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Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
How can we conserve biodiversity? – Ecological methodologies
The Futurability of Biodiversity Chapter 8
Plan 1Keep off their home range
Plan 3 Artificially feed their chicks
Plan 2Keep off their nesting place
Let’s conserve golden eagles. Choosing Plan 2
and practicing it
Practicing a measure and monitoring it
Deciding the purpose
Forming measures
Monitoring
Population sizes of golden eagles, other animals…
Estimating the changes caused by the measures and reexamining measures
How can we conserve biodiversity?- Ecological methodologies -
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
In review
Biodiversity enriches our lives (food, regulation of environments, culture, economics, etc.).However, biodiversity is in a state of crisis now However, biodiversity is in a state of crisis now (biological extinction, influences of human (biological extinction, influences of human activities).activities).
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Today’s Topics
1. Principles of ecosystem managements1. Principles of ecosystem managements
What should we be conscious of in ecosystem managements?What should we be conscious of in ecosystem managements?
2. 2. Precautionary and adaptive managements
How should we manage ecosystems for conservation of biodiversity?How should we manage ecosystems for conservation of biodiversity?
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
What should we be conscious of in ecosystem managements?
1) Importance of precautionary and
adaptive managements
2) Principles of adaptive management
1. Principles of ecosystem managements
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
1. What has happened once is sometimes irrecoverable.
Why are precautionary and adaptive managements essential?
2. We cannot predict every effect caused by changes that occur in an ecosystem.
1. Principles of ecosystem managements 1) Importance of precautionary and adaptive managements
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Level of species(Example) Extinction
What has happened once is sometimes irrecoverable.Level of ecosystem(Example) Destruction of tropical rainforest
Japanese wolf, Canis lupus hodophilax, eradicated about 100 years ago
1. Principles of ecosystem managements1) Importance of precautionary and adaptive managements
A cutover area in Sarawak, Malaysia
Photo: (left) taken by Hidefumi Kuwabara, owned by Wakayama University
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
It is essential to take measures suited to the ecological changes.
Competition
(Paine 1966)
Predation Predation
Mussels Barnacles
1. Principles of ecosystem managements1) Importance of precautionary and adaptive managements
We cannot predict every effect caused by changes that occur in an ecosystem.
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Plan 2 Keep off their nesting place
The process of adaptive managements
1. Principles of ecosystem managements2) Principles of precautionary and adaptive managements
Plan 1 Keep off their home range
Plan 3 Artificial feeding of their chicks
Choosing Plan 2 and practicing it
Practicing a measure and monitoring itLet’s conserve
golden eagles.
Deciding the purpose Forming measures
Monitoring
Population sizes of golden eagles, other animals…
Estimating the changes caused by the measure & reexamining measures
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
2. RegionalityWe should utilize species of the target area as much as possible, and avoid introducing a population from another area.
1. DiversityBiodiversity in a conserved area should be restored or recovered.
3. Genetic variationWe should attempt not to disturb the genetic composition of the population in the target area.
4. PrecautionWhen scientific evidence is insufficient, we should avoid taking action which may bring irreversible effects.
(Ecological Society of Japan 2004)
Principles of ecosystem managements
1. Principles of ecosystem managements2) Principles of precautionary and adaptive managements
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Diversity — an example of reconstructing an ecosystem
Asaza (water fringe) project in Kasumigaura, Japan
1. Principles of ecosystem managements2) Principles of precautionary and adaptive managements
Flower of Asaza (Nymphoides peltata)
Photo & Illustration: Nonprofit Organization Asaza Fund
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Regionality & Genetic variation — an example of recovering a symbolic species
Photo: Yasunori Maezono
1. Principles of ecosystem managements2) Principle of precautionary and adaptive managements
Firefly (Luciola cruciata)
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Genetic variation in Luciola cruciata
Northeastern group
Kanto group
Central group
Southwestern Honshu group
Northern Kyushu group
Southern Kyushu group(Suzuki 2001)
1. Principles of ecosystem managements2) Principles of precautionary and adaptive managements
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Photo: Yasunori Maezono
1. Principles of ecosystem managements2) Principles of precautionary and adaptive managements
Black bass (Micropterus salmoides)
Precaution — an example of irrecoverable results
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Changes in ecosystems are often irreversible, and we
cannot predict every effect caused by such changes. It is
essential to take measures suited to the current situation.
When we manage an ecosystem, we should consider
diversity, regionality and genetic variation in the
ecosystem, and avoid taking any action which may cause
irreversible effects.
Summary 1. Principles of ecosystem managements
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
How should we manage ecosystems to conserve their biodiversity?
1) Grasp the situations (monitoring)
2) Conserve individual speciesWithin habitats/outside of habitats
3) Conserve the ecosystemEstablish refuges, corridors and devices for
sustainable use
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 1) Grasp of the situations (monitoring)
What should be measured by monitoring?
Components and conditions of ecosystem: land use, etc.
Physical or biological indicators: nutrients in soils, number of species, etc.
Ecosystem functions: net production, etc.
(Example) Changes of land use during 34 years in Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia
1963 1997 Primary forest (hilly land)
Swamp forest
Secondary forest
Rice field
Logging forest
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
1. Providing information about changes in important ecosystem processes
http://pdf.wri.org/ecosystems_human_wellbeing.pdf#search='ecosystems and human wellbeing'
Requirements of suitable indicators for monitoring
2. Reflecting important changes
3. Getting highly reliable data
4. Being easily understood by policymakers
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 1) Grasp of the situations (monitoring)
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Conservation of individual species
1. Evaluation of risks of extinction
4. Artificial breeding of animals and reintroduction
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 2) Conservation of individual species
Within habitats
2. Indicator species
3. Unique species
Outside of habitats
5. Preservation of plants’ seeds
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Conservation within habitats 1. Evaluation of risks of extinction
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 2) Conservation of individual species
Critically Endangered (CR)
(See Chapter 3)
Endangered (EN)
Vulnerable (VU)
Near Threatened (NT)
Least Concern (LC)
Categories of endangered speciesRisks of extinction
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
The refuge for yellow-eyed penguin, Megadyptes antipodes, which is categorized as “Endangered” (New Zealand)
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 2) Conservation of individual species
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Umbrella speciesSpecies which needs a large habitat. Environment in which the species can survive is expected to have various species.
Photo: Yasunori Maezono
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 2) Conservation of individual species
Owl (Strix uralensis)
Conservation within habitats 2. Indicator species, which can be used for judging conditions of ecosystems
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Flagship speciesSpecies well-known by many people. When a certain habitat needs to be conserved, the flagship species is used as a symbol for conservation.
コアラKoala(Phascolarctos cinereus)
Photo: Yasunori Maezono
Column 1: Flagship species
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Relict (living fossil)Species which retains characteristics of ancestors from several hundreds of thousands of years before
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 2) Conservation of individual species
Tuatara(Sphenodon punctatus)
Conservation within habitats3. Unique species which is taxonomically and evolutionarily uncommon
Indigenous speciesNative species whose habitats are limited to a certain area
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Photo: Toyooka city, Hyogo prefecture
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 2) Conservation of individual species
Oriental stork(Ciconia boyciana)
Conservation outside of habitats 4. Artificial breeding of animals and reintroduction— species eradicated locally are bred and reintroduced
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/conservation-climate-change/millennium-seed-bank/index.htm
Access date: 6, July 2010
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 2) Conservation of individual species
Conservation outside of habitats5. Preservation of plants’ seeds
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Conservation of an ecosystem
Establishment of refuges- Why are refuges needed?- Where is the most important refuge?- What is a desirable design for a refuge?- What should we do outside of refuges?
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem
Establishment of corridors
Devices for sustainable use
1. Regular rotation of logging sites
2. Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
In a refuge, human activities which degrade biodiversity (destruction of habitat, illegal exploitation of resources, introduction of alien species, etc.) are inhibited.
Primary forest (National Park)
Oil palm plantation
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem
Establishment of refuges — Why are refuges needed?
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Biodiversity hotspots
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem
75% of endangered species of mammals, birds and amphibians inhabit biodiversity hotspots.
We can find 50% of vascular plant species and 42% of terrestrial vertebrate species in biodiversity hotspots.
Establishment of refuges — Where is the most important refuge?
Conservation International http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/resources/Pages/maps.aspx
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.This area suffers edge effects
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem
Establishment of refuges- What is a desirable design for a refuge (ecological aspects)?Large area is desirable.…Rate of extinction is lower in large area (see graph).When total area is the same, a round shape is desirable (see drawing).… The area that suffers edge effects is smaller in a round shape.
Rate of extinction of mammals inhabiting national parks in US (Newmark 1995)
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
inside outsideForest edgehumid dry
appropriate light severe lightslight wind strong wind
Edge effectsIn a forest edge, environmental conditions are different from those inside the forest. Some species cannot inhabit the forest edge.
Column 2: Edge effects
In a forest edge, predators or competitors easily invade, and living organisms go outside.
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Refuges are divided into three areas according to the intensity of human utilization.
Buffer area
Transition area(Human activities are permitted to some extent.)
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem
Establishment of refuges- What is a desirable design for a refuge (influences by human activities)?
Core area(No human activities are permitted.)
Outside the refuge
(UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Program, See Chapter 9)
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
(Example) Giant honeybee - Primary pollinator in tropical rainforest in Southeast Asia- Migratory honeybee
Swidden and secondary forest
Hilly forest
Swamp forest
Giant honeybees usually inhabit swamp forest, and move to hilly forest at the beginning of general flowering.- Biodiversity is high.
- Protected as national park.- Many plant species are pollinated by giant honeybees.
For the protection of tropical rainforest, managements that include refuges’ surroundings are essential.
(Samejima et al. unpublished data)
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem
Photo: (upper) Tamiji Inoue
Establishment of refuges- What should we do outside of refuges?
- Biodiversity is low.
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
- Connecting fragmental habitats by corridors, which enable wild animals to move between these habitats.
1. Wild animals can easily move between isolated habitats.
Expected effectiveness
2. Exchanges of genes between isolated habitats are promoted, conserving genetic variation.
(Pullin 2002Pullin 2002)
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem
Establishment of corridors
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.Photos: Obihiro University of Agriculture & Veterinary Medicine - Hisashi Yanagawa
Devices for Russian flying squirrel (Pteromys valans orii) - pole for gliding and log as pathway
Column 3: Devices which eliminate barriers to movement for organisms
Pole for gliding constructed along Obihiro-Hiroo Expressway
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
The area of a large forest has been divided into several sections. Since logging and planting are done one section at a time, the whole area contains various ages of forest. Thus, biodiversity in the large area is conserved.
Photo: Keitaro Fukushima
Young forestYoung forestOld forest Old forest
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem
Devices for sustainable use 1. Regular rotation of logging site
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Trees are logged according to a detailed plan, and carefully carried away so as not to damage the forest.
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem
Devices for sustainable use 2. Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)
RILUsual method
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Comparison: number of species according to logging methods
Diversity of tree species is higher with RIL.(Seino et al., unpublished data)
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem
0
20
40
60
80
100
Usual method
3 years after RIL
8 years after RIL
Primary forest
Devices for sustainable use 2. Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)N
um
be
r of
sp
eci
es
per
0.2
ha
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Number of mammal species examined by automatic infrared camera
Num
ber
of s
peci
es
Diversity of mammal species is also higher with RIL.(Matsubayashi, unpublished data)
2. Precautionary and adaptive managements 3) Conservation of an ecosystem
Devices for sustainable use 2. Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Monitoring investigates the situations of indicator species and ecosystem functions for the purpose of (re)considering the measures used in managements.
Individual species are conserved both within and outside of habitats based on evaluation of their risks of extinction. In some cases, conservation of a certain species means conservation of the whole ecosystem.
For conservation of ecosystems, establishment of refuges is effective. In areas surrounding refuges, devices for sustainable use are needed.
Summary 2. Precautionary and adaptive managements
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Summary of Today’s Topics
1. Changes in an ecosystem are sometimes irreversible, and 1. Changes in an ecosystem are sometimes irreversible, and
their effects are difficult to predict completely. Therefore, their effects are difficult to predict completely. Therefore,
precautionary and adaptive managements are desirable.precautionary and adaptive managements are desirable.
2.2. When we manage an ecosystem, we should consider the When we manage an ecosystem, we should consider the
area’s biodiversity, regionality and genetic variation.area’s biodiversity, regionality and genetic variation.
3. When we practice precautionary and adaptive 3. When we practice precautionary and adaptive
managements, we should use the most effective managements, we should use the most effective
methods for conserving the target species, guided by methods for conserving the target species, guided by
careful monitoring.careful monitoring.
How can we conserve biodiversity?- Ecological methodologies -
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Exercises
1. In Australia, an increase in camels (Camelus
dromedarius), which were introduced in the 19th
century, has brought desertification. How can we
decrease the number of camels? Think up a plan and
how to monitor your progress.
Let’s do the exercises below:
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Exercises
2. Think up plans for conserving the orangutan under the
following hypothetical situations:
a) Number of mature individuals is about 1000 (VU level).
b) Number of mature individuals is about 250 (EN level).
c) Number of mature individuals is about 50 (CR level).
Let’s do the exercises below:
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Glossary
Method which evaluates the risk of extinction by the rate of decrease in population size, the area of habitats, etc. The results are reported in the form of the ‘IUCN RedList of Threatened Species”. (IUCN: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources)
Evaluation of risks of extinctionEvaluation of risks of extinction
The amount of organic matter which is found by the following formula:(the total amount of organic matter produced by photosynthesis for a certain period in a forest) – (the amount of organic matter which has been consumed by respiration of the forest)
Net productionNet production
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
References
Newmark, W.D. (1995)Newmark, W.D. (1995) Extinction of mammal populations in western North American national parks. Extinction of mammal populations in western North American national parks. Conservation Biology Conservation Biology 9: 512-5269: 512-526
Paine, R. T. (1966) Paine, R. T. (1966) Food web complexity and species diversity. Food web complexity and species diversity. American NaturalistAmerican Naturalist 100:65-75 100:65-75
Suzuki, H. (2001)Suzuki, H. (2001)Studies on biological diversity of firefly in Japan. Studies on biological diversity of firefly in Japan. International Journal of Industrial International Journal of Industrial EntomologyEntomology 2:91-105 2:91-105
Ecological Society of Japan (ed.) (2004)Entrance of Ecology. Tokyo – Kagaku-Doujin. (In Japanese)Entrance of Ecology. Tokyo – Kagaku-Doujin. (In Japanese)
Pullin, A.S. (2002)Pullin, A.S. (2002)Conservation Biology. Cambridge University Press.Conservation Biology. Cambridge University Press.
Newmark, W.D. (1995)Newmark, W.D. (1995) Extinction of mammal populations in western North American national parks. Extinction of mammal populations in western North American national parks. Conservation Biology Conservation Biology 9: 512-5269: 512-526
Paine, R. T. (1966) Paine, R. T. (1966) Food web complexity and species diversity. Food web complexity and species diversity. American NaturalistAmerican Naturalist 100:65-75 100:65-75
Suzuki, H. (2001)Suzuki, H. (2001)Studies on biological diversity of firefly in Japan. Studies on biological diversity of firefly in Japan. International Journal of Industrial International Journal of Industrial EntomologyEntomology 2:91-105 2:91-105
Ecological Society of Japan (ed.) (2004)Entrance of Ecology. Tokyo – Kagaku-Doujin. (In Japanese)Entrance of Ecology. Tokyo – Kagaku-Doujin. (In Japanese)
Pullin, A.S. (2002)Pullin, A.S. (2002)Conservation Biology. Cambridge University Press.Conservation Biology. Cambridge University Press.
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Cited Websites
Conservation International http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/resources/Pages/maps.aspx
Millennium Ecosystem Assessmenthttp://pdf.wri.org/ecosystems_human_wellbeing.pdf#search='ecosystems and human wellbeing'
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kewhttp://www.kew.org/science-conservation/conservation-climate-change/millennium-seed-bank/index.htm
Conservation International http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/resources/Pages/maps.aspx
Millennium Ecosystem Assessmenthttp://pdf.wri.org/ecosystems_human_wellbeing.pdf#search='ecosystems and human wellbeing'
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kewhttp://www.kew.org/science-conservation/conservation-climate-change/millennium-seed-bank/index.htm
Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.
Authors & Credits
Authors
The Futurability of Biodiversity Chapter 8How can we conserve biodiversity? - Ecological methodologies -
Hidefumi KuwabaraKanehiro Kitayama Nonprofit organization Asaza FundTamiji Inoue Yasunori Maezono
Satoshi YamashitaNaoki AgetsumaYayoi TakeuchiKentaro KanazawaStewart Wachs
Application softwareCutPRO3 Real tough. Animal and Insect version ( Design Office Kyowa)Microsoft PowerPoint®
Illustration & design Be4°TECHKoubou Yecoruka
Photos
Data providers Hiromitsu SamejimaMasaaki Takyu
Shin-ichiro Aiba
Biodiversity PhotosHiromitsu SamejimaKentaro FukushimaSatoshi YamashitaToyooka city, Hyogo prefectureWakayama University
Chiharu NiiyamaHisashi YanagawaMichiko NakagawaShoko Sakai
Kanehiro KitayamaNaoshi MatsubayashiTatsuyuki Seino
Hiromitsu SamejimaMitsue ShibataMasaaki Takyu
Aya HatadaMartin Piddington