.

Research Design

The purpose of this study was to investigate student teachers’ knowledge on

stress, self-care, and self-efficacy; to educate them through a stress training; and to assess

the effects of the stress training on student teachers’ psychological strain, coping

resources, self-efficacy, and stress overload. To measure this effect, the research design

utilized a pretest-posttest control group design in which participants were randomly

selected to be in a control group or experimental group. Four instruments and one survey

were utilized before and after the stress management and self-care training. All

assessments were used to measure participant’s pretest and posttest scores. The

assessments were the OSI-R-Personal Strain Questionnaire and Personal Resources

Questionnaire, which were used to measure participant’s psychological strain and coping

resources (Osipow, 1998). The Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 1(short form) was used

to measure student teacher self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001) and the Stress

Overload Scale was used to measure stress overload (Amirkhan, 2012). One


67

demographic survey was utilized to acquire data on participant’s age, gender, ethnicity,

education, relationship status, number of children, teaching certification level, GPA,

block, and type of school the student is placed at for student teaching. All four

instruments and the survey were included in both the pretest and posttest research

packets.

In this study, the researcher investigated student teachers’ overall wellness, the

independent variable, by examining the effectiveness of a stress training on the following

four dependent variables for student teachers: overall score of psychological strain,

coping resources, self-efficacy, and stress overload. The participants in the experimental

group received a 60-minute stress training in which they were given techniques based off

Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT), Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT),

Relaxation Therapy (RT), and the self construct: self-efficacy. The control group did not

receive an alternative training. All data analyses presented was conducted by a computer

analysis using the IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 22.0.

Demographic Data

There were a total of sixty-five (65) participants in this study. A pretest and

posttest research packet was collected from each participant for a total of 130 packets.

Before the statistical analyses were performed, all of the packets were examined by the

researcher for completeness. There was one participant who did not fill out the posttest

packet. Therefore, only sixty-four (64) participants and their data were included. There

were 28 participants in the control group and 36 participants in the experimental group.


68

The researcher and methodologist cleaned up the raw data after it was entered into SPSS

by the researcher. After data was inspected, statistical analyses were performed.

Demographic variables included age, gender, ethnicity, teaching certification

level, relationship status, education, number of children, GPA, block, and type of school.

Below is a brief summary about each demographic variable and a table description.

Age, Gender, and Ethnicity

Information about participant age, gender, and ethnicity is presented in Table 2, 3,

and 4. Participants were between the ages 20-39. The majority of participants were 21-22

years old (73.4%). By group (see Table 2), the control group participants were between

the ages 20-39 with a mean of 22.96 (SD=4.21). Participants in the experimental group

were between the ages of 21-28 with a mean of 22.22 (SD=1.46). For the variable gender,

overall, 4.7% of participants were male (3) and 95.3% were female (61). By group (see

Table 3), the control group participants included 3.6% male (1) and 96.4% female (27);

the experimental group participants included 5.6% male (2) and 94.4% female (34).

Table 3 shows data for the variable ethnicity. American Indian or Alaskan Native

comprised of 0% of the sample (0), Asian comprised of 0% of the sample (0), Black or

African American comprised of 4.7% of the sample (3), Hispanic/Latino comprised of

18.8% of the sample (12), and Caucasian comprised of 76.6% of the sample (49). By

group (see Table 4), the control group included 7.1% Black or African American (2),

14.3% Hispanic/Latino (4), and 78.6% Caucasian (22) participants. The experimental

group included 2.8% Black or African American (1), 22.2% Hispanic/Latino (8), and

75.0% Caucasian (27) participants.


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Table 2: Age and GPA by Group

Group Variable N Mean SD Control Group Age 28 22.96 4.21

GPA 27 3.67 0.28

Stress Training-Experimental Group

Age 36 22.22 1.46 GPA 33 3.60 0.31

Note. Missing data from one participant for the variable GPA in the Control Group. Missing data from three participants for the variable GPA in the Stress-Training Experimental Group. Table 3: Gender by Group

Group Gender Frequency % Control Group Male 1 3.6

Female 27 96.4 Total 28 100.0


Male 2 5.6 Female 34 94.4

Total 36 100.0


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Table 4: Ethnicity by Group

Group Ethnicity Frequency % Control Group American Indian or

Alaskan Native Asian Black or African American

0 0 2

0 0

7.1

Hispanic/Latino 4 14.3 Caucasian 22 78.6 Total 28 100.0


American Indian or Alaskan Native Asian Black or African American

0 0 1

0 0

2.8

Hispanic/Latino 8 22.2 Caucasian 27 75.0 Total 36 100.0

Teaching Certification Level, Relationship Status, Education, and Number of

Children

Table 5, 6, 7, and 8 show the results for participant teaching certification level,

relationship status, education, and number of children. There were 73.4% participants

getting their teaching certification on the primary level (47), 26.6% on the middle level

(17) and 0% on the secondary level (0). By group (see Table 5), for control group

participants 71.4% were earning their teaching certification at the primary level (20) and

28.6% were earning their teaching certification at the middle level (8). For the

experimental group participants, 75.0% were earning their certification at the primary

level (27) and 25.0% were earning it at the middle level (9). Table 6 provides information


71

about the variable relationship status. Overall, 43.8% of participants were single (28),

7.8% married (5), 42.2% dating (27), 0% widowed (0), 1.6% divorced/separated (1), and

4.7% living with a partner (3). By group (see Table 5), of participants in the control

group 42.9% were single (12), 7.1% married (2), 39.3% dating (11), 3.6%

divorced/separated (1), and 7.1% living with a partner (2). For participants in the

experimental group, 44.4% were single (16), 8.3% married (3), 44.4% dating (16), and

2.8% living with a partner (1). Next, participants provided information on the highest

level of education they have received thus far. Overall, high school graduate comprised

of 1.6% (1), 56.3% some college (36), 23.4% associates degree (15), 18.8% bachelor’s

degree (12), and 0% graduate degree (0). By group (see Table 7), participants assigned to

the control group included 71.4% some college (20), 25.0% associates degree (7), and

3.6% bachelor’s degree (1). Experimental group participants included 2.8% high school

graduate (1), 44.4% some college (16), 22.2% associates degree (8), and 30.6%

bachelor’s degree (11). Data about the number of children each participant had was also

provided. Overall, 93.8% reported having 0 children (60), 1.6% had one child (1), 3.1%

had two children (2) and 1.6% had three children (1). By group (see Table 8), of

participants in the control group 85.7% reported having zero children (24), 3.6% had one

child (1), 7.1% had two children (2), and 3.6% had three children (1). All the participants

in the control group (36) reported having zero children.


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Table 5: Teaching Certification Level by Groups

Group Teaching Certification Level Frequency % Control Group Primary 20 71.4

Middle Secondary

8 0

28.6 0

Total 28 100.0 Stress Training-Experimental Group

Primary 27 75.0 Middle Secondary

9 0

25.0 0

Total 36 100.0

Table 6: Relationship Status by Groups

Group Relationship Status Frequency % Control Group Single 12 42.9

Married 2 7.1 Dating Widowed

11 0

39.3 0

Divorced/Separated 1 3.6 Living with a partner 2 7.1 Total 28 100.0


Single 16 44.4 Married 3 8.3 Dating Widowed Divorced/Separated

16 0 0

44.4 0 0

Living with a partner 1 2.8 Total 36 100.0


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Table 7: Education by Groups

Group Education Frequency % Control Group High School Graduate

Some college 0

20 0

71.4 Associates Degree 7 25.0 Bachelors Degree Graduate Degree

1 0

3.6 0

Total 28 100.0 Stress Training-Experimental Group

High School Graduate 1 2.8 Some college 16 44.4 Associates Degree 8 22.2 Bachelors Degree Graduate Degree

11 0

30.6 0

Total 36 100.0 Table 8: Number of Children by Groups

Group Number of Children Frequency Percent Control Group 0 24 85.7

1 1 3.6 2 2 7.1 3 1 3.6 Total 28 100.0

Stress Training- Experimental Group

0 36 100.0

Total

36 100.0

GPA, Block, and Type of School

Participant information on GPA, block, and type of school for this sample was

included in Table 1, 9, and 10. GPA for participants ranged between 2.7 to 4.0. By group

(see Table 1), the control group participants GPA was between 2.7-4.0 with a mean of


74

3.67 (SD=0.28). One participant’s information for GPA was missing from the control

group. Participant GPA in the experimental group was between 2.8-4.0 with a mean of

3.60 (SD=0.31). Three participants information for GPA was missing from the

experimental group. Participants provided information on what block of student teaching

they were in within their teacher certification program at Texas Tech University. Overall,

84.0% of participants were in their third block of the teaching certification program (54)

and 15.6% were in their fourth block (10). By group (see Table 9), of the participants

assigned to the control group 82.1% were in Block 3 (23) and 17.9% were in Block 4 (5).

Of participants in the experimental group, 86.1% were in Block 3 (31) and 13.9% were in

Block 4 (5). Lastly, the type of school participants worked at during their student

teaching year was included. If a school is considered to be Title I, then it is receiving

federal grants to improve the academic achievement of students from low-income

families (U.S. Department of Education, 2015). Table 9 shows 92.2% of participants

were at a Title I school during student teaching (59) and 7.8% were not at a Title I school

(5). By group (see Table 10), 89.3% of participants selected to be in the control group

were placed in a Title I school during student teaching (25) and 10.7% were not placed in

a Title I school (3). For participants selected to be in the experimental group, 94.4% were

placed in a Title I school (34) and 5.6% were not placed in a Title I school (2).


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Table 9: Block by Groups

Group Block Frequency Percent Control Group 3 23 82.1

4 5 17.9 Total 28 100.0


3 31 86.1 4 5 13.9 Total 36 100.0

Table 10: Type of School by Groups

Group Type of School Frequency Percent Control Group Title I 25 89.3

Not Title I 3 10.7 Total 28 100.0


Title I 34 94.4 Not Title I 2 5.6 Total 36 100.0

Descriptive Statistics

Scoring Scales

The Stress Overload Scale (SOS) was scored based on participant answers to a

30-question inventory. Participants responded to the scale by rating their feelings during

the past week. Participants answered using a Likert Scale of 1-5 (1=Not At All to 5=A

Lot). The instrument was given to participants by paper and pencil. The SOS instrument

was hand-scored by the researcher. There are two subscales on the SOS: personal

vulnerability scale and event load scale. The odd numbered items were totaled for the

personal vulnerability scale score. The even numbered items were totaled for the event

load scale score. For this study, only the overall score was used. Responses to questions


76

1, 6, 11, 16, 21, and 26 were ignored because these are filler items. Question number 5

was reverse coded. Higher overall scores indicate higher levels of stress. This study used

the overall mean score to measure differences between the pretest and posttest.

The Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short form) was scored based on

participant answers to a 12-question inventory. Participants responded to the scale by

rating their opinion about the 12 questions on the inventory. The purpose of this

inventory is to help researchers gain a better understanding of what creates difficulties for

teachers during school. Participants answered using a Likert Scale of 1-9 (1= Nothing to

9= A Great Deal). The instrument was given to participants by paper and pencil. The

TSES was hand-scored by the researcher and checked for accuracy by the methodologist.

There are three subscales on the TSES (short form): student engagement, instructional

practices, and classroom management. Items 2, 4, 7, and 11 are totaled for the efficacy in

student engagement score. Items 5, 9, 10, and 12 are totaled for the efficacy in

instructional practices score. Items 1,3, 6, 8 are totaled for the efficacy in classroom

management score. A higher score indicates student teachers are experiencing many daily

difficulties during school activities within the three subscales measured within the TSES

Scale 1 (short form). For this study, the overall mean score was used to measure

differences between the pretest and posttest.

The Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ) was scored based on participant

answers to a 40-question inventory. Participants responded to the scale by rating the

number that fits them best regarding their vocational, psychological, interpersonal, and

physical strain. Participants answered using a Likert Scale of 1-5 (1= rarely or never true


77

to 5= true most of the time). The instrument was given to participants by paper and

pencil. The PSQ was hand-scored by the researcher. There are four subscales on the PSQ:

vocational strain, psychological strain, interpersonal strain, and physical strain. Items 1-

10 are totaled for vocational strain and item 6, 8, and 9 are reverse coded. Items 11-20 are

totaled for psychological strain and item 14, 19, and 20 are reverse coded. Items 21-30

are totaled for interpersonal strain and item 24 and 27 are reverse coded. Items 31-40 are

totaled for physical strain and item 40 is reverse coded. Higher scores suggest

participants are experiencing significant levels of psychological strain. The overall raw

scores were the scores used to measure differences between the pretest and posttest.

The Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ) was scored based on participant

answers to a 40-question inventory. Participants responded to the scale by rating the

number that fits them best regarding recreation, self-care, social support, and

rational/cognitive coping resources. Participants answered using a Likert Scale of 1-5 (1=

rarely or never true to 5= true most of the time). The instrument was given to participants

by paper and pencil. The PRQ was hand-scored by the researcher. There are four

subscales on the PRQ: recreation, self-care, social support, and rational/cognitive coping.

Items 1-10 are totaled for recreation resources and item 8 was reverse coded. Items 11-20

are totaled for self-care resources. Items 21-30 are totaled for social support resources

and items 31-40 are totaled for rational/cognitive coping resources. Higher scores suggest

participants have highly developed coping resources. The overall raw scores were the

scores used to measure differences between the pretest and posttest.


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Hypothesis Testing

In the following section, the results for each of the four hypotheses are offered.

This study examined whether a stress training influenced scores on four dependent

variables. This section contains the results of a multivariate analysis of covariance

(MANCOVA). A list including each hypothesis is provided and followed by results of

the tests for the independent and dependent variables.

Prior to analysis, the researcher and methodologist screened the data for accuracy,

missing data, outliers, and to assess the fit between data and assumptions (Mertler &

Vannatta, 2005). First, data was assessed for accuracy by using the SPSS frequencies

procedure. After determining the data set was accurate, the researcher began screening

for missing data. One participant did not fill out the posttest; therefore, their data was not

used during the analysis. Other missing variables were not a concern, because there were

very few and they were missing at random. SPSS 22.0 diagnostics were run to detect

potential outliers. The data was not adjusted for outliers since data was normal and few

outliers were found. Finally, the researcher assessed the fit between data and assumptions

(Mertler & Vannatta, 2005, p. 142,).

Participants were randomly sampled into their groups and independent of each

other. An interquartile range, variances, and standard deviations were calculated as

measures of variability; boxplots were run by the IV to check for normality (see

Appendix T). T-tests were run to see if all IV groups were equivalent; groups were not

significant on the pretests; therefore, all groups were equivalent from the start of the

study. The assumption of homoscedasticity was assessed with Box’s Test of Equality of


79

Covariance Matrices. It was not significant F(10, 13.627.217)= 0.887, p>.001. Equal

variances were assumed and Wilks’ Lambda was used as the multivariate test statistic.

A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was run originally to analyze the

data. The results proved insignificant, but showed possible significance may be there.

The data was ran with t-scores, raw scores, and finally with a multivariate analysis of

covariance (MANCOVA), because it showed the most accurate results. The MANCOVA

was run with the only continuous variable GPA. Below are the results after running a

MANCOVA with GPA as the covariate.

Results

Hypotheses. The following hypotheses were tested during this study:













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Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was computed with an alpha

level of .05 to test the four hypotheses by determining the effect of a stress training on

student teachers psychological strain, coping resources, self-efficacy, and stress overload

as measured by the Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R)-Personal

Strain Questionnaire, Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R)-Personal

Resources Questionnaire (PRQ), Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short form), and

Stress Overload Scale (SOS) while controlling for GPA (see Table 11) . Prior to the test,

data was transformed and a MANOVA was run with t-scores and raw scores. The results

revealed insignificant differences among the stress training-experimental group on the

combined dependent variables psychological strain measured by the Occupational Stress

Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R)-Personal Strain Questionnaire, coping resources

measured by the Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R)-Personal

Resources Questionnaire (PRQ), self-efficacy measured by the Teacher’s Sense of

Efficacy Scale 1 (short form), and stress overload measured by the Stress Overload Scale

(SOS) within the posttest data, Wilks’ Λ= .886, F=(4,58)=1.874, p>.05, multivariate η2=

.114. Because the results were close to being significant for the dependent variable

coping resources, F(1,63)=1.771 p=.188, the researcher ran a MANCOVA using only

raw scores with the covariate GPA. Variables were transformed to eliminate outliers.

Two outliers from the control group and three from the experimental group were


81

eliminated. One subject was responsible for multiple outliers. Because there were only a

few other outliers, their values were simply deleted from the data set. MANCOVA results

revealed significant differences overall among the stress training-experimental group on

the combined posttest dependent variables psychological strain measured by the

Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R)-Personal Strain Questionnaire

(PSQ), coping resources measured by the Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised Edition

(OSI-R)-Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ), self-efficacy measured by the

Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short form), and stress overload measured by the

Stress Overload Scale (SOS). The covariate (GPA) significantly influenced the combined

dependent variables, Wilks’ Λ= .825, F=(4,53)=2.814, p< .05, multivariate η2= .175.

Significant results were revealed on one dependent variable, coping resources, measured

by the Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R)-Personal Resources

Questionnaire (PRQ) for the stress training-experimental group’s posttest data,

F(1,59)=4.616, p<.05. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was

conducted on each dependent variable as a follow-up test to MANCOVA. Stress training-

experimental group category differences revealed significant results for dependent

variables coping resources measured by the Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised

Edition (OSI-R)-Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ), F(1,63)= 8.59, p<.05, stress

overload measured by the Stress Overload Scale (SOS), F(1,62)= 4.05, p=.05, and self-

efficacy measured by the Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short form), F(1,63)=

21.05, p=.000. No significant results were found for the dependent variable personal


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strain measured by the Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R)-Personal

Strain Questionnaire, F(1,63)= .034, p>.05.

Table 11: Summary of Results

Independent Variable

Mean Std. Deviation

N F Sig.

Post SOS Total

Control Group

Stress-Training Experimental

Group

Total

94.12

92.73

93.34

25.88

20.46

22.81

26

33

59

.022

.883

Post TSES Mean

Control Group


Group

Total

7.17

6.8

6.96

1.1

0.85

0.98

26

33

59

2.096

.153

Post PRQ Raw Means

Control Group


Group

Total

2.91

3.1

3.02

0.35

0.34

0.35

26

33

59

4.616

.036*

POST Raw PSQ Means

Control Group


Group

Total

2.56

2.66

2.62

0.54

0.51

0.52

26

33

59

.580

.449

*p<.05


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Summary of the Statistical Analyses

The purpose of this study was to discover if a stress training intervention would

affect student teachers psychological strain, coping resources, self- efficacy, and stress

overload. This chapter displayed the research design, demographic data, descriptive

statistics, results of a multivariate analysis of covariance, and follow-up tests. The control

group and experimental group were not significantly different consequent to the pretest.

The multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) test of the dependent

variables with covariate GPA was the statistic focused on by the researcher. This analysis

produced a significant result for hypothesis 2, “There will be no significant difference

between the mean pretest and mean posttest overall scores of student teachers in the

experimental group and control group in regard to coping resources as measured by the

Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R)-Personal Resources

Questionnaire (PRQ).” The MANCOVA indicated after a 60-minute stress training, the

experimental group reported significantly different scores on the Occupational Stress

Inventory-Revised Edition (OSI-R)-Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ), which

tested for participant’s developed personal resources, than the control group. Follow-up

tests also reported significant differences with participant coping resources, self-efficacy,

and stress overload scores between the experimental and control group.

Chapter V includes a summary of the findings, implications, limitations,

recommendations for future research, and conclusions. Following this chapter is a list

references and the appendices.


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CHAPTER V FINDINGS

The following section includes a summary of the findings and a discussion of the

findings. Implications for practice, limitations, and recommendations for future research

will follow. Lastly, conclusions are discussed about the importance of this area in

research and the gains from future research.

Summary of the Findings

The purpose of this study was to determine if a 60-minute stress training would

affect student teachers psychological strain, coping resources, self-efficacy, and stress

overload. The four variables were chosen because research indicated that teachers are

leaving the profession at a rapid rate and these variables may provide an explanation as to

why (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014; Coronado, 2011; Lunney, 2006; Maslach et

al., 1996; McCarthy et al., 2009; Sass, Flores, Claeys, & Perez, 2012). Four instruments

and one demographic survey were used to assess whether the stress training affected the

four dependent variables through a pretest-posttest control group design study. The

experimental group received the stress training, while the control group received

curriculum unrelated to the training topic. The researcher facilitated the stress training,

but research suggests that a LPC or CSC facilitate this training to student teachers or

current teachers in the future, with additional training, because the researcher was an

LPC-Intern. According to the American Counseling Association Code of Ethics and

American School Counselor Association (2014; 2010), LPCs and CSCs have a

responsibility to benefit the community and collaborate. Through their years of


85

experience, additional training, and collaboration the study might be done more

effectively with a LPC or CSC leading it in the future instead of an LPC-Intern. The

community benefits of a LPC or CSC leading the training could be significant due to

their professional experience. LPCs and CSCs can also collaborate to create a better

training to do again in the future (American Counseling Association, 2014; American

School Counselor Association, 2010).

Whether through school or community counselors, this study could contribute to

the counseling profession by providing a pathway for counselors to become an asset to

the teaching profession. This study seeks to do so by creating stress-prevention

curriculum and providing opportunities for teachers to learn healthy coping skills. It is

also important to mention this study may empower college professors and instructors in

Counselor Education or Teacher programs. This can be done through the provision of a

stress-prevention curriculum for teacher preparation programs to include within their

degree program in order to decrease attrition rates for new teachers.

Occupational stress is a very real issue within the teaching profession. Teachers

continue to leave the profession for a multitude of reasons (Sass et al., 2012), whether

they have been teaching for five or twenty years (Ingersoll et al., 2014). If teachers leave

the profession early, it can negatively affect the students, faculty, school, community,

state, and nation, who will then have to deal with the consequences. There is a deep need

to understand why teachers are leaving the profession and then to figure out ways to

retain them. Research indicates stress has been a major issue in the teaching profession

for decades (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014, July; Ingersoll et al., 2014; Sass et


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al., 2012). To sum, it is evident teachers need support, and community leaders, such

LPCs and CSCs, can step up to meet this need. Literature reveals LPCs helped teachers

cope with stress and witnessed significant effects from the program or training utilized

(Clemens, 2007; Froeschle & Crews, 2010; Tatar, 2009). Most of the studies listed above

were done in a short period of time, but the effects of a long-term training or stress

prevention curriculum implemented throughout a teacher preparation program could save

teachers’ careers.

The results of this study may have been affected due to the content covered during

the stress training. Participants were made more aware of the stress teachers face on a

daily basis and ways to cope with stress. This could have affected their answers on the

posttest through realizing the teaching profession is difficult and the need for healthy

coping skills is vital to a teacher’s career. The training may have accomplished making

them more aware and open about the future struggles they will face and the need to start

implementing self-care.

Discussion of the Findings

The following section includes a discussion of the hypotheses and results of this

study. A review of each hypothesis, the result, and a discussion will follow. Lastly, a

discussion of the study’s overall results will be covered.

Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1. There will be no significant difference between the mean pretest

and mean posttest overall scores of student teachers in the experimental group and


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control group with regards to psychological strain as measured by the Occupational


This hypothesis was sustained. The results of this hypothesis indicated no

significant difference between the experimental and control group when analyzed with

the MANCOVA and repeated-measures ANOVA.

Participants were in their later phase of the teacher certification program during

this study, and had little experience in the teaching profession outside of student teaching.

Their personal strain scores were not very high based on the pretest and posttest results

and it was unlikely their strain would increase between the pretest and posttest. Posttest

results indicated on average the control group scored a 2.56 and experimental group a

2.66 on a 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores suggest significant levels of psychological

strain (Osipow, 1998). During this study, it is possible participants had not been in the

field long enough to experience on-going stress related to student misbehavior,

inadequate administrative support, heavy workload, demanding schedules, lack of

training, and low salaries (Curtis, 2012; Dagli, 2012; Hartwick & Kang, 2013; Ingersoll

et al., 2014; Sass et al., 2012). According to Hinkle, Wiersma, and Jurs (2003), effect

sizes range from small (.25), to medium (.50), to large (1.00). This instrument’s effect

size was found to be small and positive (d = .19). Cohen’s D converts the effect size to a

z-score of .075, which means there is a 7.5% difference under the normal curve between

the control group and experimental group. If the training was given to the control group

on average 7.5% should show improvement. Follow-up tests indicated significant

differences on average between the experimental and control group.


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Hypothesis 2. There will be no significant difference between the mean pretest

and mean posttest overall scores of student teachers in the experimental group and

control group in regard to coping resources as measured by the Occupational Stress


This hypothesis was rejected. The results of this hypothesis indicated a significant

difference between the experimental and control group when analyzed with the

MANCOVA and repeated-measures ANOVA.

This training focused on teaching participants different ways to cope with stress

professionally and personally. Participants in the experimental group learned various

techniques to improve their coping resources throughout the stress training. This

questionnaire focused on how participants were coping through recreation, self-care,

social support, and rational/cognitive coping. Techniques were chosen related to the

subscales; participants were given a demonstration for each technique and how to apply

each one. On average, the posttest overall mean score for the experimental group was

2.91 and experimental group 3.1 out of a 5-point Likert scale. A higher score indicates

highly developed coping resources (Osipow, 1998). According to Hinkle et al.’s (2003)

scale, this instruments effect size was found to be positive and medium (d =.55). Cohen’s

D converts the effect size to a z-score of .209, which means there is a 20.9% difference

under the normal curve between the control group and experimental group. If the training

was given to the control group on average 20.9% should show improvement. Follow-up

tests indicated significant differences on average between the experimental and control

group.


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Hypothesis 3. There will be no significant difference between the overall scores

of student teachers in the control group and experimental group in teacher self-efficacy as




the MANCOVA. Follow-up testing found a significant difference when analyzed with the

repeated-measures ANOVA.

Although results for this instrument were not significant, student teachers were

not given time to put the techniques into practice; therefore, self-efficacy levels did not

have time to improve within the duration of this study. The definition of self-efficacy is

“an individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce

specific performance attainments” (Carey & Forsyth, 2015). If students had the

opportunity to practice each stress management technique over a period of time, a natural

outcome of this study would be an increase in self-efficacy based off the definition used

for this study. The average means for the posttest results for the control group were 7.17

and 6.8 for the experimental group on a 9-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicated the

group of student teachers was experiencing many daily difficulties during school

activities within the three subscales measured within the TSES Scale 1 (short form). The

effect size for this instrument was found to be small and negative (d = -.38). Meaning on

average there would be no significant change in self-efficacy levels if the control group

were given the stress training according to results from the MANCOVA. Follow-up tests

indicated significant differences on average between the experimental and control group.


90

Hypothesis 4. There will be no significant difference between the overall scores

of student teachers in the control group and experimental group in stress overload as




the MANCOVA. Follow- up testing found significant difference when analyzed with the

repeated-measures ANOVA.

The control group and experimental group on average experienced high levels of

stress according to their overall mean scores. The Stress Overload Scale had a maximum

score of 120 (Amirkhan, 2012). The control group overall mean score on the posttest was

94.12 and 92.73 for the experimental group. Higher scores indicated higher levels of

stress for each group. On average, there was a 1.39 difference between the experimental

group and control group. It is possible that the stress training influenced the experimental

groups stress levels based off these scores. The effect size for this instrument was small

and negative (d = -.06). Meaning on average, if the control group was given the stress

training no significant change would be found according to results from the MANCOVA.

Follow-up tests indicated significant differences on average between the experimental

and control group.

Overall, the study achieved what it set out to do: provide more coping skills for

student teachers that they can apply throughout their teaching career. The Personal

Resource Questionnaire (PRQ) posttest scores indicated the experimental group obtained

more coping resources, which could suggest the stress training fulfilled its purpose.


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Levels of stress, personal strain, and self-efficacy were not significantly different during

the duration of the study. It was not expected for stress levels to change during the pretest

and posttest. It is likely participants were not experiencing personal strain before this

study; stress develops into strain over a period of time. Participants were tested within a

90-minute period on their personal strain levels. Self-efficacy usually develops overtime

as a skill is being practiced; therefore, it was unlikely the groups would show any

significance with this variable. Results from the MANOVA indicated there was potential

for significance to be found. After running a MANCOVA with the covariate GPA,

significance was found on the PRQ. GPA and means for each group were similar and

normal. The distributions were slightly different; the control group demonstrated a

leptokurtic distribution, while the experimental group was more platykurtic (Field, 2009).

The results indicated multiple participants in the control group had the same GPA;

participants in the experimental group were spread out.

Significance of the Results

The following section covers the implications this study has on counselors, the

counseling profession, teachers, the teaching profession, counselor education and teacher

preparation programs, and covers limitations of the study.

Implications for Practice and Research

Implications for practice. This study examined the effect of a 60-minute stress

training on student teacher’s psychological strain, coping resources, self-efficacy, and

stress overload. Teachers have been experiencing stress since the 1970’s (Sass et al.,

2012). The number of stressors teachers have attempted to cope with on a daily basis has


92

only increased over the last four decades (Curtis, 2012; Dagli, 2012; Hartwick & Kang,

2013; Ingersoll et al., 2014; Sass et al., 2012). Maslach et al. (1996) stated professionals

dealing with ongoing stress might be vulnerable to experiencing even higher levels of

stress, or constant stress (strain), which can lead to burnout. Burnout can lead to higher

attrition rates when teachers leave the profession (Curtis, 2012; Kipps-Vaughan, 2013).

LPCs and CSCs have an opportunity to assist the teaching profession by taking a

preventative stance on teacher attrition and by creating a stress training to use during their

teacher certification program. Many of the techniques used during this study can be

utilized for student teachers and current teachers to prevent burnout. Student teachers

have the time, willingness, drive, and support to learn these concepts during this period of

their education. They can begin to utilize the techniques before starting their career as a

teacher. Current teachers can start using these techniques to prevent on-going stress

(strain) and burnout.

Four instruments and one survey were used during this study. Two questionnaires

from the Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised (OSI-R) were utilized during this study:

Persona Strain Questionnaire (PSQ) and Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ). The

PSQ measured psychological strain with the use of four subscales: Vocational Strain

(VS), Psychological Strain (PSY), Interpersonal Strain (IS) and Physical Strain (PHS).

The PRQ measured coping resources with the use of four subscales: Recreation (RE),

Self-Care (SC), Social Support (SS) and Rational/Cognitive Coping (RC). The PSQ can

be used to inform LPCs and CSCs of what type of stress and the severity of stress

teachers are trying to manage. The PRQ can be used to inform counselors of what


93

resources teachers are lacking to help them cope with stress. Both questionnaires can be

utilized to create a curriculum for student teachers or current teachers on stress

management and self-care.

The Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy short form (Scale 1) can be used to help

counselors know what type of situations cause teachers the most difficulty during daily

activities. This scale used the following subscales to measure self-efficacy: student

engagement, instructional practices, and classroom management skills. Increased self-

efficacy can be a natural outcome when a teacher feels confident in his or her skills. By

using this scale, counselors know if the stress training is really taking an effect to teachers

on a professional and personal level.

The Stress Overload Scale (SOS) used two factors to measure stress overload:

personal vulnerability and event load. This scale can provide counselors on the level of

stress a student teacher or current teacher is feeling. The SOS looked at how a person has

felt during the past week. This scale can easily be used to see if a curriculum is working

over a short-term or long-term period. It can also provide a solid foundation for

counselors to work from when developing stress preventative curriculum.

Implications for research. Student teachers experience various levels of stress

throughout their teacher preparation program as a student and teacher-in-training. Results

for this population regarding psychological strain measured by the PSQ and stress

overload measured be the SOS may not have been found because student teachers were

not experiencing those levels of stress yet. Current teachers work under difficult

circumstances while having pressure placed on them from students, staff, and


94

administration (Curtis, 2012; Dagli, 2012). Student teachers are not experiencing the

same kind of stressors during their student teaching. The training was taught to student

teachers before they hit the level of stress or strain current teachers are experiencing. The

results for psychological strain and stress overload were not significant or very different

between the pretest and posttest. There are very few studies focused on stress training

programs and student teachers (Brown & Nagel, 2004; Harris, 2011; Wilkins-Canter,

Edwards, & Young, 2000; Yacapsin, 2010), but the topic of teachers and stress has been

in the literature for decades (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014, July; Ingersoll et al.,

2014; Sass et al., 2012). Student teachers experience stress throughout their training, but

current teachers are constantly coping with stressors, which leads to strain from ongoing

stress. Student teachers are not on that level at this point in their training.

The study found on posttest scores that self-efficacy by group average was equal

to or higher than mean scores from another study completed with student teachers, also

called pre-service teachers (Duffin, French, & Patrick, 2012). For this study, participants

had low levels of self-efficacy because they marked higher scores on the 9-point Likert

scale. Self-efficacy develops overtime as a person matures and practices skills. Student

teachers during this study did not have time to practice the techniques taught within the

stress training between the pretest and posttest. A slight difference was found between

participants within the experimental group (overall posttest group mean 6.8) and control

group (overall posttest group mean 7.17). The MANCOVA did not find significant

results on the TSES, but it is important to note that student teachers in this 2015 study are

experiencing lower levels of self-efficacy than those in the 2012 study by Duffin, French,


95

and Patrick. If student teachers are feeling this level of stress or low sense of self-efficacy

now, how will they handle it as a full-time teacher? More research on this population is

suggested.

The MANCOVA found significant results on the PRQ for student teachers coping

resources. This study accomplished what it set out to do, provide student teachers with

stress management and self-care techniques. It was expected that student teachers would

leave the training knowing more about stress, strain, self-care, and new ways to cope with

stress.

Limitations of the Study

Limitations. The design of this study was experimental to assess if a stress

training would effect student teachers psychological strain, coping resources, stress

overload, and self-efficacy. One limitation of this study was time. Student teachers at this

university were on a strict schedule and there was only time to train them in one sixty-

minute session. A second limitation was the low-response rate. Although the sample size

was met in order to reach the recommended power, results indicated at the end of the

study uneven groups and it appears this could have caused a restriction in the power

analysis. Outliers were not removed from the study due to the small sample, which may

have resulted in skewed scores on the MANCOVA. Third, this study was done in one

university setting and may not be generalizable to other universities.

The researcher was not present while participants were completing the survey and

instruments. The research assistants were trained before proctoring the pretest and

posttest, but may not have been familiar enough with each one to answer questions from


96

participants adequately. The researcher cannot be confident that participants fully

understood each question and took the time to contemplate each one before answering it.

Another limitation is the three trainings were scheduled on three different dates. There

was time between each training session for participants to communicate with one another

about their experience. Participants who had taken the training at an earlier date could

have influenced students who participated in the later trainings.

Delimitations. This study was completed only with student teachers, because

there was not a lot of literature found on stress related to this population. It also included

only one group of student teachers from one university setting, because this university

had a large number of student teachers within its teacher preparation program that would

allow the researcher time and access to conduct the study. Nonetheless, results may not

be generalizable to populations outside this setting.

Recommendations for Future Research

Recommendations

There are many recommendations for future research using the concepts covered

during this study.

1. This study focused on a sample from one university setting. Future research

may look and compare samples from multiples universities.

2. The training was taught in one sixty-minute session to student teachers. In

the future, the training could be taught over a longer period of time.


97

3. The study was a pretest-posttest control group design. The pretest and

posttest were given to participants on the same day. In the future, a delayed

posttest is recommended to give participants time to use the techniques

taught during the training. This will help the researcher know if the

techniques were beneficial and how they affect the dependent variables.

During this study, participant’s level of stress, strain, and self-efficacy did

not change because the training techniques were not applied between the


4. In the future, the study could include a competency-based protocol to see

whether or not the techniques were practiced and beneficial to participants.

5. If this training was done again with current teachers, it is recommended that

an extra training piece be included for school principals so they are aware

of what teachers are going through. This will make principals aware of the

extra stress they might be placing on teachers, leading them to change some

of the tasks they give to teachers.

6. Future studies can include knowledge counselors have on the amount of

stress teachers are under. An additional study could focus on parents and if

they are aware of the amount of stress teachers manage on a daily basis.

7. Future studies can look at the difference between special education teachers

and regular teachers stress levels.


98

8. The next recommendation is for this study to be done with different

ethnicities and genders. The majority of participants in this study were

Caucasian and female.

9. Lastly, it is recommended that researchers compare public versus private

schoolteachers’ stress levels. The majority of participants in this study

student taught at a public school, and most of the research included in this

study focused on public school teachers’ stress levels.

Conclusion

Research indicates teachers are still experiencing high levels of stress and strain,

which could cause them to leave the profession. New teachers are leaving within the first

five years and experienced teachers are retiring before their time. For many, this study

may provide more evidence that teacher attrition is becoming a bigger issue each year.

For others, it may provide a solution on ways to prevent teachers from burning out, while

providing ways for them to take care of themselves professionally and personally.

This study fulfilled its purpose by equipping student teachers with new techniques

to help them cope with stress on a professional and personal level. The results of this

study were mixed, because three of the four hypotheses were retained while one was

rejected. A MANCOVA was run and participant’s scores for the PSQ, TSES, and SOS

were not significant; the PRQ found significant results for coping resources. Practically,

school administrators, counselors, district or state officials, and the education board may

wonder if teaching concepts like the ones mentioned in this study are worth it. By taking

a look at the significant results found in this study and seeing a group difference after


99

participants completed one sixty-minute training session, it is possible teaching stress

management and self-care skills could positively impact the profession and, hopefully,

retain more teachers. Implications for the study suggest more research is needed for this

population and the use of stress preventative trainings. It is recommended the stress

management techniques be taught to current teachers as well. The implications also

suggest that the study be replicated with student teachers from other universities, as well

as current teachers in a public or private school setting.


100

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APPENDICES

Appendix A Recruitment Envelope Materials-Flyer

Stress Management and Self-Care Research Study

Be part of a stress-free research study! ▪ Are 18 years or older? ▪ Do you want to get relief from stress and learn new ways to take care of yourself? ▪ Do you want to help advocate for your profession? If you answered YES to these questions, you may be eligible to participate in an educational research study. The purpose of this hour and forty-five minute voluntary research project is to examine student teachers’ stress levels and teach you different stress management and self-care skills. Adults (18 years or older) are eligible to participate. This study is being conducted at Texas Tech University’s College of Education in a specified room and time.

Please go to a specified room after you are dismissed from class TODAY for more details! Don’t forget to bring the packet that was handed to you before class!

Macy Waltz Janet Froeschle Hicks Student Co-PI Primary Investigator Texas Tech University Texas Tech University [email protected] [email protected]

Rememberthisguy?(Dr.Crews)

⏎ Hespoketoyouatyourin-servicebackin

August.Hetoldyouaboutanopportunity

cominguptobeinvolvedinaresearch

studyaboutstress!Wellthetimehas

come!Belowyouwillseeafewdetails

aboutthestudy.Ihopetoseeyouafter

classisdismissedtosharemore

information!


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Appendix B Recruitment Envelope Materials-Participant Instructions

o Please read the gift card information.

o Next, read the Letter to Participants and Informed Consent form

following the gift card information. If you agree to it sign it and

continue to read through the instructions.

o Please PRINT your name and email address on the notecard

stapled to your informed consent. Place ONLY the signed

informed consent and notecard back in the envelope. The Student

Co-PI or research assistant will ask for it later.

o Once you have completed all of the instructions please hand your

envelope to the research or research assistant.

o The Student Co-PI, Macy Waltz, will give you more information

via email about when training will take place and other details

about this research project.


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Appendix C Recruitment Envelopment Materials-Gift Card Information

Gift Card!!!!

If you choose to participate in this study you will be entered into a drawing for a $50.00 Target gift card funded by the Student Co-PI. After signing the informed consent, the notecard you write your name on will be added into the drawing. A

name will be drawn on a specified date! The winner will receive an email on how to access their Target gift card.

Macy Waltz Janet Froeschle Hicks Student Co-PI Primary Investigator Texas Tech University Texas Tech University [email protected] [email protected]


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Appendix D Recruitment Envelope Materials- Letter to Participants

Date College of Education Texas Tech University Box Lubbock, Texas 79409 Dear Student Teacher, I am asking you to be a participant in a research study to help me with my dissertation work. If you consent to participate in the study, I will ask you to complete three assessments and a demographic survey at three different times. The wellness training with the pretest and posttest will take 90 minutes. The delayed posttest will take 15 minutes of your time. By completing the following documents you are helping me meet the requirements for my PhD at Texas Tech University. You will also be advocating for new teachers and experienced teachers to get the support necessary to cope with stress. School counselors and community counselors will be able to devise a specific program for teachers regarding stress management and self-care skills through your participation in this study. If you would like to participate, please read the next document for further instructions. Thank you for taking the time to read the following materials! I sincerely hope you will be a participant in my study. Sincerely, Macy Waltz Janet Froeschle Hicks Student Co-PI Primary Investigator Texas Tech University Texas Tech University


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Appendix E Recruitment Envelope Materials- Informed Consent Form

Counselor Education and Supervision

Texas Tech University Informed Consent Form

Title: The Efficacy of a Stress Management and Self-Care Training on Student Teachers’ Stress Levels Student Co-PI: Macy Waltz, M.Ed., LPC-Intern What is this project studying? The study is called “The Efficacy of a Stress Management and Self-Care Training on Student Teachers’ Stress Levels.” The purpose of this hour and forty-five minute voluntary research project is to examine student teachers’ stress levels and teach you different stress management and self-care skills. The Student Co-PI will be examining psychological strain, coping resources, self-efficacy, and stress overload through the use of three instruments. Others in the teaching and counseling profession may learn how to help new teachers cope with similar past issues through this research project. The Student Co-PI hopes to publish this study widely to make it as beneficial as possible for teachers and counselors. What would I do if I participate? You will be asked to share answers about your experiences with stress as a student teacher. Each question will be about you, how you feel, and what you experienced. First, you will give consent to participate in the study. Then you will provide the Student Co-PI with your name and email address on a notecard. Next, you will receive an email from the Student Co-PI for more details about the research project. The Student Co-PI will tell you the time, date, and location of the research project. During the project you will (1) answer questions about demographics, (2) answer questions regarding psychological strain, personal resources, stress overload, and self-efficacy. You will take a pretest and then participate in a wellness training. Immediately after the training you will take a posttest. A delayed posttest will be offered four weeks later with the same questions on a specified date. Participants can volunteer to take this posttest and will be asked to give consent again before filling out information in the research packet. How will I benefit from participating? Besides providing the study with valuable information, you will learn different ways to cope with stress and improve your self-care skills. This training will also benefit you throughout your student teaching and teaching career. In addition to learning new skills, you will have an opportunity to win a $50.00 Target gift card. Student teachers who give written consent and write their name and email address on the notecard will be entered into a drawing for a $50.00 Target gift card. The Student Co-PI will draw one name on a specified date. Can I quit if I become uncomfortable? Yes, your participation is completely voluntary. Dr. Hicks-the study’s primary investigator, the Institutional Review Board, and I have reviewed the questions and think you can answer them


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comfortably. However, you may skip any question(s) you do not feel comfortable answering and/or you can stop answering the questions at any time. You can also leave any time you wish. Participating is your choice. However, we do appreciate any help you are able to provide. How long will participation take? The wellness training with the pretest and posttest will take 90 minutes. The delayed posttest will take 15 minutes of your time. How are you protecting privacy? Your name will not be linked to any documentation and any use of this material in reports, publications or presentations will never be associated with participants in this study without permission. No one other than the Student Co-PI and her methodologist associated with this project will have access to the raw data. All related documentation will be stored either in a locked file cabinet in the Student Co-PI’s office or on a password protected computer. Your notecard and informed consent forms will be protected and kept confidential. Your notecard will only be used for the purpose of contacting you about the research project, assigning you to a treatment group and drawing the winner for the $50 gift card. All notecards will be permanently discarded after the winner of the drawing has been contacted about the gift card. The Student Co-PI and the dissertation committee’s methodologist of this study can only access the data. Data analysis will be completely anonymous. Raw data from this research project may be used for future publications outside of this project for my dissertation, but your name will not be linked to any documentation without permission. I have some questions about this study. Who can I ask?

o The study is being conducted under the supervision of Dr. Janet Froeschle Hicks

from the Department of Educational Psychology and Leadership at Texas Tech

University. If you have questions, you can reach her at [email protected] or

Macy Waltz at [email protected].

o Texas Tech University also has a Board that protects the rights of people who

participate in research. You can reach the board for further questions at 806-742-

2064. You can also mail your questions to the Human Research Protection

Program, Office of the Vice President for Research, Texas Tech University,

Lubbock, Texas 79409 or email them to [email protected].

Please sign and print your name below if you would like to participate in my study and agree with the information provided in this informed consent form.


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________________________________________ ____________________ Signature Date ________________________________________ Printed Name

This consent form is not valid after a specified date.


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Appendix F Research Packet Materials- Packet Instructions

Packet Instructions

By completing the following documents you are helping me to complete my Ph.D. at Texas Tech University. Thank you for participating and helping me not only graduate, but also be able to provide materials that may help future teachers cope with stress in healthier ways.

1. Please fill out the enclosed research items completely:

a. Demographic Survey

b. Stress Overload Scale

c. Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short form)

d. Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised Personal Strain Questionnaire

and Personal Resources Questionnaire

2. Once you have fully completed all of the documents please put them back in the

envelope provided and place it in the container located in the front of the room.


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Appendix G Research Packet Materials- Demographic Survey

ID: ____________________

(Print clearly)

Demographic Survey

Do not write your name on this survey. Instructions: Please write your answer in the blank provided or place an X by your answer choice. Age: Gender: ______ ___ Male ___ Female ___ I prefer not to answer

Ethnicity: (Mark more than one if needed) ___ American Indian or Alaskan Native Teaching Certification Level: ___ Asian ___ Primary ___ Black or African American ___ Middle ___ Hispanic/ Latino ___ Secondary ___ Caucasian ___ All Levels (i.e. Physical Education) ___ I prefer not to answer Education: Relationship Status: (Please mark the highest level achieved) ___ Single ___ High School Graduate ___ Married ___ Some college ___ Dating ___ Associates Degree ___ Widowed ___ Bachelors Degree ___ Divorced/ Separated ___ Graduate Degree ___ Living with a partner Number of Children: GPA: ______ ______ Block: Type of school you are placed at for student teaching: ______ ___ Title I ___Not Title I

Macy Waltz Texas Tech University


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Appendix H Training Materials-PowerPoint Presentation and Commentary

Stress Management and Self-Care Training for Student Teachers

PowerPoint Presentation with Commentary

Slide 1: Title Slide

ì

StressManagementandSelf-CareTrainingforStudentTeachers

MacyWaltz,M.Ed.,LPC-Intern,Doctoral

CandidateMacyWaltz,LPC-Intern,PhDCandidate

Slide 2: Activity: Think, Write, Pair, Share

ì Prompt:Whatcausesyoustress?

ì 30secondstothink

ì 1minutetowrite

ì 1.5minutestopair

ì 1minutetoshare

Activity:Think,Write,Pair,Share

Eachtablewillhavepens/pencils/markers,smallsheetsofpaper,andonelargepieceofpaper.Pre-serviceteacherswillbeaskedtositatonlytableswiththesematerialsonthem.

1. Before diving into the topic, do a short activity. Ask the pre-service teachers to

get into a group of 5-6 people (or work with the people at your table).


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2. Have each person do this part individually. Ask them to grab a pen/pencil and

piece of paper and write down what causes them stress.

3. Now pair up with one other person, if one group needs three people that is fine.

Now share with one another some of the causes of your stress.

4. Combine your answers and make a top 10 list.

5. Now ask each group to come together with their smaller group top 10 lists.

6. As a whole group (or table), combine the small group answers and come up with a

top 10 group list.

7. Discuss what type of answers each group wrote down. Some might have said

family, friends, work, or finances. From their answers, you can see many things

can cause stress.

8. Next, you will explain to students what stress means.

Whydothisactivity?Itrequiresastudenttothinkforhimorherself,thenshowfurtherunderstandingofthetopicbywritingit.Studentsarethenaskedtopairwithothergroupmemberstoranktheiranswers.Studentsareworkingtogethertosharetheirknowledgeandcompleteatasksimultaneously.Thisgoesbacktotheoldsaying:“Thestudenthasnowbecometheteacher.”

Everyteacherwantstheirstudentstohaveadeepunderstandingofwhatinformationisbeingtaughtduringclass.Itstudentsareabletothinkforthemselves,writedownwhattheyknow(classassignments,applyingknowledge),sharewithotherstudentsthisknowledge,andfinallyshare(teach)otherstudentshowtobetterunderstanditforhimorherself,thenteachersknowtheyhavesuccessfullytaughttheconceptwell.


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Slide 3: Goals and Expectations

GoalsandExpectations

ì Goalsofthetrainingsessionì Teachstudentteachers:

ì Effectivestrategiestocopewithstressì Waystopromoteself-careintotheirdailylives

ì Expectationsbytheendofthetrainingì Studentteacherswillhaveabetterunderstandingof

stress,strain,wellness,andself-careì Studentteacherswillbeabletointegratewellness

techniquesintotheirprofessionalandpersonallives

Reviewexpectationswithpre-serviceteachersbeforestartingthetraining.Makesureyourepeattheexpectationsthroughoutthetrainingifyouseepre-serviceteachersnotactingaccordingly.

Slide 4: Expectations: Training

Expectations:Training

ì Participateinactivities.

ì Beactiveandtakenotes.

ì Pleaseputawayalldistractions:cellphones,Ipads,laptops,etc.duringtraining.

ì Berespectfulandpayattention.

Readtheslidetoparticipants.


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Slide 5: Overview

Overview

ì Objective1:ì Toeducateyouonstressandhowprevalentitisinsociety.

ì Objective2:ì Tounderstandthetermsstrain,wellness,andself-care.

ì Objective3:ì Toseehowstress,strain,wellness,andself-careconnectwiththe

teachingprofession.

ì Objective4:ì Tolearnafewtechniquesthatcanbeappliedtoyoupersonally

andprofessionally.

Readtheslidetoparticipants.

Slide 6: Stress

Stress

“Aperceived,substantialimbalancebetweendemandandresponsecapability,under

conditionswherefailuretomeetthedemandhasimportant,perceivedconsequences.”

ì Threetypes:Acute,EpisodicAcute,andChronicStress

Gothroughthefollowing:

10. Three types: Acute stress, episodic acute stress and chronic stress

• Acute Stress: most common form, short term.

o Comes from the pressures and demands of life.

o Example: child’s problems at school, upcoming school tests or deadlines

from work.

• Episodic Acute Stress: those who suffer acute stress frequently


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o Feeling you are always in a rush, but always late; those who have a lot of

“nervous energy”, ceaseless worry

o These people may experience persistent tension headaches, migraines,

chest pains, and other symptoms

• Chronic Stress: known as the never ending stress

o It can be caused by dysfunctional families, an unhappy job or career, or

poverty among other reasons.

o This type of stress can have adverse symptoms, which could lead to

suicide, disease, heart attack, stroke, or possibly cancer.

o Treating chronic stress may require medical and behavioral treatment, as

well as stress management

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stress

Slide 7: Stress and Statistics 2015

StressandStatistics2015

ì 77% ofpeopleregularlyexperiencephysicalsymptomscausedbystress

ì 73%regularlyexperiencepsychologicalsymptomscausedbystress

ì 33%feeltheyarelivingwithextremestress

ì 48%feeltheirstresshasincreasedoverthepastfiveyears

ì 48%saystresshasanegativeimpactontheirpersonalandprofessionallife

ì Employersspend300billiondollarsannuallyinstressrelatedhealthcarecostsandmissedwork

Reviewstatisticswithpre-serviceteachers.AllstatisticslistedaredatafromtheUnitedStates.

http://www.statisticbrain.com/stress-statistics/


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Slide 8: Stress Awareness

StressAwareness

Howdoyouknowwhenyouarestressed?ì Physicallyì Emotionallyì Mentally

Whatsymptomsmightyoubeshowing?ì Areyouawareoftheseverityofeachone?ì Symptomexamples:sleepdisturbance,fatigue,

irritability,muscletension,headaches,difficultyconcentrating,isolation,increasedordecreasedappetite

Thinkaboutthefollowingquestions…

• How do you know when you are stressed?

• What is your body telling you on a physical, emotional, and mental level?

• Are you aware of the symptoms and the severity of each one?

Hereareafewstresssymptomspeoplecanexhibit…

Ifthesesymptomscontinue,theimpactonaperson’soverallwellnesscouldbedetrimental.

Slide 9: What happens if you continue this stress cycle?

Whathappensifyoucontinuethisstresscycle?

ì Ongoingstresscaneffect:ì Academicworkì Studentteaching(on-site)ì Relationships

ì PsychiatricProblemsì Anxietydisordersì Mooddisorders

ì PsychologicalDistress

ì Burnout

Discussion:

Askpre-serviceteachershowstresscanimpact…

• School? Grades, motivation


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• Work? Effectiveness, motivation, co-workers or relationship with other students,

environment

• Relationships? Family, friends, significant others

Slide 10: Strain

Strain

“Whenstressstartsinterferingwithyourabilitytoliveanormallifeforan

extendedperiod.”

“Theresultofchronicstress”

Readthedefinitions.

(APA,2013;Gold&Roth,1993)

Slide 11: What can you do NOW to help you in the FUTURE?

WhatcanyoudoNOWtohelpyouintheFUTURE?

Readthisquestiontoparticipants.


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Slide 12: What is Wellness?

WhatisWellness?

“Wellnessisanactiveprocessthroughwhichpeoplebecomeawareof,and

makechoicestoward,amoresuccessfulexistence.”

Itisanactiveprocesstobeawareofinordertohaveamoresuccessfulexistence.

Itistheoverallideaofgoodhealth.

http://www.nationalwellness.org/?page=Six_Dimensions

Slide 13: What is Self-Care?

WhatisSelf-care?

“Regularactivitiesanindividualengagesinwhichreduceoralleviatechronic

stress.”

Self-careishowyouactuallygetthere.

Thestepsyoutakeyouachievewellness.

Theactivitiesyoupracticedailyinordertohelpyourselfasanindividual.

"self-care."ADictionaryofNursing.2008.RetrievedFebruary20,2015fromEncyclopedia.com:http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O62-selfcare.html


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Slide 14: What do you know about self-care?

Whatdoyouknowaboutself-care?

Thingstothinkabout…

ì Doyoupracticeself-carenow?

ì Howdoyoupracticeit?

ì Whyisthisimportant?

ì Doyoubelieveallcurrentpeople/teachers/collegestudentsarepracticingitasmuchastheyshould?

Gothrougheachquestionandsayitoutloudtoparticipants.Thisslideisnotusedforadiscussion,onlytoguideparticipants’thoughtsonself-care.

Slide 15: Help!

Help!

Scenario:

Asecondaryschoolteacherhas30studentsinhishighschoolalgebraclass.Itisthedaybeforea6weektestandallofthestudentsarecomplainingaboutnotfeelingprepared.Theteacherhastoturningradessoon,butfeelspressurebecauseitisadistrictbenchmarktest.Someofthestudentshavemissedinstructionaltimeandhavebeenabsentthroughoutthe6weeks,andothershavenotbeenturningintheirhomework.Theteacherhasadaytoprepareforthetestandaweektocorrectgrades,gradelate/busywork,helpstudentswhowereabsent,andprepareforthenext6weeks.

Askstudentstogetintoagroupof3-4people.Tellthemtowritedownafewwaysthisteachermightexpressstresssymptoms.After2-3minutesaskforafewvolunteerstosharetheiranswers.Next,gooverafewpointsfromthisexample.

• A teacher may show the following signs if found in this situation…

• Physically, your heart might race, your hands become clammy or sweaty, you

shake, your breathing becomes rapid and shallow, your jaw tightens, and you

might become light-headed.


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• Behaviorally, you might stutter, look down, or avoid eye contact with the

audience.

• Cognitively or mentally, your mind may go blank, or alternatively your thoughts

might race wildly. You might have thoughts about making a mistake or looking

ridiculous in front of your peers.

• Emotionally, you might feel very anxious or fearful.

Slide 16: Teachers and Stress

TeachersandStress

ì Behindthesceneswork

ì Dealingwithconfrontation

ì Negotiatingchaos

ì Wearingmanyhats

ì Professionalandpersonalbalance

Gothroughthisdiscussionquickly.Onlyaskfor1-2volunteer’sanswersperquestion.

• What kind of behind the scenes work do teachers experience?

• How often do teachers deal with confrontation each day?

• The workload can feel overwhelming, but teachers have to make choices in the

midst of chaos

• What hats do teachers wear? educator, babysitter, parent, disciplinarian,

counselor, academic advisor


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• What kind of responsibilities do teachers have to balance? They are constantly

multi-tasking.

Slide 17: Let’s see how you are doing now!

Let’sseehowyouaredoingnow!

Readthisslidetoparticipants.

Slide 18: Six Dimensions of Wellness

SixDimensionsofWellness

ì Physical

ì Intellectual/Mental

ì Emotional

ì Spiritual

ì Social

ì Occupational

Activity:SolutionFocusedBriefTherapytechnique(SFBT)

Gothroughthebackground:

• -Developed by Dr. Bill Hettler, co-founder of the National Wellness Institute

(NWI).

• -Wellness can help people reach their full potential.


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• -This is a holistic wellness model. Notice it looks at six dimensions of a person’s

life through the categories listed above.

• -Wellness is positive and affirming.

• -This model is going to lead us through our next self-care activity.

Slide 19: Self-Care Survey: Step 1

Self-CareSurvey:Step1

ì Browsethrougheachcategoryì Thinkaboutwhattypeofactionscanfitintoeach

category

ì Writedownwhatactionsyouhavetakeninthelastweekforeachone.

AskstudentstotakeouttheSelf-CareSurveyworksheet.MakesurethepageisonStep1.Gothroughthedirections.ExplaintostudentsthatwewillgothrougheachdimensiontogetherforStep1.Makesuretheyrememberthisstepisfocusingonactionstheyhavetakeninthelastweek.


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Slide 20: Physical

Physical

ì Exerciseì Running,liftingweights,yoga,crossfit,zumba,fitness

classes

ì Dietì Water,mealplans,eating3-6mealsaday,caffeine

intake

ì Sleepì 7-10hoursofsleeppernight

ThefirstdimensionwewilllookatisPhysical.Askparticipantswhatactionstheyhavetakeninthelastweekthatwouldfitintothisdimension.Sharewiththemafewexamplesfromtheslidetogiveparticipantsideasofwhatdowritedown.Explaintothemthesearejustexamplesandtherearemultipleotherwaystofulfillthisdimension.Onlyprovide1-2minutesperdimension.(Thesedirectionswillberepeatedforeachdimension)

Slide 21: Intellectual/Mental

Intellectual/Mental

ì Completingcrosswordpuzzles

ì Learninganewskill

ì CompletingProfessionalDevelopmentactivities

ì Painting/drawing

TheseconddimensionwewilllookatisIntellectual/Mental.Askparticipantswhatactionstheyhavetakeninthelastweekthatwouldfitintothisdimension.Sharewiththemafewexamplesfromtheslidetogiveparticipantsideasofwhatdowritedown.Explaintothemthesearejustexamplesandtherearemultipleotherwaystofulfillthisdimension.Onlyprovide1-2minutesperdimension.


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Slide 22: Emotional

Emotional

ì Writinginajournal

ì Receivingcounseling

ì Relyingonsupportiverelationships

ì Usingpositiveself-talk

ì Receivingmentoring

ì Learningandusingcopingskills

ThethirddimensionwewilllookatisEmotional.Askparticipantswhatactionstheyhavetakeninthelastweekthatwouldfitintothisdimension.Sharewiththemafewexamplesfromtheslidetogiveparticipantsideasofwhatdowritedown.Explaintothemthesearejustexamplesandtherearemultipleotherwaystofulfillthisdimension.Onlyprovide1-2minutesperdimension.

Slide 23: Spiritual

Spiritual

ì Meditating

ì Praying

ì Attendingchurch

ì Attendingasmallgroup

ì Practicingquiettime

ThefourthdimensionwewilllookatisSpiritual.Askparticipantswhatactionstheyhavetakeninthelastweekthatwouldfitintothisdimension.Sharewiththemafewexamplesfromtheslidetogiveparticipantsideasofwhatdowritedown.Explaintothemthesearejustexamplesandtherearemultipleotherwaystofulfillthisdimension.Onlyprovide1-2minutesperdimension.


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Slide 24: Social

Social

ì Goingonvacationwithfamilyandfriends

ì Participatinginbookclubs

ì Playingonanintramuralsportsteam

ì Volunteering

ThefifthdimensionwewilllookatisSocial.Askparticipantswhatactionstheyhavetakeninthelastweekthatwouldfitintothisdimension.Sharewiththemafewexamplesfromtheslidetogiveparticipantsideasofwhatdowritedown.Explaintothemthesearejustexamplesandtherearemultipleotherwaystofulfillthisdimension.Onlyprovide1-2minutesperdimension.

Slide 25: Occupational

Occupational

ì Arrivingtostudentteaching(on-site)ontime,leavingstudentteaching(on-site)ontime

ì Avoidingprocrastinating

ì Askingforhelp

ì ProfessionalDevelopmentopportunities

ì Leavingworkatworkandprotectingyourhomespace

ì Respectingpeopleandenvironment

ì Demonstratingastrongworkethic

ThesixthandfinaldimensionwewilllookatisOccupational.Explaintoparticipantsthatthisdimensionwillfocusonpre-serviceteachers’timeinstudentteaching.Forexample,asastudentteacherareyouarrivingtoschoolontime?Areyouaskingyourprofessors,in-serviceteachers,andfellowpre-serviceteachersforhelp?Askparticipantswhatactionstheyhavetakeninthelastweekthatwouldfitintothisdimension.Sharewiththemafewexamplesfromtheslidetogiveparticipantsideasofwhatdowritedown.Explaintothemthesearejustexamplesandtherearemultipleotherwaystofulfillthisdimension.Onlyprovide1-2minutesperdimension.


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Slide 26: Self-Care Survey: Step 2

Self-CareSurvey:Step2

ì Flipoveryourworksheetandbrowsethrougheachcategoryì Takeamomentandthinkaboutwhatactionsyouwrotein

eachcategoryforStep1

ì Whatwouldyouliketochange/addtoeachcategorytoaccomplishforthenextfourweeks?

*Remember- makethegoalsrealistic. Youcanalwaysmakechangeslater

Explainthatmanyofthesecategoriesoverlap.Forinstance,somepeoplefindthatrunningafewmilesaweekhelpsthememotionallyandmentally.AskparticipantstolookoverStep1oncemore.Theywillthenbeaskedtoturntheworksheetover.OnthebackisStep2ofthisactivity,whichwillfocusonwhatstudentswanttochangeoraddtoeachdimension.Askstudentstosetsomegoalsforeachcategorytomeetoverthenextfourweeks.Forexample,forthePhysicaldimensiononegoalmightbetoworkout2-3timesperweekforatleast30minutes.Aparticipantcanwritedownwhatdaysoftheweekheorsheplanstoworkoutandthetime.Remindparticipantstomakerealisticgoalsandtotrytheirbesttoaccomplisheachoneoverthenextfourweeks.Thepurposeofthistechniqueisforparticipantstounderstandwhatareaoftheirlifetheymightnotbetakingcareofverywell.Participantscanseewhattheyaredoingnowandthenmakeappropriatechangesbysettinggoalstoincreasetheiroverallwellness.Nextwewillwalkthroughfourtechniquestohelpparticipantsmanagestress.

Slide 27: Coping with Stress

CopingwithStress

ì ProgressiveMuscleRelaxation

ì RationalEmotiveBehaviorTherapy

ì Breathing

ì GuidedImagery

Explaintostudentshoweachoneofthesetechniquescanhelpthemmanagestresslevels.Itisimportanttotakethetimetopracticeeachtechniqueinordertogetthebenefits.ThefirstonetechniqueiscalledProgressiveMuscleRelaxation.ForthesakeofthistrainingitwillbecalledPMR.


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Slide 28: Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR)

ProgressiveMuscleRelaxation(PMR)

ì Atechniqueusedforreducingstressandanxietybyalternatelytensingandrelaxingthemuscles

ì Activity:PMRtechnique

Onewaytoreduceanxietyisbylearninghowtorelaxanymusculartension.Explaintostudentsthatsometimesapersonisunawareofhowstressedoutheorshereallyis.Mostofthetimeourbodycangiveanideaofhowstressedoutapersonfeels.Forexample,imaginesittingatacomputerforhoursatatime.Apersonmaystarttoexperiencesometightnessinhisorherbackmuscles,shoulders,orevengetaheadache.Thistechniquehelpsapersonbecomeawareoftheirbody’stension.Itfocusesontensingandrelaxingspecificmuscles;wewillgothrougheachmusclegrouponeatatime.Iaskthatyoufullyparticipateintheactivityanddonotdistractothersduringit.

Explaintoparticipantsthatiftheyfullyparticipatenow,itwillbemucheasierwhentheydoitalonebecausetheywillknowexactlywhattodo.

• Let’s begin. Please close your eyes. Keep them closed throughout the entire

activity. We are going to start with the feet and move up to the head and neck.

• I am going to ask you to tighten and relax each muscle group for 10 seconds each

(make sure the facilitator has a stop watch for this activity). I want you to focus

on the distinction between the feelings of tension and relaxation. Let’s start with

your feet.

• Continue to keep your eyes closed. I want you to tighten your feet as tight as you

can for 10 seconds. Now relax your feet for 10 seconds. Notice the difference

between when your feet were tightened and relaxed.


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• Now I want you to tighten your calves as tight as you can (10 seconds). Relax (10

seconds).

• Tighten your thighs as tight as you can (10 seconds). Relax (10 seconds).

• Tighten your Gluteus Maximus and abdomen as tight as you can (10 seconds).

Relax (10 seconds).

• Tighten your shoulders as tight as you can for 10 seconds. Relax for 10 seconds.

• Next tighten your arms and hands (similar to how the Hulk may look) for a few

seconds (10 seconds). Relax (10 seconds).

• Lastly, I want you to tighten your head and neck. Relax for 10 seconds.

Somepeopleusethistechniquetohelpthemfallasleepatnight.Justlikewedidafewminutesago,theystartwiththeirfeetandmovethrougheachmusclegroup.Ithelpsapersonfullyrelaxtheirbodysothattheycanfallasleep.Itcanbedoneanywhereandrequiresnospecialequipment.Itcanbeadaptedtofitthetimeframethatworksbestforyou.

Iusethistechniquewhilesittingonthecomputer.SometimesIwilltakeashortbreakandtightenmyshoulderslikewedidearlier,thenIwouldrelaxthem.IthelpsmegaugejusthowtensemymusclesarewhenIsitatthecomputer.ItalsoremindsmethatIneedtokeepmyshouldersrelaxedandtositupstraight.Everyonelovesgettingremindedabouthisorherposture!

Nextwewilllearnanactivitythatcanhelpyouwithcommunicationandconflictresolution.


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Slide 29: Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)

RationalEmotiveBehaviorTherapy(REBT)

ì REBTisaformofCognitiveBehaviorTherapy(CBT)

ì CBTbuildsasetofskillsthatenablesanindividualto:ì beawareofthoughtsandemotionsì identifyhowsituations,thoughts,andbehaviors

influenceemotionsì improvefeelingsbychangingdysfunctionalthoughtsand

behaviors

ì Activity:RationalEmotiveBehaviorTherapytechnique

WalkparticipantsthroughREBTandCBTbyusingtheslide’scontent.Explainthepurposeofthistypeoftherapy.Provideanexampleofhowaperson’sthoughtsandemotionscouldcausethemtomakeunhealthydecisions.Continuetothenextactivity.

Giveanexample:

• You receive a text in the middle of the night from a friend or family member

stating “Call me ASAP”. You call and no one answers. Your mind quickly jumps

from “I wonder what happened. What if they are hurt? What if someone got into

trouble? Should I book a flight home tonight?”

• Then you start to notice your emotions feeling more intense. You may feel

frightened, upset, mad they didn’t answer the phone. You notice your rapid

thoughts have quickly stirred up some intense emotions.

Weallhavethesemoments.Wherewejumpfromonethoughttothenext.Werealizelaterhowirrationalourthoughtpatternswereatthetime,andquicklywefeelreliefafterfindingouteverythingisokay.Nooneishurt.

Doyouseehowquicklythingscanescalatewithouremotionsoncethoserapid,irrationalthoughtsstart?Oftentimesthishappensmoreintenselyandfrequentlywhenonefeelsoverwhelmedorstressedout.REBTisjustonewaytoslowdownthosethoughtsandintenseemotions.Youwillseelaterinthispresentationhowtoapplyitintheclassroom.Thiscanalsobeusedinyourpersonalliveswithfriends,family,andinotherrelationships.

http://albertellis.org/rebt-cbt-therapy/

http://www.mirecc.va.gov/visn16/docs/Therapists_Guide_to_Brief_CBTManual.pdf


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Slide 30: Scenario

Scenario

Astudentisusingfoullanguageinclassandtheteacheraskshimtocomeupwithanewwordtouseinstead.Thestudentcontinuestousefoullanguageafterbeingredirected.Thestudentisaskedtoleaveandbecomesdefiantbynotdoingwhattheteacheraskedofhim.Hedoesnotleavetheroomandhisbehaviorremainsthesame.

Askparticipantstoreadthescenario.After1-2minutesreaditaloudtothegroup.Tellparticipantstotakealookatthisscenario.Somemightfinditfamiliar.Thistypeofscenariocancauseteacherstofeelstressedoutbecausethestudentrefusestoleavetheclassroomandcontinuestodisruptinstructiontime.Whenfoundinstressfulsituations,teacherscanusetheRtechniquetohelpthemmanagetheiremotionsandrespondappropriately.Continuetothenextslide.

Slide 31: The R Technique

TheRtechnique

ì A:Rethink,Relax/Retreat,React

VS

ì B:Rethink,Relax/Retreat,Respond

Walkstudentsthroughthefollowingbullets.ExplainthattheRtechniqueiscomposedofthreeactions:Rethink,Relax/Retreat,React/Respond.TheR’sarenotinanyparticularorder.

• Which “R” in line “A” do you think is typically done first when a person deals

with conflict?

• Which one do you think would be the best to do first?


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• Let’s go back to the situation you read earlier. If the teacher decided to yell back

at the student or REACTING to the situation, the teacher is not practicing healthy

communication and appropriate emotion management, because her feelings may

be running high.

• As a teacher, it is not beneficial to react out of a place of intense emotion.

• Every person is different when dealing with conflict. A person might need to

retreat/relax first and then rethink or vice versa.

• (Relax/Retreat or Rethink can happen first; the main idea is not to react first)

• Notice in line “B” the word REACT has been changed to respond.

• This is to signify that a healthy response is being made instead of an unhealthy

reaction.

• Allow the logical and rational side of yourself to be integrated into the emotional

side.

Thistechniquegivesteacherstheabilitytoslowdownsituationsandnottakethempersonally,butinsteadasaprofessionaldisagreementthatneedstobetakencareof.

Rememberthesituationfromearlier,howcanweapplytheRtechniquetohelptheteacherknowhowtorespondinahealthyway?Askfortwovolunteerstoanswer.

Thenexttechniqueissimpleandcanbepracticedanywhereatanytime.


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Slide 32: Breathing

Breathing

ì Abdominalordeepbreathingiswhenoneexpandstheabdomenratherthanthechestwhenbreathing.ì Learninghowtoinhaleandexhaledeeper

andslower

ì Activity:Breathingtechnique

Sometimeswhenapersonfeelsstressedoroverwhelmeditiseasytostopbreathingcorrectly.Apersonmayfindhimorherselfbreathingmorequicklythanusual,whichcanmakeemotionsseemmoreintense.Itcanalsocausethoughtstobecomemoreirrationalwithheightenedemotions.Whenfoundinastressfulsituation,onequickandeasythingtodoiscontrolyourbreathing.Let’swalkthroughashortbreathingexercisetogether.Makesuretofullyparticipateandnotdistractthosearoundyou.

Thefirstexerciseissimpleandrequiresyoutotakeslow,countedbreaths.

(1)DeepBreath.

• Slowly take a deep breath.

• Hold it for a count of four. Then, gently let it all out, letting tensions go as you

exhale.

• Sometimes our breathing becomes shallow as we become tense.

• A deep breath can help more oxygen enter our system, literally breathing more

life into ourselves.

Thesecondexerciserequiresyoutoequalizeyourbreathing.Wewillbreatheintoacountoffourandouttoacountoffour.

(2)EqualizedBreathing.

• Breathe in to a count of four and out to a count of four ("thousand 1, thousand 2,

thousand 3, thousand 4").

• Do that four or five times.


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• With tenseness, our breathing can become irregular.

• Slowing down and equalizing our inhalations and exhalations is calming.

Thelasttechniqueyouwilllearntodayiscalledguidedimagery.Iwilltalkyouthroughtheentiretechnique,butbesuretofollowthedirectionsIgiveyou.

Slide 33: Guided Imagery: (GI)

GuidedImagery(GI)

ì GIrelievespsychologicalstress,reducesbodytensionandrestoresenergytoanindividual.Itisguidedbyatherapist,trainerorrecording.

ì Activity:GuidedImagerytechnique

Readtheslidetoparticipants.GuidedImageryisusedtorelaxindividualsbyslowingdownthoughtsandfocusingonyou-mentally,physically,andemotionally.

• This activity may be new to some of you. It may seem a little weird, but I promise

if you focus on the words I say and do what actions I tell you to do it will be

worth it. You will feel very relaxed at the end. I only ask that you participate and

try your best to focus throughout the entire activity. If you find yourself

distracted, stop your thoughts and get focused back into the activity.


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• I am going to ask you to remove anything that may distract you during this time.

Point your chair towards the front of the room and sit up straight. Place both feet

on the floor and your hands in your lap. I will be playing some music in the

background. Focus on my words.

GuidedImageryscriptislocatedinAppendixJ.

Afterfinishingthescript,continuetothenextslide.

Kaspereen,D.(2012).Relaxationinterventionforstressreductionamongteachersandstaff.InternationalJournalofStressManagement,19(3),238-250.

Slide 34: Take-Away!

Take-Away!

ì SolutionFocusedBriefTherapy:SetgoalsforyourselfeachmonthbasedofftheSixDimensionsofWellness.Remembertowritedownwhatyouarecurrentlydoing(Step1)andwhatyouwouldliketoadd/changeforthefuture(Step2).ThemostimportantpartistoDOwhatyouwrotedowninStep2!

ì ProgressiveMuscleRelaxation:Checkyourselfdaily!Takeafewsecondsoutofyourdaytotenseandrelaxyourmusclesinordertogagehowstressedyoufeel.Thiscanbedoneanywhere!

ì RationalEmotiveBehaviorTherapy:REBThelpsyoubecomemoreproactivethanreactivebyencouragingyoutostopandprocessasituationbeforeresponding.ì Quicktip!:Retreat,Rethink,Respond(don’treact!).

Welearnedalotoftechniquestodaythatcanhelpyoudevelopandpracticeself-careandstressmanagement.Hereareafewtake-awaysfromeachtechnique.Writedowntheseideasandusethemwheneveryou’dlike!

Continuetonextslide.


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Slide 35: Take-Away!

Take-Away!

ì Breathing:Take5minutes3xsperdayandslowdownyourbreathing.Onlyfocusontakingadeepbreathinandlettingitout.Thiscanbedonebeforeschool,duringlunch,andafterschool.

ì GuidedImagery:BreathingandGuidedImagerycanbedonesimultaneously.YoucanevenaskyourstudentstoparticipateinGuidedImageryonceaweek.Thetimecanbeadjustedtofityouandyourstudents’needs.Thisactivityhasbeendoneinteacher’sclassroomsduringtheirhomeroomorfreeperiod.Teachersstartoffbyaskingtheirstudentstoparticipateforfiveminutesthefirsttime,andthengraduallyaddmoretimeoveraperiodofweeks.Teachershaveseenanimmediatedifferenceinclassroomswithstudent’senergylevelsandrespecttowardsoneanother.

Readthelasttwotake-aways.Encouragestudentstousethesetechniquestherestofthissemester.Continuetothelastslide.

Slide 36: Questions

Askparticipantsiftheyhaveanyquestions.Ifnot,proceedtotheposttestinstructionsfortheexperimentalgroup.

Slide 37: References 1

References

AmericanPsychologicalAssociation(2013).Howstressaffectsyourhealth.Washington,DC.Retrievedfrom:http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/stress-facts.pdf

AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.Stress:Thedifferentkindsofstress.Retrievedfrom:http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stress

Cully,J.A.,&Teten,A.L.(2008).ATherapist’sGuidetoBriefCognitive BehavioralTherapy.Houston,TX: DepartmentofVeteransAffairsSouthCentralMIRECC.

Gold,T.,&Roth,R.(1993).Teachersmanagingstressandpreventingburnout:Theprofessionalhealthsolution.Washington,DC:TheFalmer Press.

Hettler,B.(1976).Thesixdimensionsofwellnessmodel.Retrievedfromhttp://www.nationalwellness.org/?page=Six_Dimensions

Kaspereen,D.(2012).Relaxationinterventionforstressreductionamongteachersandstaff.InternationalJournalofStressManagement,19(3),238-250.


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Slide 38: References 2

References

McGrath,J.E.(1970).Aconceptualformulationforresearchonstress.InJ.E.McGrath(Ed.),Socialandpsychologicalfactorsinstress (pp.10-21).NewYork:Holt,Rinehart,&Winston.

Miller,L.H.,Smith,A.D.,&Rothstein,L.(1993).Thestresssolution:Anactionplantomanagethestressinyourlife.NewYork:PocketBooks.

Osipow,S.H.(1998) OccupationalStressInventory-Revisededition(OSI-R)professionalmanual.Odessa,FL:PsychologicalAssessmentResources.

StatisticBrainResearchInstitute(2015).StressStatistics.Retrievedfrom:http://www.statisticbrain.com/stress-statistics/

TheAlbertEllisInstitute(2014).RationalEmotive&Cognitive-BehaviorTherapy. Retrievedfrom:http://albertellis.org/rebt-cbt-therapy/

Varvogli,L.,&Darviri,C.(2011).Stressmanagementtechniques:Evidence-basedproceduresthatreducestressandpromotehealth.HealthScienceJournal,5(2),74-89.


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Appendix I Training Materials-Solution Focused Brief Therapy Technique

Self-Care Survey: Step 1

Physical: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Intellectual/Mental: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Emotional: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Spiritual: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Social: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Occupational: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


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Self-Care Survey: Step 2

Physical: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Intellectual/Mental: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Emotional: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Spiritual: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Social: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Occupational: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


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Appendix J Training Materials- Relaxation Therapy Technique

Relaxation Therapy Technique Guided Imagery Script Location: Quiet room

Needed: Chairs CD player & CD

Please get comfortable in your seat. Get as comfortable as you possibly can. Keep your head straight and gently lift just your eyes to look up as high as you can and focus on a spot on the ceiling. It may feel difficult, but hold your eyes and stare at the spot. And as you stare at the spot, take in a nice deep breath, holding it as long as you can; and when you are ready, exhale slowly . . . very slowly. Take another deep breath in, holding it as long as you can; and again when you are ready, exhale slowly. You start to notice your eyes getting tired and watery. Your eyes feel heavy and watery and want to close down. Go ahead and allow your eyes to close down. Close your eyes. Imagine yourself at the top of a staircase or a mountain top somewhere out in nature. Whichever you feel most comfortable. You are at the very top. When you reach the bottom you will be at the bottom of deep relaxation. You are on Level 10 and move down to Level 9. As you imagine and visualize yourself moving down, you feel more relaxed. Let go of all your thoughts and all your cares. Moving down to Level 8; more and more relaxed; deeper and deeper into relaxation. You feel calm and relaxed. If any conscious thoughts come into your mind, just use the words calm and relaxed. Calm and relaxed. Moving down now to Level 7, imagining yourself moving down and feeling a sense of overwhelming peace and clarity, moving closer and closer to deep relaxation. Moving down now to Level 6; feeling more and more relaxed; deeper and deeper into relaxation. Continue letting go of all your thoughts and all your cares. Any sounds that you hear are just every day sounds of living; they only make you go deeper into relaxation. Moving down now to Level 5; you can see yourself moving down deeper and deeper into relaxation. Calm and relaxed. Calm and relaxed. Feeling more and more peaceful. Moving on down to Level 4, closer and closer, deeper and deeper into relaxation. Calm and relaxed, calm and relaxed. Moving on down to Level 3. Calm and relaxed. Deeper and deeper into relaxation. Moving down to Level 2, about to reach the bottom of deep relaxation. Step down now to Level 1. To the very bottom of relaxation feeling calm and relaxed. Imagine yourself at your most comfortable place. A place where you feel most comfortable and at peace. It can be at an ocean, a lake, a mountain, maybe your home. Imagine yourself sitting there or laying there taking in all the beauty. Using all of your senses, notice all the vibrant colors. Notice all the familiar smells. Hear all the familiar sounds at your most comfortable and peaceful place. Take in every aspect of this place that you may have missed and appreciate everything about it. (LONG PAUSE.) Now, just touch the tips of your thumb and forefinger together . . . just hold the tips of your fingers together. This is creating your anchor. You may use your anchor any time you need it; it will bring you


146

right back to this place, your most comfortable place and experience the same feelings of peace and clarity. This place is for you. A place to escape from reality, and take time to clear your mind and gain new peaceful insight. (LONG PAUSE.) You can let go of your anchor now. Imagine yourself in your office or your classroom. Picture yourself with a student or a classroom full of students or even a colleague or your supervisor and notice how peaceful you feel. Notice that your patience has increased. Notice how easily it is to handle stressors that occur. Notice that your stress level has decreased, feeling like it is not even there. Imagine a situation in which you would normally feel most angry or upset. . . . yet you feel calm and relaxed. Calm and relaxed. All negative thoughts have left you, and you feel only positive energy. Positive and peaceful energy. Calm and relaxed. Notice that you are able to handle situations in a calm and relaxed way. You feel like your spirit has been lifted and filled with positive energy and peaceful feelings. You are and have become more and more aware of your positive feelings and the energy that will stay with you. Take the next few moments to allow yourself to feel this warm, relaxed, calm, peaceful, positive energy flow throughout your body. In a few moments, I am going to count to five. Bringing you back to the room feeling relaxed, calm, peaceful, and patient. One, feeling calm and relaxed. Two, becoming more aware of your surroundings. Three, feeling more awake. Four, feeling vibrant and aware. Five, open your eyes and come back to the room feeling refreshed and renewed.


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Appendix K Instrument Permission Letters-Stress Overload Scale

Dear Macy Waltz: Thank you for your interest in the Stress Overload Scale. I am the copyright holder as well as the author of the scale. I give you permission to use the SOS free of charge in your research, and to make as many copies you need for the participants in your studies. However, I do ask (1) that you use the instrument for non-profit purposes only, and (2) that you do not reprint the instrument in its entirety in your dissertation or any publications (including sample items is fine). I have had some problems with people using my scales for profit without my knowledge or consent. Best of luck with your dissertation project! Sincerely, James H. Amirkhan, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology California State University Long Beach [email protected]


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Appendix L Instrument Permission Letters-Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 1 (short form)

Anita Woolfolk Hoy, Ph.D. Professor Psychological Studies in Education Dear Macy Waltz, You have my permission to use the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale in your research. A copy the scoring instructions can be found at: http://u.osu.edu/hoy.17/research/instruments/ Best wishes in your work,

Anita Woolfolk Hoy, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus College of Education Phone 614-292-3774 29 West Woodruff Avenue www.coe.ohio-state.edu/ahoy FAX 614-292-7900 Columbus, Ohio 43210-1177 [email protected]


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Appendix M Instrument Permission Letters-Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised


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Appendix N Reminder Emails and Flyers- Email Reminder for Experimental Group: Group A

Dear Student Teacher (Teacher Candidate in the later phase),

Thank you for volunteering to participate in my research study! I cannot thank you enough for volunteering your time to help me. You were assigned to Group A. Your instructions for the training are listed below. My name is Macy Waltz and I am a doctoral student in the Counselor Education and Supervision program at Texas Tech University. I am writing to provide more details about my research study and remind you about my project on stress management and self-care training. You're eligible to be in this study because you are 18 years or older and a student teacher/teacher candidate in the Tech Teach program at TTU. I obtained your contact information from your notecard during recruitment. Below you will see the time, date, and location of my study. By volunteering to participate in this study, you will partake in a wellness training on a specified date, time, and location. Remember, this is completely voluntary. You can choose to be in the study or not. If you'd like to participate or have any questions about the study, please email or contact me at [email protected]. We look forward to seeing you on:

Date: Specified Date Room #: Specified Room

Location: Specified Location Time: Specified Time!!!

Thank you very much! Sincerely,

Macy Waltz Janet Froeschle Hicks Student Co-PI Primary Investigator Texas Tech University Texas Tech University


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Appendix O Reminder Emails and Flyers- Email Reminder for Control Group: Group B


Thank you for volunteering to participate in my research study! I cannot thank you enough for volunteering your time to help me. You were assigned to Group A. Your instructions for the training are listed below. My name is Macy Waltz and I am a doctoral student in the Counselor Education and Supervision program at Texas Tech University. I am writing to provide more details about my research study and remind you about my project on stress management and self-care training. You're eligible to be in this study because you are 18 years or older and a student teacher/teacher candidate in the Tech Teach program at TTU. I obtained your contact information from your notecard during recruitment. Below you will see more instructions for what to do on a specified date. By volunteering to participate in this study, you will take a pretest and posttest on a specified date in a specified room and location. Please come to the specified room at the specified time for the pretest. You will be dismissed after completing the research packet. After class you will come back to the specified room at the specified time for the posttest. Both the pretest and posttest will take 15 minutes each to complete. You will be dismissed after completing the posttest. Remember, this is completely voluntary. You can choose to be in the study or not. If you'd like to participate or have any questions about the study, please email or contact me at [email protected]. We look forward to seeing you on:


Location: Specified Location Time: Specified Time!!!

Thank you very much! Macy Waltz Janet Froeschle Hicks Student Co-PI Primary Investigator Texas Tech University Texas Tech University


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Appendix P Reminder Emails and Flyers-Flyer Reminder for Research Project

Student Teachers/Teacher Candidates! This is a reminder about my research project that

is happening at a specified time on stress management and self-care in the College of

Education building at TTU! Group A- Please come to the specified room at the

specified time! Group B- Please come to the specified room at the

specified time!

Thank you and we will see you soon! (If you forget what group you were assigned check your email or Macy

Waltz will be in the lobby by the stairs with a list.)



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Appendix Q Reminder Emails and Flyers-Email Reminder for Delayed Posttest


Thank you for volunteering to participate in my research study! I cannot thank you enough for volunteering your time to help me. This is an email reminder about taking a delayed posttest for my research project. Your instructions for the delayed posttest are listed below. This posttest is completely voluntary. You will be asked to sign an informed consent again before filling out the research packet. The research pcket will take 15 minutes to complete and includes the same instruments and survey from the pretest and first posttest that was given to you on a specified date. By taking this delayed posttest you will be helping me add to the research on ways to help future teachers cope with stress. It will be greatly appreciated if you volunteer to take this posttest. It will help me understand how to help future student teachers and teachers! Please come to a specified room at a specified time for the delayed posttest. The Student Co-PI will draw one name for the $50 dollar Target gift card on specified date. The winner will receive an email on how to access their Target gift card. Remember, this is completely voluntary. You can choose to participate in the delayed posttest or not. If you'd like to participate or have any questions about the delayed posttest or research project, please email or contact me at [email protected]. We look forward to seeing you on:


Location: Specified Location Time: Specified Time




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Appendix R Reminder Emails and Flyers-Flyer Reminder for Delayed Posttest

Student Teachers/Teacher Candidates! This is a reminder about the delayed posttest that

is happening today, a specified date, for my research project on stress management and self-

care in the College of Education at TTU! Please come to a specified at a specified time for

the delayed posttest. Thank you and we will see you soon!



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Appendix S Reminder Emails and Flyers-Email Reminder for Control Group Spring 2016

Training


Thank you for volunteering to participate in my research study! I cannot thank you enough for volunteering your time. This is an email reminder about an opportunity to participate in my stress management and self-care training. Your instructions for the training are listed below. This training is completely voluntary. You will be asked to participate in multiple activities throughout this 60-minute training. You will learn more information on stress management and ways to take care of yourself in a healthy manner. You will also learn new coping skills that can be applied to every day life situations. Please come to a specified room at a specified time for the training. Remember, this is completely voluntary. You can choose to participate in the training. If you'd like to participate or have any questions about the training or research project, please email or contact me at [email protected]. We look forward to seeing you on:


Location: Specified Location Time: Specified Time




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Appendix T Pretest Box Plots

Figure 7: Stress Overload Scale (SOS) Total


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Figure 8: Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ) Mean

Figure 9: Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) Mean


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Figure 10: Personal Resources Questionnaire (PRQ) Mean

Documents

Copyright 2016, Macy Waltz