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Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reservedCopyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reservedMcGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin
Chapter 5Chapter 5
Motivation:Motivation:
Background and TheoriesBackground and Theories
5 - 5 - 22McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Motivation:Motivation:
Forces acting Forces acting on an on an employee employee that initiate that initiate and direct and direct behavior.behavior.
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The Starting Point: The IndividualThe Starting Point: The Individual
Need –Need – a deficiency or lack of something of a deficiency or lack of something of value that an individual experiences at a value that an individual experiences at a particular point in time.particular point in time.
Deficiencies may be:Deficiencies may be: PhysiologicalPhysiological (e.g., a need for food) (e.g., a need for food) PsychologicalPsychological (e.g., a need for self-esteem) (e.g., a need for self-esteem) SociologicalSociological (e.g., a need for social interaction) (e.g., a need for social interaction)
When needs are present, the individual will When needs are present, the individual will seek to fulfill those needs and may be more seek to fulfill those needs and may be more susceptible to managers’ motivational efforts.susceptible to managers’ motivational efforts.
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The Motivational Process: An Initial ModelThe Motivational Process: An Initial Model
The The EmployeeEmployee
I
Need deficienciesNeed deficiencies
IISearch for ways to Search for ways to satisfy needssatisfy needs
III
Goal-directed Goal-directed behaviorbehavior
IV
Performance Performance (evaluation of goals (evaluation of goals accomplished)accomplished)
V
Rewards or Rewards or punishmentspunishments
VINeed deficiencies Need deficiencies reassessed by the reassessed by the employeeemployee
5 - 5 - 55McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Motivation Theories: A Classification SystemMotivation Theories: A Classification System
Content Motivation Content Motivation TheoriesTheories
Theories that focus on Theories that focus on factors factors withinwithin a person a person that:that: Energize behaviorEnergize behavior Direct behaviorDirect behavior Sustain behaviorSustain behavior Stop behaviorStop behavior These factors can only These factors can only
be inferred.be inferred.
Content Motivation Content Motivation TheoriesTheories
Theories that focus on Theories that focus on factors factors withinwithin a person a person that:that: Energize behaviorEnergize behavior Direct behaviorDirect behavior Sustain behaviorSustain behavior Stop behaviorStop behavior These factors can only These factors can only
be inferred.be inferred.
Process Motivation Process Motivation TheoriesTheories
Theories that describe Theories that describe and analyze and analyze howhow behavior is:behavior is: EnergizedEnergized DirectedDirected SustainedSustained StoppedStopped
Process Motivation Process Motivation TheoriesTheories
Theories that describe Theories that describe and analyze and analyze howhow behavior is:behavior is: EnergizedEnergized DirectedDirected SustainedSustained StoppedStopped
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For managers to be effective, the For managers to be effective, the content content theoriestheories suggest that they must: suggest that they must:
Determine what needs trigger desired Determine what needs trigger desired performance, group, and personal behaviors.performance, group, and personal behaviors.
Be able to offer meaningful rewards that help Be able to offer meaningful rewards that help the employee satisfy needs.the employee satisfy needs.
Know when to offer appropriate rewards to Know when to offer appropriate rewards to optimize performance behavior.optimize performance behavior.
Not assume that a person’s need deficiencies Not assume that a person’s need deficiencies will repeat themselves in a regular pattern.will repeat themselves in a regular pattern.
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Content Theories of Motivation:Content Theories of Motivation:Maslow’s Need HierarchyMaslow’s Need Hierarchy
Maslow defined human needs as:Maslow defined human needs as: Physiological:Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, the need for food, drink, shelter,
and relief from pain.and relief from pain. Safety and SecuritySafety and Security:: the need for freedom the need for freedom
from threat; the security from threatening from threat; the security from threatening events or surroundings.events or surroundings.
Belongingness, social, and love:Belongingness, social, and love: the need for the need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.
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Content Theories of Motivation:Content Theories of Motivation:Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (continued)(continued)
Esteem:Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for the need for self-esteem and for respect from others.respect from others.
Self-actualization:Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by the need to fulfill oneself by maximizing the use of abilities, skills, and maximizing the use of abilities, skills, and potential.potential.
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Content Theories of Motivation:Content Theories of Motivation:Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory
Alderfer proposes a hierarchy involving three Alderfer proposes a hierarchy involving three sets of needs:sets of needs:
Existence:Existence: needs satisfied by such factors as needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.
Relatedness:Relatedness: needs satisfied by meaningful needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships.social and interpersonal relationships.
Growth:Growth: needs satisfied by an individual needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions.making creative or productive contributions.
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ERG THEORY RELATIONSHIPS AMONG FRUSTRATION, IMPORTANCE, and SATISFACTION OF NEEDS
FrustrationFrustrationof growth needsof growth needs
FrustrationFrustrationof growth needsof growth needs
Frustration ofFrustration ofrelatedness needsrelatedness needs
Frustration ofFrustration ofrelatedness needsrelatedness needs
FrustrationFrustrationof existence needsof existence needs
FrustrationFrustrationof existence needsof existence needs
ImportanceImportanceof growth needsof growth needs
ImportanceImportanceof growth needsof growth needs
Importance of Importance of relatedness needsrelatedness needs
Importance of Importance of relatedness needsrelatedness needs
ImportanceImportanceof existence needsof existence needs
ImportanceImportanceof existence needsof existence needs
SatisfactionSatisfactionof growth needsof growth needs
Satisfaction ofSatisfaction ofrelatedness needsrelatedness needs
Satisfaction ofSatisfaction ofexistence needsexistence needs
ERG Theory Relationships Among Frustration, ERG Theory Relationships Among Frustration, Importance, and Satisfaction of NeedsImportance, and Satisfaction of Needs
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Extrinsic factorsExtrinsic factors Intrinsic factorsIntrinsic factors
Factors within the Factors within the job context:job context:
Factors within the Factors within the job content:job content:
PayPay
StatusStatus
Working conditionsWorking conditions
AchievementAchievement
Increased responsibilityIncreased responsibility
RecognitionRecognition
DissatisfiersDissatisfiersHygiene factorsHygiene factors
DissatisfiersDissatisfiersHygiene factorsHygiene factors
SatisfiersSatisfiersMotivatorsMotivatorsSatisfiersSatisfiers
MotivatorsMotivators
Content Theories of Motivation:Content Theories of Motivation:Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
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I. TRADITIONALI. TRADITIONALHigh job High job dissatisfactiondissatisfaction
High job High job satisfactionsatisfaction
II. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR VIEWII. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR VIEWLow jobLow jobsatisfactionsatisfaction
High jobHigh jobsatisfactionsatisfaction
Low jobLow jobdissatisfactiondissatisfaction
High jobHigh jobdissatisfactiondissatisfaction
MotivatorsMotivators•Feeling of achievementFeeling of achievement•Meaningful workMeaningful work•Opportunities for advancementOpportunities for advancement•Increased responsibilityIncreased responsibility•RecognitionRecognition•Opportunities for growthOpportunities for growth
HygienesHygienes•PayPay•StatusStatus•Job securityJob security•Working conditionsWorking conditions•Fringe benefitsFringe benefits•Policies and proceduresPolicies and procedures•Interpersonal relationsInterpersonal relations
Traditional and Herzberg Views of Satisfaction - Traditional and Herzberg Views of Satisfaction - DissatisfactionDissatisfaction
5 - 5 - 1313McGraw-Hill/IrwinMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Content Theories of Motivation:Content Theories of Motivation:McClelland’s Learned Needs TheoryMcClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
AchievementAchievement
(n Ach)(n Ach)
AffiliationAffiliation
(n Aff)(n Aff)
PowerPower
(n Pow)(n Pow)
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A Comparison of the Content TheoriesA Comparison of the Content Theories
MaslowMaslow(need hierarchy)(need hierarchy)
Self-actualizationSelf-actualization
EsteemEsteem
Belongingness,Belongingness,social, and lovesocial, and love
Safety and securitySafety and security
PhysiologicalPhysiological
MaslowMaslow(need hierarchy)(need hierarchy)
Self-actualizationSelf-actualization
EsteemEsteem
Belongingness,Belongingness,social, and lovesocial, and love
Safety and securitySafety and security
PhysiologicalPhysiological
HerzbergHerzberg(two-factor theory)(two-factor theory)
The work itselfThe work itself•ResponsibilityResponsibility•AdvancementAdvancement•GrowthGrowth
AchievementAchievementRecognitionRecognition
Quality of inter-Quality of inter-personal relationspersonal relationsamong peers, withamong peers, withsupervisors, withsupervisors, withsubordinatessubordinates
Job securityJob security
Working conditionsWorking conditionsSalarySalary
HerzbergHerzberg(two-factor theory)(two-factor theory)
The work itselfThe work itself•ResponsibilityResponsibility•AdvancementAdvancement•GrowthGrowth
AchievementAchievementRecognitionRecognition
Quality of inter-Quality of inter-personal relationspersonal relationsamong peers, withamong peers, withsupervisors, withsupervisors, withsubordinatessubordinates
Job securityJob security
Working conditionsWorking conditionsSalarySalary
AlderferAlderfer
GrowthGrowth
RelatednessRelatedness
ExistenceExistence
AlderferAlderfer
GrowthGrowth
RelatednessRelatedness
ExistenceExistence
McClellandMcClelland
Need forNeed forachievementachievement
Need forNeed forpowerpower
Need forNeed foraffiliationaffiliation
McClellandMcClelland
Need forNeed forachievementachievement
Need forNeed forpowerpower
Need forNeed foraffiliationaffiliation
MotivatorsMotivators
HygieneHygieneconditionsconditions
HigherHigherorderorderneedsneeds
BasicBasicneedsneeds
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Process Theories of MotivationProcess Theories of Motivation – describe – describe how employees are motivated or how how employees are motivated or how they select behaviors to meet their needs they select behaviors to meet their needs and determine whether they made the and determine whether they made the most successful choice.most successful choice.
Process explanations of motivation Process explanations of motivation suggest that motivation varies from suggest that motivation varies from situation to situation.situation to situation.
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Process Theories of Motivation:Process Theories of Motivation:Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
Theory in which an employee is faced with a Theory in which an employee is faced with a set of set of first-level outcomesfirst-level outcomes and selects an out- and selects an out-come based on how the choice is related to come based on how the choice is related to second-level outcomessecond-level outcomes..
The individual’s preferences are based on the:The individual’s preferences are based on the: Strength Strength (valence)(valence) of the desire to achieve a of the desire to achieve a
second-level state.second-level state. Perception of relationship between first- and Perception of relationship between first- and
second-level outcomes.second-level outcomes.
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Process Theories of Motivation:Process Theories of Motivation:Expectancy Theory Expectancy Theory (continued)(continued)
Management practices:Management practices: Managers need to focus on employee Managers need to focus on employee
expectations for success.expectations for success. Managers must actively determine which Managers must actively determine which
second-level outcomes are important to second-level outcomes are important to employees.employees.
Managers should link desired second-level Managers should link desired second-level outcomes to the organization’s performance outcomes to the organization’s performance goals.goals.
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Process Theories of Motivation:Process Theories of Motivation:Equity TheoryEquity Theory Employees compare their efforts and rewards Employees compare their efforts and rewards
with those of others in similar work situations.with those of others in similar work situations. Individuals, who work in exchange for rewards Individuals, who work in exchange for rewards
from the organization, are motivated by a desire from the organization, are motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at work.to be equitably treated at work.
Equity exists when employees perceive that the Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other similar employees.similar employees.
Inequity exists when these ratios are not Inequity exists when these ratios are not equivalent.equivalent.
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Compares his/her input/outcome ratio to reference person’s (RP) inputs (I) and outcomes (O)
and perceivesand perceivesOP ORP IP
IRP
equity=
OP ORP IP
IRP
inequity<
OP ORP IP
IRP
inequity >
or
or
IP: Inputs of the personIP: Inputs of the person
OP: Outcomes of the personOP: Outcomes of the person
IRP: Inputs of reference personIRP: Inputs of reference person
ORP: Outcomes of reference personORP: Outcomes of reference person
A person (P) with certain inputs (I) and receiving certain outcomes (O)
The Equity Theory of MotivationThe Equity Theory of Motivation
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Alternatives to Restore EquityAlternatives to Restore Equity
Changing inputsChanging inputs
Changing outcomesChanging outcomes
Changing the Changing the reference personreference person
Changing the inputs or Changing the inputs or outcomes of the outcomes of the reference personreference person
Changing the Changing the situationsituation
