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Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Objectives (cont’d) Identify and give examples of three forms of biologic work Discuss the role of enzymes and coenzymes in bioenergetics Identify the high-energy phosphates and discuss their contributions in powering biologic work
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Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Fundamentals of Human Energy Transfer
Chapter 5
Section 3: Energy Transfer
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Objectives• Describe the first law of thermodynamics
related to energy balance and biologic work
• Define the terms potential energy and kinetic energy and give examples of each
• Give examples of exergonic and endergonic chemical processes within the body and indicate their importance
• State the second law of thermodynamics and give a practical application
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Objectives (cont’d)• Identify and give examples of three
forms of biologic work• Discuss the role of enzymes and
coenzymes in bioenergetics • Identify the high-energy phosphates
and discuss their contributions in powering biologic work
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Objectives (cont’d)• Outline the process of electron transport-
oxidative phosphorylation• Explain oxygen’s role in energy
metabolism• Describe how anaerobic energy release
occurs in cells • Describe lactate formation during
progressively increasing exercise intensity
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Objectives (cont’d)• Outline the general pathways of the
citric cycle during macronutrient catabolism
• Contrast ATP yield from carbohydrates, fats, and protein catabolism
• Explain the statement, “Fats burn in a carbohydrate flame”
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Energy: The Capacity for Work
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
First Law of Thermodynamics
• Conservation of energy• Dictates that the body does not
produce, consume, or use up energy; rather, it transforms it from one form into another as physiologic systems undergo continual change
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Energy-Releasing and Energy-Conserving
Processes• Exergonic reactions– Chemical processes that release
energy to its surroundings– Downhill processes
• Endergonic reactions– Chemical processes that store or
absorb energy – Uphill processes
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Examples of Biologic Work• Mechanical work
– Muscle contraction• Chemical work
– Synthesis of macromolecules• Transport work
– Concentration of various substances in intracellular and extracellular fluids
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• The limits of exercise intensity ultimately depend on the rate that cells, extract, conserve, and transfer chemical energy in the food nutrients to the contractile filaments of skeletal muscle
Key Point
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Factors Affecting Bioenergetics
• Enzymes • Reaction rates• Enzyme mode of action• Coenzymes
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Enzymes• Are highly specific protein
catalysts• Accelerate the forward and reverse
reactions• Are neither consumed nor changed
in the reaction
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Coenzymes • Complex nonprotein organic
substances facilitate enzyme action by binding the substrate with its specific enzyme
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Phosphate-Bond Energy
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Energy Release from Carbohydrate
• The only macronutrient whose potential energy generates ATP anaerobically
• The complete breakdown of 1 mole of glucose liberates ~689 kCal of energy
• Of which, only 38% (263 kCals) of the energy is conserved within ATP bonds; the remainder is dissipated as heat
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Energy Release from Fat• Adipocytes
– Site of fat storage and mobilization– 95% of an adipocyte’s volume is
occupied by triacylglycerol (TG) fat droplets
– Lipolysis splits TG molecules into glycerol and three water-soluble free fatty acids (FFA)
– Catalyzed by hormone-sensitive lipase
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Transport and Uptake of Free Fatty Acids
• After diffusing into the circulation, FFA are transported within the circulation bound to albumin
• FFA are then taken up by active skeletal muscle in proportion to their flow and concentration
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Breakdown of Glycerol and Fatty Acids
• Glycerol– Is converted to 3-
phosphoglyceraldehyde, an intermediate glycolytic metabolite
• FFA– Are transformed into acetyl–CoA in the
mitochondria during -oxidation– A process that successively releases 2-
carbon acetyl fragments split from long fatty acid chains
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Did You Know?• As carbohydrate levels decrease,
the availability of oxaloacetate may become inadequate, which impairs fat catabolism
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Copyright © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.