Copyright©2001byMichaelMichalkoAllrightsreserved.PublishedintheUnitedStatesbyTenSpeedPress,animprintoftheCrownPublishingGroup,adivisionofRandomHouse,Inc.,NewYork.www.crownpublishing.comwww.tenspeed.com

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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataisonfilewiththepublishereISBN:978-0-30779036-1

v3.1_r1

Dedicatedwithlovetomymother,FrancesBustenMichalko,

whoistheroseinthegardenofmylife.

CONTENTS

CoverTitlePageCopyrightDedication

AcknowledgmentsIntroduction

PartI:SeeingWhatNoOneElseIsSeeingStrategyOne:KnowingHowtoSeeStrategyTwo:MakingYourThoughtVisible

PartII:ThinkingWhatNoOneElseIsThinkingStrategyThree:ThinkingFluentlyStrategyFour:MakingNovelCombinationsStrategyFive:ConnectingtheUnconnectedStrategySix:LookingattheOtherSideStrategySeven:LookinginOtherWorldsStrategyEight:FindingWhatYou’reNotLookingForStrategyNine:AwakeningtheCollaborativeSpirit

AfterwordBibliographyContacttheAuthor

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It’s an author’s practice to acknowledge themany peoplewho haveassisted with the development of the book. And many people havehelpedme.However,thistimearound,Iwouldliketoacknowledge,inprint,theonepersonwhohashelpedmemost,notonlywiththisbook,but in life aswell. Iwould like to thankPat LehmanofMarco Island,Florida,forherwit,wisdom,andfaith,who,amongmanyotherthings,taughtmethatmyreachshouldexceedmygraspfor,asPatputsit,whatelseisheavenfor?

INTRODUCTION

How do geniuses come up with ideas? What is common to thethinking style that producedMona Lisa and the one that spawned thetheory of relativity? What characterizes the thinking strategies of theEinsteins,Edisons,daVincis,Darwins,Picassos,Michelangelos,Galileos,Freuds,andMozartsofhistory?Whatcanwelearnfromthem?Thegoalof this book is to describe these thinking strategies and showhowwecanapplythemtobecomemorecreativeinourworkandpersonallife.For years, scholars and researchers have tried to study genius by

givingitsvitalstatistics,asifpilesofdatasomehowilluminatedgenius.Inhis1904study,HavelockEllisnotedthatmostgeniusesarefatheredbymen older than thirty, hadmothers younger than twenty-five, andwereusuallysicklyaschildren.Otherscholarsreportedthatmanywerecelibate (Descartes, Galileo, Newton) and that others were fatherless(Dickens)ormotherless (Darwin,MarieCurie). In theend, thepilesofdatailluminatednothing.Academics also tried to measure the links between intelligence and

genius.Butintelligenceisnotenough.MarilynvosSavant,whoseIQof228isthehighesteverrecorded,hasnotcontributedmuchtoscienceorart. She is, instead, a question-and-answer columnist for Parademagazine.Run-of-the-mill physicists have IQsmuchhigher thanNobelPrizewinnerRichardFeynman,whommanyacknowledgetobethelastgreatAmericangenius(hisIQwasamerelyrespectable122).Geniusisnotaboutscoring1600ontheSATs,masteringtenlanguages

at the age of seven, finishing theNewYork Times crossword in recordtime,havinganextraordinarilyhighIQ,orevenaboutbeingsmart.Afteraconsiderabledebateinthesixties,initiatedbyJ.P.Guilford,aleadingpsychologistwhocalledforascientificfocusoncreativity,psychologistsreachedtheconclusionthatcreativityisnotthesameasintelligence.Anindividualcanbe farmorecreative thanheorshe is intelligent,or farmoreintelligentthancreative.Mostpeopleofaverageintelligence,givendataorsomeproblem,can

figure out the expected conventional response to the problem. Forexample, when asked, “What is one-half of thirteen?” most of usimmediatelyanswersixandone-half.Youprobablyreachedtheanswerinafewsecondsandthenturnedyourattentionbacktothetext.Typically,we think reproductively, on the basis of similar problemsencountered in thepast.Whenconfrontedwithproblems,we fixateonsomething in our past that has worked before.We ask, “What have Ibeentaughtinmylife,education,orworkthatwillsolvethisproblem?”Thenweanalyticallyselectthemostpromisingapproachbasedonpastexperiences, excluding all other approaches, and work in a clearlydefined direction toward the solution of the problem. Because of theapparent soundnessof thestepsbasedonpastexperiences,webecomearrogantlycertainofthecorrectnessofourconclusion.In contrast, geniuses think productively, not reproductively. Whenconfronted with a problem, they ask themselves how many differentwaystheycanlooktheproblem,howtheycanrethinkit,andhowmanydifferentways theycansolve it, insteadofaskinghowtheyhavebeentaughttosolveit.Theytendtocomeupwithmanydifferentresponses,someofwhichareunconventional,andpossibly,unique.Inresponsetotheearlierquestion,aproductivethinkerwouldsaythattherearemanydifferentways to express “thirteen” andmany differentways to halvesomething.Followingaresomeexamples.

With productive thinking, one generates as many alternativeapproachesasonecan,considering the leastaswellas themost likelyapproaches. It is the willingness to explore all approaches that isimportant,evenafteronehasfoundapromisingone.Einsteinwasonce

askedwhatthedifferencewasbetweenhimandtheaverageperson.Hesaidthatifyouaskedtheaveragepersontofindaneedleinahaystack,thepersonwouldstopwhenheorshefoundaneedle.He,ontheotherhand,wouldtearthroughtheentirehaystacklookingforallthepossibleneedles.Mostpeopleseethispatternasasquarecomposedofsmallersquaresorcircles,orasalternaterowsofsquaresandcircles.Itisn’teasilyseenascolumnsofalternatesquaresandcircles.

Onceit’spointedoutthatitcanalsobeviewedascolumnsofalternatesquaresandcircles,we,ofcourse,seeit.Wehavebecomehabituatedtopassivelyorganizesimilaritemstogetherinourminds.Geniuses,ontheotherhand,subverthabituationbyactivelylookingforalternativewaystolookatandthinkaboutthings.Richard Feynman proposed teaching productive thinking in oureducationalinstitutionsinlieuofreproductivethinking.Hebelievedthatthe successful user of mathematics is an inventor of new ways ofthinking in given situations. Even if the oldways arewell known, hethoughtitisusuallybettertoinventyourownwayoranewwaythanitistolookupanoldsolutionandapplywhatyou’velookedup.Forexample,29+3isconsideredathird-gradeproblem,becauseitrequires the advanced techniqueof carrying; yet Feynmanpointedoutthat a first grader could handle it by thinking 30, 31, 32. Or a childcouldmarknumbersonalineandcountoffthespaces—amethodthatbecomesuseful inunderstandingmeasurements and fractions.One canwritelargernumbersincolumnsandcarrysumslargerthan10,oruse

fingersoralgebra(2 timeswhatplus3 is7?).Heencouragedteachingpeoplehowtothinkaboutproblemsmanydifferentways,usingtrialanderror.Incontrast,reproductivethinkingfostersrigidityofthought,whichis

why we so often fail when confronted with a new problem that issuperficiallysimilartopastexperiences,butisdifferentfrompreviouslyencounteredproblemsinitsdeepstructure.Interpretingsuchaproblemthroughthelensofpastexperiencewill,bydefinition,leadthethinkerastray. Reproductive thinking leads us to the usual ideas and not tooriginalones.Ifyoualwaysthinkthewayyou’vealwaysthought,you’llalwaysgetwhatyou’vealwaysgot—thesameold,sameoldideas.In 1968 the Swiss dominated the watch industry. The Swiss

themselves invented the electronic watch movement at their researchinstitute in Neuchtel, Switzerland. It was rejected, however, by everySwiss watch manufacturer. Based on their experience in the industry,theybelievedtheelectronicwatchcouldn’tpossiblybethewatchofthefuture. After all, it was battery powered, did not have bearings or amainspring, and had almost no gears. Seiko took one look at thisinvention that the Swiss manufacturers rejected at the World WatchCongressthatyearandtookovertheworldwatchmarket.WhenUnivacinvented the computer, they refused to talk to business people whoinquired about it, because they said the computer was invented forscientistsandhadnobusinessapplications.ThenalongcameIBM.IBM,itself,oncesaidthataccordingtotheirpastexperiencesinthecomputermarket,therewasvirtuallynomarketforthepersonalcomputer.Infact,theysaidtheywereabsolutelycertaintherewerenomorethanfiveorsix people in the entireworldwho needed a personal computer. ThenalongcameApple.Weneedtovaryourideasinordertosucceed.Innature,agenepool

that is totally lacking in variationwouldbe totally unable to adapt tochangingcircumstances.Intime,thegeneticallyencodedwisdomwouldconvert to foolishness, with consequences that would be fatal to thespecies’ survival. A comparable process operates within us asindividuals.Weallhavearichrepertoireofideasandconceptsbasedonpastexperiencesthatenableustosurviveandprosper.Butwithoutanyprovisionforthevariationofideas,ourusualideasbecomestagnateandlosetheiradvantages,andintheend,wearedefeatedinourcompetition

withourrivals.Considerthefollowing:

•In1899CharlesDuell,thedirectoroftheU.S.PatentOffice,suggestedthatthegovernmentclosetheofficebecauseeverythingthatcouldbeinventedhadbeeninvented.

•In1923RobertMillikan,notedphysicistandwinneroftheNobelPrize,saidthattherewasabsolutelynolikelihoodthatmancouldharnessthepoweroftheatom.

•PhillipReiss, aGerman, inventedamachine that could transmitmusic in1861.Hewasdays away from inventing the telephone. Every communication expert in Germanypersuadedhimtherewasnomarket forsuchadevice,as the telegraphwasgoodenough.Fifteen years later, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone and became amultimillionaire,withGermanyashisfirstmostenthusiasticcustomer.

•ChesterCarlsoninventedxerographyin1938.Virtuallyeverymajorcorporation,includingIBMandKodak,scoffedathis ideaandturnedhimdown.Theyclaimedthatsincecarbonpaperwascheapandplentiful,nooneintheirrightmindwouldbuyanexpensivecopier.

• Fred Smith, while a student at Yale, came up with the concept of Federal Express, anationalovernightdeliveryservice.TheU.S.PostalService,UPS,hisownbusinessprofessor,andvirtuallyeverydeliveryexpertintheUnitedStatespredictedhisenterprisewouldfail.Basedon theirexperiences in the industry,noone, theysaid,wouldpaya fancyprice forspeedandreliability.

Once we have an idea we think works, it becomes hard for us toconsideralternativeideas.Wetendtodevelopnarrowideasaboutwhatwill work or what can be done and stick with it until provenwrong.Genius,ontheotherhand,operatesmoreinaccordancewiththelawsofbiologicalevolution.I have always been impressed by Darwin’s theory of evolution bynatural selection and am fascinated with scholastic attempts to applyDarwinianideastocreativityandgenius.Myownoutlookaboutgeniushas roots in Donald Campbell’s blind-variation and selective-retentionmodelofcreativethought.CampbellwasnotthefirsttoseetheanalogybetweenDarwinianideasonevolutionandcreativity.Asearlyas1880,thegreatAmericanphilosopher,WilliamJames,inhisessay“GreatMen,Great Thoughts, and the Environment,” made the connection betweenDarwinianideasandgenius.Campbell’sworkhassincebeenelaborated

onbyDeanKeithSimontonandSarnoffMednick.TheirworksuggeststhatgeniusoperatessimilarlytoDarwin’stheory

of biological evolution. Nature is extraordinarily productive. Naturecreatesmanypossibilities throughblind “trial anderror”and then letstheprocessofnaturalselectiondecidewhichspeciessurvive.Innature,95percentofnewspeciesfailanddiewithinashortperiodoftime.Genius is analogous to biological evolution in that it requires the

unpredictable generation of a rich diversity of alternatives andconjectures. From this variety of alternatives and conjectures, theintellect retains the best ideas for further development andcommunication. An important aspect of this theory is that you needsome means of producing variation in your ideas and that for thisvariationtobetrulyeffectiveitmustbe“blind.”Blindvariationimpliesadeparturefromreproductive(retained)knowledge.How do creative geniuses generate so many alternatives and

conjectures?Whyaresomanyoftheirideassorichandvaried?Howdotheyproducethe“blind”variationsthatleadtotheoriginalandnovel?A growing number of scholars are offering evidence that one cancharacterize the way geniuses think. By studying the notebooks,correspondence, conversations, and ideas of the world’s greatestthinkers, they have teased out particular common thinking strategiesthat enabled geniuses to generate a prodigious variety of novel andoriginal ideas, creating a very clearpictureof thenatureof creativity.The strategies are not a set of piecemeal formulas. In harmony, theyprovideatimeless,timely,andsolidframeworkforcreativethought.Thisbookpresents thethinkingstrategiesofcreativegiants fromthe

sciences,arts,andindustry.TheymostnotablyincludeEinstein,Darwin,da Vinci, Freud, Picasso, Edison, Mozart, Richard Feynman, LouisPasteur, Galileo, Walt Whitman, Niels Bohr, Alexander Graham Bell,Aristotle,AlexanderFleming,Michelangelo,Bach,GeorgeWestinghouse,Nikola Tesla,Walt Disney,Martha Graham, T. S. Eliot, Paul Cézanne,Newton, David Bohm, Stravinsky, Tennyson, Edgar Allan Poe, JonasSalk,andBertrandRussell,amongothers.The creative-thinking techniqueswill showyouhow to generate the

ideasandcreativesolutionsyouneedinyourbusinessandpersonallife.Eachtechniquecontainsspecificinstructionsandanexplanationofwhyand how it works—including anecdotes, stories, and examples of how

geniusesimplementedthestrategytoproducetheirbreakthroughideas.Whenyouuse the techniques,youwill rethink thewayyousee thingsandwilllookattheworldinadifferentway.Thismayseemsimple,butyoucannotwillyourselftolookatthings

differently, nomatter how determined you are to do so. To illustrate,followingaretworowsofparalleldots thatareequal in length.Trytowillyourselftoseetherowsofdotsasunequalinlength.Trytowillonerow longer than the other. No matter how hard you concentrate andhowlongyoulookatthedots,thetworowsremainequal.

However,ifyoucombinethedotswithtwoconvergentstraightlines,your perceptionof thedots changes: The top rowappears longer thanthebottom.

The rows are still equal (go ahead andmeasure them), yet you arenowseeingsomethingdifferent.Combining thedotswithstraight lineschanged your focus and caught your brain’s processing routines bysurprise, changing your perception of the pattern and allowing you tosee something that you could not otherwise see. Similarly, thetechniques in this book change the way you think by focusing yourattention in different ways and giving you different ways to interpretwhatyou focuson.The techniqueswill allowyou to lookat the sameinformationaseveryoneelseandseesomethingdifferent.

Itisnotenoughtounderstandthestrategies.Tocreateoriginalideasandcreativesolutions,youmustusethetechniques.TrytoexplainthethrillofclimbingmountainstoanomadwhohasneverlefttheSahara.Youcanshowhimsomecramponsandotherclimbingequipmentandapictureofmountains,andperhapsgetsomeoftheideaacross.However,tofullyrealizethethrillandchallengeofmountainclimbing,ournomadmustputonthecramponsandheadupamountain.Ifyoumerelyreadthesestrategies,youwillhavenomorethanasuggestionofhowtogetideas.You’llbelikethenomadstandinginthedesert,staringatapairofcrampons and a photo of Mt. Everest, with a small notion of whatmountainclimbingmightbelike.Ifyouorganizeyourthinkingaroundthesestrategies,youwilllearntoseewhat no one else is seeing and how to thinkwhat no one else isthinking.Thebookisorganizedintotwoparts.PartI,“SeeingWhatNoOneElseIsSeeing,”presentsstrategiesofgeniuseswholookatproblemsdifferently from the conventionalwayswehave been taught. Youwilllearn how to look at your problem in many different ways. Part II,“ThinkingWhatNoOneElseIsThinking,”istheheartofthebookandpresentssevencreative-thinkingstrategiesthatgeniusesusetogeneratetheirbreakthroughideasandcreativesolutions.Thesearethestrategiesthatarecommon to the thinking stylesofgeniuses in science,art,andindustry throughout history. These strategies will show you how tomultiply your ideas and how to get ideas you cannot get using yourusualwayofthinking.Followingarethumbnaildescriptionsofthestrategies:

PartI:SeeingWhatNoOneElseIsSeeing

Part I, “Seeing What No One Else Is Seeing,” incorporates twostrategies: “KnowingHowtoSee”and“MakingYourThoughtVisible.”These strategies demonstrate how geniuses generate a rich variety ofperspectives and conjectures by representing their problem in manydifferentways,includingdiagrammatically.

1.KnowingHowtoSee.Geniusoftencomesfromfindinganewperspectivethatnooneelsehastaken.LeonardodaVincibelievedthattogainknowledgeabouttheformofproblems,youbeginbylearninghowtorestructureitinmanydifferentways.Hefeltthefirstwayhelooked at a problem was too biased toward his usual way of seeing things. He wouldrestructure his problem by looking at it from one perspective and move to anotherperspective and still another. With each move, his understanding would deepen, and hewouldbegintounderstandtheessenceoftheproblem.Einstein’stheoryofrelativityis, inessence, a description of the interaction between different perspectives. Freud’s analyticalmethodsweredesignedtofinddetailsthatdidnotfitwithtraditionalperspectivesinordertofindacompletelynewpointofview.Perhapsmosttellingaboutgeniusesisthattheydonotapproachproblemsreproductively,that is, on the basis of similar problems encountered in the past. Interpreting problemsthroughpast experiencewill, by definition, lead the thinker astray. In order to creativelysolve a problem, the thinker must abandon the initial approach that stems from pastexperienceandreconceptualizetheproblem.Bynotsettlingwithoneperspective,geniusesdonotmerelysolveexistingproblems,likediscoveringacureforcancer.Theyidentifynewones.Itdoesnottakeageniustoanalyzedreams;itrequiredFreudtoaskinthefirstplacewhatmeaningdreamscarryfromthepsyche.

2. Making Your Thought Visible. The explosion of creativity in the Renaissance wasintimatelytiedtotherecordingandconveyingofavastknowledgeinaparallellanguage;alanguageofdrawings,graphs,anddiagrams—as,forinstance,intherenowneddiagramsofda Vinci and Galileo. Galileo revolutionized science by making his thought visible withdiagrams, maps, and drawings while his contemporaries used conventional mathematicalandverbalapproaches.Once geniuses obtain a certainminimal verbal facility, they seem to develop a skill invisualandspatialabilitiesthatgivesthemtheflexibilitytodisplayinformationindifferentways. When Einstein had thought through a problem, he always found it necessary to

formulatehissubjectinasmanydifferentwaysaspossible,includingdiagrammatically.Hehadaveryvisualmind.Hethoughtintermsofvisualandspatialforms,ratherthanthinkingalongpurelymathematicalorverballinesofreasoning.Infact,hebelievedthatwordsandnumbers, as they are written or spoken, did not play a significant role in his thinkingprocess.

PartII:ThinkingWhatNoOneElseIsThinking

Thefirst strategy,“ThinkingFluently,”presentsasetof timelessandsolid principles on how to produce a quantity of ideas. In addition toproducingmany ideas, an important aspect of genius is themeans toproduceoriginalandnovelvariationsinideas,andforthisvariationtobe trulyeffective, itmustbe“blind.”Thenext five strategies, “MakingNovel Combinations,” “Connecting the Unconnected,” “Looking at theOtherSide,”“LookinginOtherWorlds,”and“FindingWhatYou’reNotLookingFor,”demonstratehowgeniusesgetnovelandoriginalideasbyincorporatingchanceorrandomnessintothecreativeprocessinordertodestabilize their existing patterns of thinking and reorganize theirthoughts innewways.The last strategy,“Awakening theCollaborativeSpirit,”presents theconditions foreffectivegroupbrainstormingandacollectionofworld-classbrainstormingtechniques.

1. Thinking Fluently. A distinguishing characteristic of genius is immense productivity.Thomas Edison held 1,093 patents, still the record.He guaranteed productivity by givinghimself and his assistants idea quotas. His own personal quota was oneminor inventioneverytendaysandamajor inventioneverysixmonths.Bachwroteacantataeveryweek,even when he was sick or exhausted. Mozart producedmore than six hundred pieces ofmusic.Einsteinisbestknownforhispaperonrelativity,buthepublished248otherpapers.T. S. Eliot’s numerous drafts of “The Waste Land” constitute a jumble of good and badpassagesthateventuallywasturnedintoamasterpiece.Nature creates many possibilities and then lets the process of natural selection decidewhichspeciessurvive.Mostdonotsurvive;infact,95percentofnewspeciesfailanddieina short period of time. In a study of 2,036 scientists throughout history, Dean KeithSimontonfoundthatthemostrespectedproducednotonlymoregreatworks,butalsomore“bad”ones.Outoftheirmassivequantityofworkcamequality.Geniusesproduce.Period.

2.MakingNovelCombinations.Inhis1988book,ScientificGenius,DeanKeithSimontonoftheUniversity of California,Davis, suggests that geniuses are geniuses because they formmore novel combinations than the merely talented. His theory has etymology behind it:Cogito—“I think” “—originally connoted “shake together.” Intelligo, the root of intelligence,meansto“selectamong.”Thisisaclearearlyintuitionabouttheutilityofpermittingideasand thoughts to randomly combinewith each other and the utility of selecting from the

many the few to retain. Like the highly intelligent childwith a pail of Legos, a genius isconstantly combining and recombining ideas, images, and thoughts into differentcombinations in their conscious and subconscious minds. Consider Einstein’s equation,E=mc2.Einsteindidnotinventtheconceptsofenergy,mass,orspeedoflight.Rather,bycombiningtheseconceptsinanovelway,hewasabletolookatthesameworldaseveryoneelse and see something different. Einstein vaguely referred to the way he thought as“combinatory play.” In fact, combinatory play seemed to be the essential feature in hisproductivethought.

3.Connecting theUnconnected. If one particular style of thought stands out for creativegeniuses,itistheabilitytomakejuxtapositionsthateludemeremortals.Callitafacilitytoconnect theunconnectedby forcing relationships that enable them to see things towhichothersareblind.LeonardodaVinciforcedarelationshipbetweenthesoundofabellandastonehittingwater.Thisenabledhimtomaketheconnectionthatsoundtravelsinwaves.In1865 F. A. Kekule intuited the shape of the ringlike benzene molecule by forcing arelationshipwithadreamofasnakebitingitstail.SamuelMorsewasstumpedwhiletryingtofigureouthowtoproduceasignalstrongenoughtobereceivedcoasttocoast.Onedayhe saw horses being exchanged at a relay station and forced a connection between relaystationsforhorsesandstrongsignals.Thesolutionwastogivethetravelingsignalperiodicboostsofpower.NikolaTeslaforcedaconnectionbetweenthesettingsunandamotorthatmade theACmotorpossiblebyhaving themotor’smagnetic field rotate inside themotorjustasthesun(fromourperspective)rotatesaroundtheearth.

4.LookingattheOtherSide.PhysicistandphilosopherDavidBohmbelievedgeniuseswereabletothinkdifferentthoughtsbecausetheycouldtolerateambivalencebetweenoppositeorincompatiblesubjects.Dr.AlbertRothenberg,anotedresearcheronthecreativeprocess,identified this ability in a wide variety of geniuses, including Einstein, Mozart, Edison,Pasteur, JosephConrad,Picasso, andNielsBohr.Bohrbelieved that if youheldoppositestogether, then you suspend your thought and your mind moves to a new level. Thesuspensionofthoughtallowsanintelligencebeyondthoughttoactandcreateanewform.The swirling of opposites creates the conditions for a newpoint of view to bubble freelyfrom yourmind. Bohr’s ability to imagine light as both a particle and awave led to hisconceptionoftheprincipleofcomplementarity.

5.LookinginOtherWorlds.Aristotleconsideredmetaphorasignofgenius,believingthattheindividualwhohadthecapacitytoperceiveresemblancesbetweentwoseparateareasofexistencewasapersonofspecialgifts.Ifunlikethingsarereallyalikeinsomeways,perhapstheyare so inothers.AlexanderGrahamBell observed the comparisonbetween the inner

workings of the ear and themovement of a stout piece ofmembrane tomove steel andconceived the telephone. Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, in one day, afterdeveloping an analogy between a toy funnel and themotions of a paperman and soundvibrations.Underwaterconstructionwasmadepossiblebyobservinghowshipwormstunnelintotimberbyfirstconstructingtubes.Einsteinderivedandexplainedmanyofhisabstractprinciples by drawing analogies with everyday occurrences such as rowing a boat orstandingonaplatformwhileatrainpassed.

6.FindingWhatYouAreNotLookingFor.Wheneverweattemptsomethingand fail,weend up doing something else. As simplistic as this statement may seem, it is the firstprinciple of creative accident.Wemay ask ourselveswhywe have failed to dowhatweintended—and this is the reasonable, expected thing to do—but the creative accidentprovokesadifferentquestion:Whathavewedone?Answeringthatquestioninanovel,unexpectedwayisanessentialcreativeact.Itisnotluck,butcreativeinsightofthehighestorder.AlexanderFlemingwasnotthefirstphysiciantonoticethemoldthatformedonanexposedculturewhilestudyingdeadlybacteria.Alessgiftedphysicianwouldhavetrashedthisseeminglyirrelevantevent,butFlemingnoteditas“interesting” and wondered if it had potential. This “interesting” observation led topenicillin,whichhassavedmillionsoflives.ThomasEdison,whileponderinghowtomakeacarbonfilament,wasmindlesslytoyingwith a piece of putty, turning and twisting it in his fingers,whenhe lookeddown at hishandsandtheanswerhithimbetweentheeyes:Twistthecarbonlikerope.B. F. Skinner emphasized a first principle of scientific methodologists: When you findsomething interesting, drop everything else and study it. Too many fail to answeropportunity’s knock at the door because they have to finish some preconceived plan.Creative geniuses do not wait for the gifts of chance; instead, they actively seek theaccidentaldiscovery.

7.AwakeningtheCollaborativeSpirit.Thenotionthatthecollectiveintelligenceofagroupislargerthantheintelligenceofanindividualcanbetracedbacktoprimitivetimeswhenhunter-gathererbandswouldmeettodiscussandsolvecommonproblems.Itisacommonlyunderstood and accepted practice. What’s difficult is for a group to come together in acollegial atmosphere that will allow thinking to grow through open and honestcollaboration.This sectionpresents theprinciplesandconditions forparticipants to retaintheirindividualitywhilecombiningtheireffortsandtalentsinagroupinwaysthatarevitaltocreatingacooperativesynthesis.

Summary

Creativegeniusesaregeniusesbecausetheyknow“how”tothinkinsteadof “what” to think. Sociologist Harriet Zuckerman published aninteresting study of the Nobel Prize winners who were living in theUnitedStatesin1977.ShediscoveredthatsixofEnricoFermi’sstudentswon theprize.ErnestLawrenceandNielsBohreachhad four studentswho won them. J. J. Thomson and Ernest Rutherford between themtrained seventeen Nobel laureates. Thiswas no accident. It is obviousthattheseNobellaureateswerenotonlycreativeintheirownright,butwere also able to teach others how to think. Zuckerman’s subjectstestified that their influential masters taught them different thinkingstylesandstrategies,ratherthanwhattothink.Ifyouhavetheintentionofbecomingmorecreativeinyourworkand

personal life and apply the thinking strategies in this book, you willbecome more creative. You may not become another da Vinci orEinstein, but you will become much more creative than someonewithouttheintentionorknowledge.Thereisnowayofknowinghowfarthesethingscantakeyou.Weliveinaworldthatoffersnoguarantees,onlyopportunities.

PARTI

SEEINGWHATNOONEELSEISSEEING

TheFrenchartistPaulCézannebroughtforthanewconsciousnessofthe multiplicity of perspectives inherent in viewing the world. Hisexplorationstartedwitharathersimplefact:Ifoneapproachedavisualsurface firstwithoneeyeopenandthenclosedthateyeand lookedatthe same areawith the other eye, the view changed. Similarly, if onechangedposition, theviewwasalteredagain.Cézanne’sgeniuswas torecognizethecreativepossibilitiesthesedifferencesofperceptionofferedtheartistinviewingtheworld,andhechangedthenatureofart.

CountupthenumberofOsinthefollowingdiagram.

The usual way to solve this puzzle is to count theOs one by one.However, it ismucheasierandquicker ifyouchangeyourperspectiveand count theXs. You can find the number ofOs bymultiplying thenumber of Xs andOs along one edge of the diagram by the numberalongtheotheredgeandthensubtractingthesmallnumberofXsfromthistotal.TheansweristhenumberofOs.Bylookingattheprobleminadifferentway,wefoundaneasierandquickerwaytosolveit.A cataract builds over time and its effects become obvious slowly,because the change goes almost unnoticed until the cataract reducesvision significantly. Likewise, the habits and routines with which weapproachproblemsgraduallyaccumulateuntiltheysignificantlyreduce

our awareness of other possibilities. Our original creativity eventuallyyields to routine and habit. Fortunately, we can remove our habitualways of perceiving and thinking by changing our perspectives andlearninghowtolookatourproblemsinmanydifferentways.Consider the following illustration of two equal lines.We recognizethat1+1=2.Thisislookingatitfromtheperspectiveof“borders”and“edges.”Ifyouchangeyourperspectivefrom“borders”and“edges”to “area” and “surface,” you can count equal widths and count threewidths(oneofthembeingnegative).Now1+1=3.Furthermore,ofthetwostrips,ifyoucrosstheonehorizontallyovertheother,youcancreate four arms or extensions and 1 + 1 = 4. You can also, withimagination, see four rectangles, four triangles, and four squares. Byshifting centers and angles, arms and the in-between figures becomeunequal.Altogether,onelineplusonelineresultsinmanymeanings.

Looking at the two lines in different ways illustrates that anyparticular way of looking at things is only one from among manypossibleways.When you look at a problemusing several perspectivesinsteadofonestabilizedview,youbring forthanewunderstandingofthepossibilities.Thisiswhygeniusescultivatemoreperspectivesthanistypical.Aristotle,forinstance,soughtseveraldifferenttypesof“causes”inhisanalyses.LeonardodaVinci systematicallyusedseveraldifferentperspectiveswhenentertainingideas,andEinsteinformulatedproblemsmanyways,includingvisually.ThestrategiesinPartIdemonstratehowcreativegeniusesgeneratearich variety of different perspectives by representing a problem indifferentways.Theyincludethefollowing:

•Restatingaproblemmanydifferentways•Diagramming,mapping,anddrawingaproblem

Imagineyouhadabagofblackgumballsandjustonewhitegumball.

Thechancesofpickingthewhitegumballwouldbelow.Ifyouaddedfivemorewhitegumballs to thebag,yourchancesofpickingawhiteone would increase. If you added ten more white gum balls, yourchances would increase evenmore. Looking at a problem in differentwaysisasdefiniteaprocedureasputtingmorewhiteballsintothebag.Eachtimeyou lookataprobleminadifferentway,you increaseyourprobabilityofdiscoveringtheuniqueperspectiveorinsightthatwillleadtothebreakthroughidea.

STRATEGYONE:KNOWINGHOWTOSEE

LeonardodaVincibelievedthattogainknowledgeabouttheformofaproblem,youbeganbylearninghowtorestructureittoseeitinmanydifferent ways. He felt the first way he looked at a problem was toobiased toward his usual way of seeing things. He would look at hisproblemfromoneperspectiveandmovetoanotherperspectiveandstillanother. With each move, his understanding would deepen, and hewouldbegintounderstandtheessenceoftheproblem.Leonardocalledthisthinkingstrategysapervedereor“knowinghowtosee.”Geniusoftencomesfromfindinganewperspective.Einstein’stheory

of relativity is, in essence, a description of the interaction betweendifferentperspectives.Freudwould“reframe”somethingtotransformitsmeaningbyputtingitintoadifferentcontextfromhowithaspreviouslybeenperceived.Forexample,byreframingtheunconsciousasapartofthemind thatwas“infantile,”Freudbegan tohelphispatientschangethewaytheythoughtaboutandreactedtotheirownbehavior.One of the many ways our minds attempt to make life easier is to

create a first impression of a problem. Like our first impressions ofpeople,ourinitialperspectivesonproblemsandsituationsareapttobenarrowandsuperficial.Weseenomorethanwe’vebeenconditionedtosee—and stereotyped notions block clear vision and crowd outimagination. This happens without any alarms sounding, so we neverrealizeit’soccurring.Oncewehavesettledonaperspective,wecloseoffallbutonelineof

thought.Certainkindsofideasoccurtous,butonlythosekindsandnoothers.Whatiftheparalyzedmanwhoinventedthemotorizedcarthaddefinedhisproblemas“HowcanIoccupymytimewhilelyinginbed?”ratherthan“HowcanIgetoutofbedandmovearoundthehouse?”Haveyoueverlookedcloselyatthewheelsonarailroadtrain?They

are flanged.That is, theyhavea lipon the inside toprevent the train

from sliding off the track. Originally train wheels were not flanged.Instead, the railroad tracks were. The problem of railroad safety hadbeenexpressed“Howcanthetracksbemadesaferfortrainstorideon?”Hundreds of thousands of miles of track were manufactured with anunnecessarysteellip.Onlywhentheproblemwasredefined—”Howcanthe wheels be made to stay on the track more securely?”—was theflangedwheelinvented.Tostartwith,it’shelpfultophraseproblemsinaparticularway.Writetheproblemyouwanttosolveasadefinitequestion.Usethephrase“InwhatwaysmightI…?”tostartaproblemstatement.Thisissometimesknown as the invitational stem and helps keep you from settling on aproblemstatementthatmayreflectonlyoneperceptionoftheproblem.Forexample,intheseriesoflettersbelow,crossoutsixletterstomakeacommonword.

CSRIEXLEATTTERES

Ifyoustatetheproblemas“HowcanIcrossoutsixletterstoformacommonword?”you’llfinditdifficulttosolve.If,instead,youframedit“Inwhatwaysmight I cross out six letters to forma commonword?”you will likely find yourself inspired to think of many alternativepossible solutions, including the solutionwhich is to literally crossoutthelettersS,I,X,L,E,T,T,andsoon,leavingtheword“CREATE.”Anumberofexperimentshaveshownthesignificanceoflanguageforproblemsolving.Adultswhowriteoutorverbalizeproblemsperformfarbetterthanthosewhosilentlygoaboutthejob.Considerthefollowingproblem.Fourcardsarelaidoutwiththeirfacesdisplaying,respectively,anE,aK,afourandaseven.Youaretoldthateachcardhasaletterononesideandanumberontheother.Youarethengivenarule,whosetruthyouareexpectedtoevaluate.Theruleis“Ifacardhasavowelonone side, then it has an even number on the other.” You are thenallowed to turn over two, but only two, cards in order to deteminewhethertheruleiscorrectasstated.

Ifyouworkedthisproblemsilently,youwillalmostcertainlymisstheanswer, as have over 90 percent of the people to whom it has beenpresented.Most people realize that there is noneed to select the cardbearing the consonant, since it is irrelevant to the rule; they alsounderstandthatitisessentialtoturnoverthecardwiththevowel,foran odd number opposite would prove the rule incorrect. Most peoplemakethefatalerrorofpickingthecardwiththeevennumber,becausethe evennumber ismentioned in the rule. But, in fact, it is irrelevantwhetherthereisavoweloraconsonantontheotherside,sincetheruledoes not state what must be opposite to even numbers. On the otherhand,it isessentialtopickthecardwiththeoddnumberonit. Ifthatcardhasaconsonantonit,theresultisirrelevant.If,however,thecardhasavowelonit,theruleinquestionhasbeenprovedincorrect,forthecardmust(accordingtotherule)haveaneven(andnotanodd)numberonit.Thefactthatthisproblemproveshard(eventhough,onceexplained,it seems evident enough) shouldmake one consider howa problem isstated. The content of this specific problem determined how weproceededandhowwe screweduponanapparently simple reasoningtask. Subjects who framed the challenge as “In what ways might Ievaluatethestatementasgiven?”andlookedatitfromdifferentanglesweremorelikelytosolveit.Geniusoftencomes fromfindinganewperspectiveonaproblembyrestructuring it in some way. When Richard Feynman, the Nobellaureatephysicist,was“stuck”withaproblem,hewouldlookatitinadifferent way. If one way didn’t work, he would switch to another.Whatever came up, he would always find another way to look at it.Feynman would do something in ten minutes that would take theaveragephysicist ayearbecausehehada lotofways to representhisproblem.The important thing is not to persist with one way of looking at aproblem.Considerthefollowinginterestingtwist,againusingfourcards.This time, however, each card has a city on one side and a mode oftransportationontheother.Thecardshaveprintedonthemthelegends,respectively,“LosAngeles,”“NewYork,”“airplane,”and“car”;andtheruleis“EverytimeIgotoLosAngeles,Itravelbyairplane.”Whilethisruleisidenticaltothenumber-letterversion,itposeslittledifficultyfor

individuals. Infact,now80percentofsubjects immediatelyrealizetheneedtoturnoverthecardwith“car”onit.Apparently,onerealizesthatifthecardwith“car”onithasthename“LosAngeles”ontheback,therulehasbeenprovedincorrect;whereasitisimmaterialwhatitsaysonthebackofthe“airplane”since,asfarastheruleisconcerned,onecangotoNewYorkanywayonewants.Whyis it that80percentofsubjectsget thisproblemright,whereas

only 10 percent know which cards to turn over in the vowel-numberversion? By changing the content (cities and modes of transportationsubstitutedforlettersandnumbers),werestructuredtheproblem,whichdramatically changedour reasoning.The structureof aproblemcolorsourperspectiveandthewaywethink.Add up the following numbers in your head as quickly as you can

withoutusingpencilandpaper.

Forsomereason,ourbrainshavetroubleprocessingthesenumbersinthis particular arrangement, especially for those of us who have beentaughttoaddusingabase-tennumbersystem.Manyofuscomeupwith5,000 as the answer. This is incorrect. The correct answer is 4,100. Itseemsthateventhestructureofasimplearithmeticproblemcanconfuseourbrainsandleadusastray.As a boy, Einstein had a favorite uncle, Jakob, who taught him

mathematicsbychangingthecontentof theexercises.Forexample,hewouldpresentalgebraasagameabouthuntingasmallmysteryanimal(X).Whenyoubagyourgame(solvetheproblem),youpounceonitandgiveititsrightname.Bychangingthecontentandconvertingmathintoa game, he taught Einstein to approach problems as play rather thanwork. Consequently, Einstein focused on his studieswith the intensity

thatmostpeoplereservedforplay.Consider the letter-string FFMMTT. You’d probably describe this asthreepairsofletters.Ifyou’regivenKLMMNOTUV,you’dprobablyseeitas three letter triplets. In each case, the letters MM are perceiveddifferently:asonechunkoraspartsoftwodifferentchunks.IfyouweregivenMMalone,you’dhavenoreason for seeing itaseitherandnowwouldseeitasasimplepairofletters.It’sthecontextoftheinformationthat inclinesyou todescribean input ina certainwayandperhaps toabandonaninitialdescriptionforanother.Themoretimesyoustateaprobleminadifferentway,themorelikelyit is that your perspective will change and deepen. When Einsteinthoughtaboutaproblem,healwaysfounditnecessarytoformulatehissubject inasmanydifferentwaysaspossible.Hewasonceaskedwhathe would do if he was told that a huge comet would hit and totallydestroy the earth in one hour. Einstein said he would spend fifty-fiveminutes figuring out how to formulate the question and five minutessolving it.What Freud says about the subconscious sounds like a newscience,butinfact,itisjustameansofrepresentingthesubjectinanewway.WhataCopernicusorDarwinreallyachievedwasnotthediscoveryofanewtheory,butafertilenewpointofview.Beforeyoubrainstormanyproblem,restatetheproblemat least fiveto ten times to generatemultiple perspectives. The emphasis is not somuch on the right problem definition but on alternative problemdefinitions. Sooner or later, you’ll find one that you are comfortablewith.Followingareseveraldifferentwaystorestructureyourproblem:

•Makeitmoreglobalandspecific.•Separatethepartsfromthewhole.•Changethewordsinsomefashion.•Makepositiveactionstatements.•Switchperspective.•Usemultipleperspectives.•Usequestions.

GlobalandSpecificAbstractions

Onecanalwayslookatanythingfromdifferent levelsofabstraction.A

very detailed description of a beach would include every position ofevery grain of sand. Viewed from a higher vantage point, the detailsbecome smeared together, the grains become a smooth expanse ofbrown.Atthislevelofdescription,differentqualitiesemerge:theshapeofthecoastline,theheightofthedunes,andsoon.Abstraction is a basic principle in restructuring a problem. For

instance, the standard procedure in physical science is to makeobservations or to collect systematic data and to derive principles andtheories therefrom.Einsteindespairedofcreatingnewknowledge fromalready existing knowledge. How, he thought, can the conclusion gobeyond the premises? So he reversed this procedure and worked at ahigher level of abstraction. This bold stance enabled him to creativelyexaminefirstprinciples(forexample,theconstancyofthespeedoflightindependent of relative motion). Einstein took as his starting premiseandsimplyreasonedfromtheabstractionswhatotherswerenotwillingto accept because the abstractions could not be demonstrated byexperimentation.EvenGalileousedthoughtexperimentstoimagineapossibleworldin

which a vacuumexisted. In thiswayhe could propose the astoundinghypothesis that all objects fall through a vacuum with the sameacceleration regardless of their weight. No laboratory vacuums largeenough to demonstrate this spectacular idea existed until years afterGalileo’s death. Today, this demonstration is standard fare in manysciencemuseums,where there are two evacuated columns inwhich abrickandfeatherreleasedatthesamemomentfallsidebysideandhitthefloortogether.It’simportanttospendtimerephrasingproblemsinbothmoreglobal

and more specific ways. More specific problem statements lead toquickersolutionsbutlessconceptualcreativitythangeneralstatements.Think of the difference between cleaning up the oil spilled on yourdrive-wayandtheproblemofenvironmentalpollution,orthedifferencebetween developing a new computer keyboard and developing a newnicheintheglobalinformationbusiness.Lookfortheappropriatelevelofabstraction,thebestviewpointfrom

whichtogatherideas.Inthe1950s,expertsbelievedthattheoceangoingfreighterwasdying.Costswererising,andittooklongerandlongertogetmerchandisedelivered.Theshippingindustryexpertsdownsizedthe

crewandbuiltfastershipsthatrequiredlessfuel.Costsstillkeptgoingup,but the industrykept focusing its effortson reducing specific costsrelatedtoshipswhileatseaandwhileworking.Ashipiscapitalequipmentandthebiggestcostforcapitalequipment

is the cost of not working, because interest has to be paid withoutincome being generated to pay for it. Finally, an outside consultantglobalized the challenge to “Inwhatwaysmight the shipping industryreducecosts?”This allowed the shipping companies to consider all aspects of

shipping,includingloadingandstowing.Theinnovationthatsavedtheindustrywastoseparateloadingfromstowing,bydoingtheloadingonland,beforetheshipisinport.Itismuchquickertoputonandtakeoffpreloaded freight. The answers were the roll-on/roll-off ship and thecontainership.Port timehasbeenreducedbythree-quarters,andwithit,congestionandtheft.Freightertraffichasincreasedfivefoldinthelastthirtyyears,andcostsaredownby60percent.Wideningtheproblembymakingitmoreabstractmadeitpossiblefor

the shipping companies to challenge assumptions, generate newperspectives,anduncoveranewapproachtotheproblem.Accordingtohis autobiographical study, Freud believed that one of the keys to hisgeniuswashisabilitytowidenproblemsandmakethemmoreabstractand complex.When hewidened his problem space andmade itmoreabstract, hewould identifywhathe calledhis “missing links” (gapsofinformation). Once he identified the “missing links,” he utilized hisimagination, using what he called “free creation,” to interpret themeaningof thesemissing links.These interpretationswouldsometimesleadtoanewapproachtoaproblem.Perceivingyourproblem fromdifferent levelsof abstraction changes

the implications of the problem. To find the appropriate level ofabstraction,ask“Why?”fourorfivetimes,untilyoufindthelevelwhereyou’recomfortable.Supposeyourchallengeis“InwhatwaysmightIsellmoreChevroletLuminas?”

StepOne:WhydoyouwanttosellmoreLuminas?“Becausemycarsalesaredown.”

StepTwo:Whydoyouwanttosellmorecars?“Toimprovemyoverallsales.”

StepThree:Whydoyouwanttoimproveoverallsales?“Toimprovemybusiness.”

StepFour:Whydoyouwanttoimproveyourbusiness?“Toincreasemypersonalwealth.”

StepFive:Whydoyouwanttoimproveyourpersonalwealth?“Toleadthegoodlife.”

Nowyoushapeyourchallengeinavarietyofways:

InwhatwaysmightIsellmoreLuminas?InwhatwaysmightIsellmorecars?InwhatwaysmightIimproveoverallsales?InwhatwaysmightIimprovemybusiness?InwhatwaysmightIimprovemypersonalwealth?InwhatwaysmightIleadthegoodlife?

Look for the levelofabstractionwhereyou’recomfortable.Youmaychoose to stickwith theoriginalchallengeof sellingmoreLuminas,oryou may choose a more global challenge of improving your personalwealth. By phrasing the problems as improving your personal wealth,you are free to embrace more opportunities. You could negotiate ahighercommissionreturnforeachvehiclesold,gointoanotherbusiness,makeinvestments,sellotherproducts,andsoon.If you find it difficult to thinkabout thewholeproblem, takea lessglobalapproach.Tryfocusingononepartatatime.Identifyeachpartasa subproblem. This makes your challenge easier to handle. Imaginetryingtofindanaddress,knowingthatitwassomewhereinMontreal.Ifyou knew it was west of OldMontreal, it would be easier to find. Ifsomeone told you it was within walking distance of the HotelBonaventure,itwouldbestilleasiertofind.Soitiswithchallenges.Themorespecificallyyoudefineyourchallenge,theeasier it is togenerateideas.Askwho,what,where,when,why,andhow.

Whohelpsyou identify individualsandgroupswhomightbe involved inyour challenge,havespecialstrengthsorresourcesoraccesstousefulinformation,andwhomightgainfromaresolutionoftheproblem.What helps identify all the things involved in the situation: the requirements, difficultiesinvolved,rewards,andadvantagesanddisadvantagesofformulatingaresolution.

Whereconsiderstheplaces,locations,andfocalpointsoftheproblems.Whenprobestheschedules,dates,andtimelinessofthesituation.Whyhelpsyoureachanunderstandingofyourbasicobjective.How helps you recognize how the situation developed, actions that may have beenattemptedorarenowoccurring,andstepsthatmightbetaken.

Definingyourproblemasspecificallyasyoucanhelpsyouidentifythemostimportantpartorpartsoftheproblemandtheirboundaries.

SeparatethePartsfromtheWhole

Seeing is one of the most comprehensive operations possible: Yourvisionencompassesan infinityof formsandobjects,yet it fixesonbutone object at a time. Similarly, when Leonardo da Vinci embraced asubject, he would see the whole but would move from one detail toanother, seeking the origin or cause of each detail. He believed yougainedknowledgebyseparatingthepartsfromthewholeandexaminingalltherelationshipsandkeyfactorsthatmayinfluenceagivensituation.

FishboneDiagrams

ProfessorKaoruIshikawaoftheUniversityofTokyoincorporatedthisstrategy in his Ishikawa diagram, which is commonly known as the“fishbone”diagrambecauseofitsuniqueshape.Thefishbonediagramisa way to visually organize and examine all the factors that mayinfluence a given situation by identifying all the possible causes thatproduceaneffect.Aneffectisadesirableorundesirableresultproducedbyaseriesofcauses.Inteachingthistool,theJapaneseoftenuseasaneffect a “perfect plate of rice.” In a typical diagram,minor causes areclustered around four major cause categories. For example, commonmajor cause categories in the manufacturing process might be“materials,” “people,” “methods,” and “machinery,” and major causecategories in public education might be “teachers,” “methods,”“environment,”“students,”and“policies.”Supposewewanttoimprovecreativityinourorganization.Following

areguidelinesforfishboningthesituation:

1.Oureffectwouldbe“perfectorganizationalcreativity.”Wewouldwritethisintheboxontheright(thefish’shead).Astraightlineisdrawntothelefttoresemblethebackboneofthefish.

2.Thenextstepistobrainstormthemajorcausecategories.Whatarethemajorcausesthatwouldproduceperfectorganizationalcreativity?Youcanhaveasmanymajorcausesasarewarranted. There are typically three to six.We decide that the fourmajor categories fororganizational creativity are “People,” “Environment,” “Materials,” and “Policies.” Themajorcausecategoriesbecometheribsofthefish.

3. Minor causes are then grouped around the major causes as fish bones. “Train to becreative”wouldbeaboneattachedtothe“People”rib,and“stimulating”wouldbeaboneattachedtothe“Environment”rib.

4.Foreachminorcause,ask,“Howcanwemakethishappen?”Thenposttheresponseasbranchesoffthebones.“Hireanoutsideexperttoconductthetraining”wouldbeabranchoffthe“Train”bone.

To fishboneanexistingproblem,youwrite theproblem in the fish’shead, identify the major cause categories of the problem, and groupminor causes around the ribs. Then for each minor cause, ask, “Whydoes this happen?” Post the responses as branches off the appropriatebone. In theexampleonthispage,acompany’snewproducthadpoorsales. By fishboning the effect, they discovered that the causes weremany, including a poorly designed product that came out too late, asales staff that was too small and poorly trained, lack of advertisingmoneybecausetheheadofmarketingdidnotbuyin,andthefailuretofind the right distribution channels because the targetmarketwas notclearlydefined.Onceallthecausesareidentifiedandgroupedaroundtheappropriate

category, brainstorm for solutions andplace the solutions on the rightsideoftherib.Inagroupbrainstormingsession,writetheprobleminthefish’shead

onalargesheetofpapertapedtothewall.(Usealargesheetorsheetsto give participants plenty of room to diagram.) Once the ribs (majorcauses)aredrawn,thegroupbrainstormscausesanddiagramsthemonthe left sideof the ribs.Foreachcause,ask, “Whydoes thishappen?”

Thenposttheresponses.Onceallthecauseshavebeenidentified,possiblesolutionsandideas

(usually twoor threepercause)aregeneratedandplacedon therightsideoftherib.UseadifferentcolorPost-itnoteforeach.Thistechniquerealizes its fullest potential when the group brainstorms the diagramovermorethanonesession.

Fishboning allows you to see the relationships between causes andeffects,allowsyoutoconsiderallthedifferentpartsofasituation,andallows you to identify those areas where you need more data orinformation. It also triggers your subconscious. Ishikawa described theprocess as one in which you fishbone your problem and let it cookovernight. When you come back to it, you’ll be amazed at the newthoughtsandideasthatyoursubconscioushascookedup.

WordsandWordChains

WhileitseemsclearthatAristotlewasresponsibleforproducingsomeof the greatest advances in human thought, modern society andeducation have focused more on the discoveries than on the mentalprocessesandstrategiesthroughwhichthediscoveriesweremade.Inhisbook On Interpretation Aristotle described how words and chains ofwordswerepowerfultoolsforthoughtthatbothreflectedandshapedhisthinking.Aristotlebelievedthatthewordsandchainsofwordsthatweuseinframingaproblemplayasignificantroleinthewayweapproachproblems.Considerthefollowingproblem:Patchesofwaterliliesdoubleinarea

everytwenty-fourhours.Onthefirstdayofsummer,thereisonewaterlily on the lake. Sixty days later, the lake is completely covered withwaterlilies.Onwhichdayisthelakehalfcovered?The words “double,” “twenty-four,” “one,” “on which day,” and

“sixty”coaxmostpeopletodividethesixtydaysbytwoandproposethethirtieth day as the solution, but since the lilies increase in areageometrically,thisanswerisincorrect.Theliliescoverhalfthepondonthenext-to-lastday.Thewordingoftheprobleminfluencesustocomeupwiththeincorrectanswer.Thoughtisfluid.Whenyouframeaprobleminwords,youcrystallize

your thoughts.Words give articulation and precision to vague imagesand hazy intuitions. But a crystal is no longer fluid and committingyourselftothefirstwordsthatcometomindmaydisruptyourthoughtprocess.

RephrasetheProblem

RichardFeynmanoncereviewedhischildren’sschoolbooks.Onebookbegan with pictures of a mechanical windup dog, a real dog, and amotorcycle,andforeachthesamequestion:“Whatmakesitmove?”Theproposedanswer—”Energymakesitmove“—enragedhim.That was a tautology, he argued—an empty definition. Feynman,

havingmadeacareerofunderstandingthedeepabstractionsofenergy,said itwouldbebetter tobeginasciencecourseby takingaparta toydog, revealing the cleverness of the gears and ratchets. To tell a first-graderthat“energymakesitmove”wouldbenomorehelpful,hesaid,thansaying“Godmakesitmove”or“movability”makesitmove.He proposed teaching students how to rephrase what they learn in

their own language, without using definitions. For instance, withoutusing theword “energy,” tellmewhatyouknownowabout thedog’smotion.Other standard explanationswere just as hollow to Feynman.When

someonetoldhimthatfrictionmakesshoeleatherwearout,hisresponsewas “Shoe leatherwears outbecause it rubs against the sidewalk, and

thelittlenotchesandbumpsonthesidewalkgrabpiecesandpullthemoff.” That is knowledge. To simply say, “It is because of friction,” ismeaningless,anemptydefinition.Always try to rephraseaproblem inyourownwords,withoutusing

definitions. InanotherfamousFeynmanexample,hewasworkingwithNASA engineers on a serious problem, and they kept defining theproblem as a “pressure-induced vorticity oscillatory wa-wa orsomething.” After considerable time and discussion had passed, aconfusedFeynman finallyasked them if theywere trying todescribeawhistle.Tohisamazement,theywere.Theproblemtheyweretryingtocommunicate to him exhibited the characteristics of a simple whistle.Onceheunderstoodwhattheyweretryingtodo,hesolvedtheprobleminstantly.This figure is a square defined by four dots.A square is a rectangle

withfourequalsidesandfourninety-degreeangles.Movetwodotsandcreateasquaretwiceasbigastheonedefinedbythedotsastheyarepresentlyarranged.(sixty-secondtimelimit)

Solution: The trick is theword “square.” The definition of theword“square” biases your thinking and diminishes your capacity to see therightanswer.Mostpeopletrytosolvethisproblembykeepingthesidesofthelargersquareparallelwiththesmallerone.Thatwon’twork.Butif you rephrase the problem and rethink the illustration, you mightfigureoutthatadiamondisa“squareonapoint.”Thenbyconnectingonediagonalandthenmovingthetwootherdotstomaketheremainderofthepoints,you’vegotasquaretwiceaslargeastheoriginalone.

ChangetheWords

Foreverywordapersonuses,psychologists say there isamediatingresponse thatprovides themeaningof thatconcept for that individual.Thus, our response to theword “square” in the aboveproblemwas tothinkofconstructinga larger squareparallel to the smallerone.Whenwedefinedasquareasadiamond,theproblemwaseasilysolved.Justwhat the mediating responses are for all words is not known. Manytimes they may not be responses in the usual sense, but all providemeaning for individuals.Whenyouchange thewords inyourproblemstatement,you initiateanunobservableprocess inyourmindthatmayleadtoanewthoughtoridea.A few years back, Toyota asked employees for ideas on how theycould become more productive. They received few suggestions. Theyreworded the question to “How can youmake your job easier?” Theywereinundatedwithideas.Eventinychangescanleadtounpredictable,cataclysmic results. In a sentence, one can randomly change a singleletterandalter thewayeveryotherword isused.“Thekidsare flyingplanes”becomes“Thelidsareflyingplanes.”A simple change of words or the order of words in a problemstatementwillstimulateyourimaginationbyaddingnewdimensionsof

meaning. Consider the statement “Two hundredwere killed out of sixhundred,” as compared to “Four hundred were spared out of sixhundred.”Examineyourproblemstatement,identifythekeywords,andchangethemfive to ten times to seewhat results.Oneof theeasiestwords tochange is the verb. Suppose you want to increase sales. Look at thechangingperspectivesastheverbischangedinthefollowing:

InwhatwaysmightIincreasesales?InwhatwaysmightIattractsales?InwhatwaysmightIdevelopsales?InwhatwaysmightIextendsales?InwhatwaysmightIrepeatsales?

InwhatwaysmightIkeepsales?Magnifysales?Restoresales?Targetsales? Inspire sales? Cycle sales? Encourage sales? Grow sales? Copysales? Complement sales? Acquire sales? Vary sales? Spotlight sales?Motivatesales?Preparesales?Renewsales?Forcesales?Organizesales?Andsoon.

PlaywithVerbsandNouns

Playingwithverbsandnounsencouragesyoutothinkofperspectivesthatyouwouldprobablynot thinkof spontaneously.Trychanging thenouns intoverbs andverbs intonouns inyourproblem statement. Forexample,aproblemmightbe“HowcanIsellmorebottles?”Changingtheverbs intonounsandnouns intoverbsmakes this into“Howcan Ibottlemoresales?”Bottlingsalesnowsuggestslookingforwaystoclosesales,insteadofwaystosellmorebottles.Theproblem“HowcanIimprovecustomerrelations?”becomes“HowcanIcustomizerelatedimprovements?”Thisnewperspectiveleadsoneto consider customizing products and services for customers,customizingallrelevantaspectsofthecustomerrelationsdepartment,orothercustomizations.Anotherway tochangeyourperspective is to substituteanantonym

for the noun. If your problem is “How can I increase sales?,” convertsales to its antonym, “expenditures.” The new line of speculation nowbecomes one of spending more to get more: Should we budget moremoney in our sales budget? Should we sell higher quality products?Shouldwebuymoreadvertising?Andsoon.

TransposetheWords

OneofAristotle’s favoritewaystotestapremisewaswhathecalled“convertibility.” He felt that if a premise were true, then the reversepremise should be convertible. For example, if every pleasure is good,somegoodmustbepleasure.Bysimplytransposingwords,youachieveda different perspective. Sometimes changing the order of words in aproblemstatementwillcreateaverbal-conceptualchainthatmaytriggeradifferentperspective.In the following illustration, words were arranged in two differentseries, A and B, and subjects were asked to solve certain situations.When “skyscraper” was listed first, subjects tended to come up witharchitectural concepts, and when “prayer” was transposed with“skyscraper” and listed first, it increased the likelihood of a religiousdirection.SeriesA SeriesB

Skyscraper Prayer

Prayer Skyscraper

Temple Temple

Cathedral CathedralTransposethewordsinyourproblem.Followingaresomeexamples:

InwhatwaysmightIgetapromotion?InwhatwaysmightIpromotemyself?InwhatwaysmightIadvertisemyT-shirts?InwhatwaysmightIusemyT-shirtstoadvertise?

InwhatwaysmightIlearnhowtousetheInternet?InwhatwaysmightIusetheInternettolearnmore?

A very simple change in the way something is stated can have aprofoundeffect.Oneofthemosteffectivemedicaldiscoveriesofalltimecame about when Edward Jenner transposed his problem from whypeoplegotsmallpoxtowhydairyworkersapparentlydidnot.Fromthediscoverythatharmlesscowpoxgaveprotectionagainstdeadlysmallpoxcamevaccinationand theendof smallpoxasa scourge in theWesternworld.

One-WordTechnique

According to Aristotle, words are sounds that become symbols ofmentalexperiencethroughtheprocessofassociation.ThemoststrikingcharacteristicofthepoetryofShakespeareandMiltonisthewordstheychosetobuildupachainofassociationsinthereader’smind.Theeffectoftheirmasterpieceswasproducednotsomuchbywhattheyexpressed,asbywhattheysuggested,notsomuchbytheideastheyconveyed,asbyotherideasthatwereremotelyconnectedwiththem.Tryusingthefollowingtechniquetobuildupachainofassociationsinyourmindaboutyoursubject.

1.Writedownyourprobleminonesentence.Reduceittooneword.2.Whatotherwordsmightbeused?Lookforsynonymsinathesaurus.Chooseone.3.Whatdoyoumeanbythatword?Fullydescribethepersonalmeaningoftheword.4.Whatisthedictionarydefinitionoftheword?Doesthisaddanynewdimensions?5.Within your description of the dictionary definition, is there another word that betterdescribestheessenceofyourproblemorintriguesyou?6.Ifso,repeattheprocesswiththenewword.7.Ifnot,didanyoftheexplorationsgiveyouanewwayoflookingattheproblem?

WordChain

Inanatomicpile,achainreactioncomesaboutwhenaparticlesplitsofffromoneatomnucleusandthencollideswithanotheratomnucleusand dislodges a second particle, which in turn, collides with anothernucleus. If the mass of material is large enough, the chain reactionbecomesanexplosion.Soitiswithwords.Onenewwordcansetoffareaction when it collides with another, and a sort of creative chainreactionfollows.

1.Askyourselfwhatthethemeofyourproblemisrightnow.Whatoneworddescribesthecurrentproblemorsituationyou’redealingwith?2.Writedownthekeywordatthetopofapageofpaper.3.Thenmakealistofwordsthatpopintoyourmindinconnectionwiththisword.Don’tthinkaboutit.Letthewordsflowspontaneously.Letonewordtriggeranother,andsoon.Continuethisforafewminutes.4.Readoveryourwordchainandwritedownyourreactionsandcomments.5. Look for a particular theme or issue that keeps recurring. These themes are worthexploring for significance to the problem. If a particularword evokes a strong emotionalreaction,it’sworthexploring.

Supposemyproblemishowtoimprovethemoraleofemployees.Mykeywordis“enrichment.”Mywordchainwouldincludewordssuchas“need,” “interdependence,” union,” “the one and the many,” “comingtogether,” “fear,” “loss of self,” “communication,” “bond,” “weakness,”“touching,” “courage,” “involvement,” “trust,” and so on. The phrase“loss of self” provokes a strong emotion that leadsme to contemplateways to improve morale that do not include ways to diminishindividuation.

PositiveStatements

IntheUniverseWithin,MortonHuntdetailsexperimentsconductedbyHerbert Clark at Stanford University that demonstrate how thinkingpositivelyfacilitatesandspeedsupthinking.Inthefigurebelow,arethestatementstrueorfalse?

Noticehowmuchlongerittakestoreplytothefalsestatementthantothetrueone.Weinstinctivelyassumestatementsaretrue.Iftheyare,wethink no further andmove on. If they are not true,we step back andrevise our assumption, thus answering more slowly. It takesapproximately a half second more, or longer, to verify denials thanaffirmations. We are programmed to think more easily about what isthanwhatisnot.Readthefollowingsentences,pausingbrieflybetweenthem.

Shouldweallowgaystoserveinthemilitary?Shouldwenotallowgaystoserveinthemilitary?

Did you feel your mind slowing down to interpret the secondstatement? Negatives make us pause and slow down our thinkingprocesses.Supposeyoumisplacedyourwatchsomewhereinyourhouse.Ifyousearchforitandkeepsearching,youwilleventuallyfindit.Thisisadifferentperspectivefrom“DidImisplacemywatchinthehouseordid Imisplace it somewhere else?”Thebelief that thewatch is in thehouse, a positive, active statement speeds up your thinking and keepsyou focused on your goal. Try framing your problem statement as apositiveactionstatement.Apositiveactionstatementhasfourparts:

1.TheAction:Thethingyouwanttodo.2.TheObject:Athingorpersonyouwanttochange.3.TheQualifeer:Thekindofactionchangeyouwant.4.TheEndResult:Theresultyouexpecttofollow.

Example: In what ways might I package (action) my book (object) more attractively(qualifier)sopeoplewillbuymore(endresult)?

Next,ratetheactionstatementonascaleofonetoten.Thisservesas

abenchmarktoassesstheprobabilityofachievingworkablesolutions.

ShiftingPerspective

Intheillustrationbelow,thecockroachisontheoutsideofthecube.Ifyoufocusonitinadifferentway,youcanplacethecockroachinsidethecubeonthefloor.Stareattheintersectionofthelinesinsidetheboxand after a fewmoments, the cube will flip inside out and place thecockroachinsideonthefloor.Shiftingyourperspectivebylookingattheimageinaslightlydifferentwaycreatesatotallydifferentimage.

Ourperceptualpositionsdeterminehowweviewthings.ImaginethatyouareonthewaytoaBroadwayplaywithapairofticketsthatcostonehundreddollarsanddiscoveryouhave lost the tickets.Wouldyoupayanotheronehundreddollars?Nowimagineyouareonyourwaytothetheatertobuythesetickets.Uponarrival,yourealizeyouhavelostone hundred dollars in cash.Would you now buy tickets to the play?Clearly,onanobjectivebasis, thetwosituationsare identical—inbothyou are one hundred dollars in the hole. Nevertheless, most peoplereportthattheywouldbemorelikelytobuynewticketsiftheyhadlostthe money than if they had lost the tickets. The same loss is seendifferently from two different perspectives. The loss of the cash hascomparativelylittleeffectonwhetheronebuysnewtickets.Ontheotherhand,thecostofthelostticketsisviewedas“attendingthetheater”andoneisloathtoacceptthedoublingofthecostoftheplay.Becauseourperceptualpositionsdeterminehowweview things, it’s

important to learn how to shift perspective and look at a subject in

differentways.WaltDisney’sabilitytoidentifywiththecharactersinhisanimatedfilms,aswellaswithhisaudience, isagoodexampleofthisskill. Freud’s model and treatment of transference acknowledged theimportance of assuming different perceptual positions. Leonardoacknowledgedthepitfallofbeingstuckinone’sownperceptualpositionand specified severalways to shift perspective (such as using amirrorandchanginghisinternalstatetolookathisworkasifitwassomeoneelse’s) in order to evaluate one’s work. Einstein imagined riding on alight beam or in the reality of a two-dimensional being. Tesla, byimagininghimself living in the future,essentially tookupaperceptualposition in the future, creating new realities from which to view theworld.

SwitchingGender

The way men and women relate provides one of the primarymetaphors around which we construct our perceptions of how thingsworkinbusinessandtheworld.Imagine,foramoment,thatyouwouldlikeadifferentpointofviewaboutabusinesssituation(salesmeetings,performancereviews,businesslunches,etc.).Insteadoftryingtowillachangeinperspective,trythefollowingexercise:

1.Closeyoureyesandrelax.2. Imagine yourself in the following situations, one at a time, but imagine (physically,emotionally,mentally)youareoftheoppositesex.A. Walking down a street and running into a friend of the same sex you are imaginingyourselfasbeingB.Walking down a street and running into a friend of the opposite sex you are imaginingyourselfasbeingC.Beingonapublicbeach,wearingabathingsuitD.BeingatworkanddealingwithmembersoftheoppositesexE.Beingataparty,flirtinganddancingF.BeingoutonadatewithaspecialfriendG.Beingathome,afteryouandyourspousehavehadahardday3. Open your eyes and now examine the business situation from the viewpoint of the

oppositesex.Askyourself,“HowwouldIviewthesituationifIwereoftheoppositesex?”Writedowneverythingthatcomestomind.

Does taking the role of the other sex lead you to notice things younormallywouldnot?What, for instance, do you find yourself noticingand thinking about as a member of the opposite sex? What are thedifferences? The similarities? Do you find yourself approaching thesituationdifferently?Hasyourviewpointchanged?Inwhatways?As you switch genders, notice how your attention and thoughts

change. You might find yourself, for instance, first thinking ofcompetition as the spice of life and then shifting to regardingcooperation as the highest value. Or you might change your valuesystem fromone that ispredicatedon thepast toone thatemphasizesthevaluesofthefuture.Byturningthingsaroundinyourmind,youarebreaking expectations in a variety of ways, which will generate newwaysoflookingatthings.Takingon the roleof theopposite sex canalsobebothentertaining

andemotionallyenriching.Youwillexpandyourempathicabilitiesandyourflexibilityinhowyouthinkofyourself.Thissortofself-observationwhile takingon anewmental role is especially helpful for developingempathyforotherpeople.Suppose,forexample,thatyouarealwaysarguingwithamemberof

the opposite sex about company policies and procedures. Instead ofarguing your points to prove you are right and the other person iswrong,tryplayingthismentalgameandswitchgenders.You’llfindyourperspective changes from one of immediately trying to tear down theotherperson’spositiontooneoflookingforsomethingpositivethatyoucan genuinely agreewith or can use as a place to start for generatingbetterideas.

FriendsandEnemies

Imagine yourself in one of two scenarios. First, imagine you’re thesame sex as the other person. The two of you are friends, and you’releisurely walking side by side. You have a certain belief about your

subject,andyouwantyourfriendtobelieveittoo.Withthesethoughtsinmind,imagineyouturntoyourfriend.Whatdoyousay?Howdoyousayit?Jottheanswerstothosequestionsdownonpaper.Dotheysparkanynewinsights?Inthesecondscenario,imagineyou’rethesamesex,onlythistimethe

otherperson isnotyour friend.You’re ina crowded,noisy restaurant.Youknowthattheotherpersondoesnotshareyourbeliefsaboutyoursubject,andyoufeelthatit’simportantforthecompanythatthispersonadopt thesebeliefs.Onceagain,whatdoyousay?Howdoyousay it?Jotdowntheanswersandseeiftheysparkanynewideas.The ideas stemming from the first scenario should feel highly

personalizedandwarm.Perhapsyourideaswillincludewordsorimagesthat the other person can connect with and understand. The ideasstemming from the second scenariowill probablybemorebottom-lineoriented and impersonal. Perhaps they will include an objective ideathattheotherpersoncanreadilyunderstandandaccept.

DaVinci’sMultiplePerspectives

LeonardodaVinciequatedcomprehensionof thedeeperstructureofhissubjectwithhavingmultipleperspectives,specifically,fromatleastthreedifferentpointsofview.ThisseemstobeaveryfundamentalandkeypartofLeonardo’sstrategy—multiplepointsofviewaresynthesizedtogether.Leonardobelieved thatuntiloneperceived something fromaminimumofthreedifferentperspectives,onedidnotyethaveabasisforunderstanding it. A true and complete knowledge comes from thesynthesizing of these views. For example, when he designed the firstbicycle,helookedatthisnewformoftransportationfromtheviewpointoftheinventor,investorswhowouldsponsorprototypesandproduction,the bicycle rider or consumer, and the municipalities where bicycleswouldbeused,andthenhesynthesizedtheviews.Justasthedifferenceinpointofviewbetweenyoureyesallowsyouto

perceive depth, multiple perspectives about your subject deepen yourunderstanding. Educational psychologists have conducted manyexperiments illustrating how a multiplicity of perspectives opensawarenessandcreativity.Inonestudyofbeginningpianostudents,two

groupswereintroducedtoasimpleC-majorscale.Onegroupwastoldtolearn the scale by responding to multiple perspectives, includingthoughtsandfeelings;theothergroupwastoldtopracticethescalebythetraditionalmemorizationthroughrepetition.Whenthegroupswereevaluated, the psychologists found the playing of the first group to bemuchmorecompetentandcreative.In other experiments, researchers assigned chapters about particular

subjects (e.g., the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act) to two groups.Onegroupwasaskedtoreadthepassagefrommultipleperspectives:itsown,aswellasthatoftheparticipants,wonderingwhattheymusthavefeltorthoughtatthetime.Theothergroupwastoldsimplytolearnthepassage.Invariably,whenthegroupsweretested,thegroupthatstudiedusing “multiple” perspectives outperformed the other group that used“traditional” learning methods, in terms of information retained, thecontentoftheessaystheywrote,andcreativesolutionsproposed.Lookatyourproblemusingmultipleperspectives.

1.First,writetheproblemfromyourpointofview.2.Next,writethestatementfromtheperspectivesofatleasttwootherpeoplewhoareclosetoorinvolvedintheproblem.

3.Synthesizethedifferentperspectivesintooneall-inclusiveproblemstatement.

For instance, if you are starting a new business, write out yourstatement as you see it, then from the point of viewof your potentialcustomers, your potential employees, your potential competitions, andlast, from the point of view of your banker. Synthesize these variousperspectivestogetherintooneall-inclusivestatement.InphysicsEinsteinsuggestedthateventhedistinctionbetweenmatter

and energymight dependupon a point of view.Whatwaswave fromone point of view was particle in another, what was a field in oneexperimentwas a trajectory in another.Themultiplicationof differentperspectives multiplies the possibilities. Consider how Paul Cézannebrought forth a new visual consciousness in art with his multipleversions ofMont Saint-Victoire and themultiple versions of apples onhistablecloth.In the illustration below, you can look at it passively as a simple

patternoffourdotsthatareequidistantfromeachother,oryoucanlook

at it creatively from different perspectives, and group them intomorecomplexstructures.Thedotscouldrepresentthefourarmsofacross,orfourcornersofasquare,thepointsofadiamond,thebasesonabaseballdiamond,thepointsonacompass,andsoon.Lookingatsomethingfromdifferent perspectives is not just a passive registering of data, but anactive and creative process. When you look at a problem using amultiplicity of perspectives instead of one stabilized view, you bringforthanewcreativeconsciousnessandanexpansionofthepossibilities.

Aneasywaytogenerateamultiplicityofperspectiveswhenworkinginasmallgroupistofirstgiveeachparticipantfivecardsandaskhimorhertowritefivedifferentproblemstatements(onestatementpercard).Collectthecardsandshufflethem.Then,

1.Randomlydistributethreecards toeachparticipant, takingcarethatnoonegetshisorher own cards. Ask everyone to arrange them in order of personal preference. Whileparticipantsaredoingthis,spreadtheleftovercardsonatable.2.Askparticipantstoexchangecardstheydon’tlikewiththoseonthetable.3.Askparticipantstoexchangecardswitheachother.Everyparticipantshouldexchangeatleastonecardandmayexchangeanynumber.4.Formthegroupintothreeteams.Asktheteamstoselectthreecardsanddiscardtherest.Then,asktheteamtosynthesizetheremainingthreecardsintooneproblemstatement.5.Askeachteamtopresentitsproblemstatementtothegroup.Now,asktheentiregrouptosynthesizethethreeproblemstatementsintoone.

TakeonaDifferentRole

SorenKierkegaard,thenineteenth-centuryDanishphilosopher,called

itthe“rotationmethod.”Hewasthinkingofcrops.Youcan’tgrowcornindefinitely on the same field; at some point, to refresh the soil, youmustplanthay.Similarly,togrowadifferentperspective,youwillfindit helpful to adopt a different role. Sigmund Freud once compared hismethod of listening to his patients “free associate” to adopting theperspectiveofthewindowofamovingtrain.Trytakingonadifferentroletogetadifferentperspective.First,write

your problem statement from your point of view. Then write yourstatementintwoofthefollowingways:

Howwouldaleaderinyourfieldwriteit?Howwouldacollegeprofessorwriteit?Howwouldaprecociouschildwriteit?Howwouldarisk-takingentrepreneurwriteit?Howwouldanevangelistwriteit?Howwouldapoliticianwriteit?Howwouldaphysicistwriteit?Howwouldapsychologistwriteit?Howwouldanexplorerwriteit?Howwouldajudgewriteit?Howwouldaninvestigativereporterwriteit?

Asyouwriteyourstatements,contemplatehoweachcharacterwouldapproachtheproblem.Whatwouldtheydo?Whatarethedifferences?The similarities?Synthesize the three statements.Canyoumerge theminto one all-inclusive statement? Has your original perspective of theproblemchanged?

ImagineYouAretheProblem

A cornerstone of Freud’s strategy was to have his patients take asubject and transform its meaning by putting it into a differentframeworkorcontext.Bygettingthepatienttodothis,hewasabletochangethewaythepatientthought.Intheillustrationbelow,byrestructuringthepatternandputtingthe

contentintoanothercontext,wechangethemeaningofthepattern.WechangetheletterpatternA,B,andCtothenumberpattern12,13,and14.

Similarly,ifyouputthecontentofyourproblemintoanothercontext,youwill change theway you think about it.Oneway to do this is toimaginethatyouaretheproblemorsomeaspectofit.ThisisafavoritetechniqueofT.A.Rich,a famous inventoratGE,whooftendevelopsauniqueperspectivetowardproblemsbyimaginingheisinthemiddleoftheproblemorissomeaspectoftheproblem.Forexample,hewouldtryto think like an electronorhewould imaginehimself as a light beamwhose refraction isbeingmeasured.Einstein imaginedhewas ridingabeam of light hurtling through space, which led him to the theory ofrelativity.Bybecomingpartof theproblem,youcandiscovernewandoriginalthoughts.Trytoimagineyourselfassomepartoftheproblemandtrytoseethesituation from its perspective. Imagine that you are trying to design anewclock.Askyourselfwhatitwouldbeliketobetheminutehandonaclock.Canyouimagineyourselfasaunitoftime?Howwouldanhourfeel?Aminute?Asecond?Whatwoulditsaytomeifourpositionswerereversed?Whatwoulditsaytomeif itcouldthinkandtalkthewayIcan?Identifywithanobjectorprocessandtrytoseetheproblemfromtheperspectiveoftheobjectorprocess.Mergewiththeproblembyaskingyourselfquestions:

HowwouldIfeelifIwere…?Whatwoulditsaytomeifitwereme?HowwouldIfeelifIweretheideaIamdeveloping?

Whatrecommendationwoulditmake?

The managers at a utility company wanted to dramatically reducecapitalequipmentcosts.Theyspentthreemonthsimaginingthemselvesas a kilowatt traveling through the company’s various fossil fuel andnuclearpower systems.As they imagined themselves traveling througheachstage,theybegantounderstandthecomplexityanddiversityofthesystemsandsawwaystoimprovethem.Theirimaginarytravelsledtoaredesignedmaintenanceplan that reduced thecostofmaintenance tentimesbyreplacingkeypartsinsteadofwholesystems.

Questions

Certainly,akeycharacteristicofallgeniusesistheirintensechildlikecuriosityandahighdegreeof inquiry. LeonardodaVinciwrotemanyquestionstohimselfinhisnotebooks,seeking,likeAristotle,tofindfirstprinciples.Einsteinspenthislifeaskingquestionsaboutobjectsandwhyobjectsbehavethewaytheydoandwhatwouldhappenedifruleswerealtered. Tesla created whole new worlds in his imagination and thenwondered how to make them manifest. It does not take a genius toanalyzedreams;itrequiredFreudtoaskinthefirstplacewhatmessagestheycarryfromthepsyche.Infact,geniuscomesmorefromaskingboldquestionsthanfinding“right”answers.Isolatethechallengeyouwanttothinkaboutanddissectitinasmanydifferentwaysasyoucanwiththefollowingquestions:

•Whyisitnecessarytosolvetheproblem?•Whatistheunknown?Howmuchoftheunknowncanyoudetermine?•Whatisityoudon’tyetunderstand?•What is the information you have? Is the information sufficient?Or is it insufficient?Orredundant?Orcontradictory?

• Can you derive something useful from the information you have?Have you used all theinformation?

•Canyoudrawadiagramoftheproblem?Afigure?•Whataretheboundariesoftheproblem?•Canyouseparatethevariouspartsoftheproblem?Canyouwritethemdown?Whataretherelationshipsofthepartsoftheproblem?

•Haveyouseenthisproblembefore?Haveyouseenthisprobleminaslightlydifferentform?Doyouknowarelatedproblem?

•Supposeyoufindaproblemrelatedtoyoursthathasalreadybeensolved.Canyouusethatsolution?Canyouuseitsmethod?

•Whatarethebest,worst,andmostprobablescenariosyoucanimagine?

ThinkLikeaChild

Noam Chomsky of MIT, whose theory of the “deep structure” oflanguagecreatedmodernlinguistics,believeshisinsightscomefromthewillingness to ask obvious questions, as children notoriously do.Einstein, too,was likeawonder-filledchild,alwaysaskingtheobviousquestions about space, time, and God. Einstein once said that theordinarypersoncould learnall thephysicsheorshewilleverneedtolearnifthepersoncouldlearntounderstandthemindofachild.Get in touchwith thechild insideyou.Closeyoureyesand imagineyourself when you were at your most inquisitive age. Suppose youimagineyourselfat twelveyearsofage.Reconstruct thedetailsof thatage asmuch as possible. Experience again theChristmases, Fourths ofJuly,birthdays,vacations,friends,teachers,andtheschooldaysthatyouexperienced. Deepen the experiences as much as you can. Remember“beinginschool”insteadof“rememberingbeinginschool.”Remember“beingwithyourbestfriend”insteadof“rememberingbeingwithyourbestfriend.”Nowlookatyourproblemasatwelve-year-oldwouldlookatit.Whatquestionswouldatwelve-year-oldask?

PlayfulQuestions

Askplayfulquestionstoputyourselforabrainstorminggroupintoachildlike,playfullyawarestate:

•Tryseeingandthinkingaboutyourproblemasalivingcreature.Whatwoulditlooklike?Drawapicture of it. For example, the problemof sellingmorehousesmight appear as a

helpless,strange-lookingcreature.•Thinkofthepastandfuturereincarnationsofyourproblem.Whatwouldtheybe?•Seeyourproblemasedible.Whatwouldittastelike?•Canyouimaginethepastandlikelyfutureofyourproblem?•Lookattheproblemasthetopofsomethingandimaginewhattheundergroundportionlookslike.Canyoudescribeit?• View the world from the perspective of the problem. What do you look like to theproblem?•Searchtheproblemforsomethingthatisbeautifuloraestheticallyinteresting.Canyoufindsomething?•Imaginethepersonallifeoftheproblem.Whatareitspolitics?Itsreligion?Whatwoulditslovelifebelike?Wherewastheproblemborn?Doesithavesiblings?Ifso,aretheyfriendlywitheachother?Whatistheproblemafraidof?•Ifyouweretheproblem’spsychotherapist,whatwouldtheproblemconfidetoyou?

ColorQuestions

Triggeryourspiritofinquirybyusing“color”questioning,aparticularapplication of the work of Jerry Rhodes, who did extensive researchwith managers at Phillips. At the core of this technique are types ofquestionsthatonemightask.Thequestionsareidentifiedwithcolorsasfollows:

Green:Thinkofthecolorgreenasfertileandcreative.Greenisthecolorofimaginationandingenuity.Ask,“Whatif?”or“Supposewe?”Yellow: Think of the color yellow as neutral and objective. Yellow is the color fordescriptionoffact.Ask,“Whatis?”Blue:Thinkofthecolorblueashopefulandpositive.Blueisthecolorforjudgmentsandopinionsofvalueandneed.Ask,“Whatcanwedo?”or“Whatshouldwedo?”Red:Thinkof thecolor redasnegative.Red is thecolorof limitationsandconstraints.Ask,“Whatcan’tbedone?”or“What‘snotpossible?”

Many of us have a tendency to favor one or two of these types ofquestions,andsomeofusdosoinsuchdisproportionthatweareunabletoentertainquestionsoutsideofourpredilections.Sometimeswe’llget

sohunguponaparticularlineofquestioningthatwe’repreventedfrommovingforward.Colorquestioningpromptsyoutothinkofquestionsfromeachofthecore categories. Label four separate sheetsofpaper: “green,” “yellow,”“blue,” and “red.” Think of as many “green,” “yellow,” and “blue”questions as you can and write them on the appropriate sheets.Whenever you have a negative question,write it on the sheet labeled“red.”Atalaterstage,reviewtheredquestions,andtrytolookforwaystoovercome them.Youcanpostyourquestions in columnsona largesheetofpaper.Youcanalsowritethemonindexcardsandtapethemtothewall under the appropriately colored card, or you can use coloredmarkersand flip charts.After listingasmanyquestionsasyoucan foreach color, prioritize the questions decidewhich questions you shouldaddressfirst.If you’re working with a group, simply have the participantsbrainstorm as many questions as they can about a specific topic.Afterward,organizethequestionsaccordingtocolorsandpostthemonflip charts. Prompt the group to extend each category by askingquestions, such as “What green questions might unlock ourimaginations?” “Do we need more blue questions?” and “Have weexhausted the possible yellow question possibilities?” After the grouphas listed as many questions as they can for each category, have thegroup prioritize the questions and then decide which are the mostimportanttoaddressfirst.

STRATEGYTWO:MAKINGYOURTHOUGHTVISIBLE

Theexplosionofcreativity in theRenaissancewas intimately tied tothe recordingandconveyingofavastbodyofknowledge inaparallellanguage: a language of drawings, diagrams, and graphs—as, forinstance, in the renowned diagrams and sketches of Galileo. Galileorevolutionizedsciencebymakinghisthoughtvisiblewithdiagramsanddrawings, while his contemporaries used conventional verbal andalgebraicapproaches.Hisdiagramsofcelestialbodiesunfoldedadeeplyvisual logic that produced insights far beyond those achieved by hispeersandchangedthehistoryofscience.LeonardodaVincialsouseddrawings,diagrams,andgraphsasaway

tocaptureinformation,awaytoformulateproblems,andthemeansofsolvingproblems. InLeonardo’snotebooks, thediagramsanddrawingsare the focal points, not the words. That is, his pictures were notintended simply as “illustrations” of his notes; rather, the notes wereintendedascommentsonthepictures.Languagetooksuchasecondaryrole for Leonardo da Vinci that he viewed it as a way to name ordescribediscoveries,nottomakethem.Languagepredisposesourmindtoacertainwayofthinking.Consider

a rose. Using words, one might say a “rose” is a red, pink, or whiteflower one gives to a beautiful woman, a pleasant hostess, or to adeceased friend. Notice how the tagging of a complex flower with asimple verbal description detours human curiosity by predisposing usalongcertainavenuesofthought.It’sasifthelanguageweusedrawsamagiccirclearoundus,acircle fromwhichthere isnoescapesavebystepping out of the circle (language) into another. Consider thedifficultiesofphysicists,suchasErnestRutherford,intheearlydaysofatomic physics. The word “atom” meant “indivisible” in Greek. Thenotion that the atomwas indivisiblewas a fixed one, and itwas onlywhenphysicistssteppedoutoftheirverbal-mathematicallanguagecircle

of thinking and into the visual circle of thinking were they able todemonstrategraphicallythattheatomwasadivisibleunitofmatter.Inhisessay,“OnTruthandLies,”FriedrichNietzschemadeabrilliantargumentthataverbaldescriptionofrealitywasrenderedimpossiblebythestructureoflanguageitself.It’snowonderthatmanygeniuses,suchas thephysicist,RichardFeynman,preferred to thinkvisually.RichardFeynman put quantum electrodynamics on center stage in physics bydescribingitvisually,withdiagrams,ratherthanwritingdownformulaeasotherphysicistsweredoing.ThisledtothefamousFeynmandiagramsthat everybody uses now for any kind of calculation in field theory.WhatFeynmandidwaslookatallthecollectedinformation,rearrangeitinto diagrams, and find the idea that had been lying dormant. Hisdiagrams made it possible for physicists to look at a world that waspreviouslyunimaginable.When Einstein thought through a problem, he thought in terms ofvisualandspatialformsratherthanthinkingalongpurelymathematicalorverballinesofreasoning.Infact,hebelievedthatwordsandnumbers,as they are written or spoken, did not play a significant role in histhinking process. One of the most complete descriptions of Einstein’sphilosophy of science was found in a letter to his friend, MauriceSolovine.Intheletter,Einsteinexplainedthedifficultyofattemptingtousewords to explainhis philosophyof science, because ashe said, hethoughtaboutsuchthingsschematically.Theletterstartedwithasimpledrawing consisting of (1) a straight line representing E, experiences,whicharegiventous,and(2)A,axioms,whicharesituatedabovethelinebutarenotdirectlylinkedtotheline.

(This is an approximation. Einstein’s original sketch is in the AlbertEinsteinArchivesattheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem,Israel.)

Einsteinexplainedthat,psychologically,ArestsupontheE.However,nologicalpathexistsfromEtoA,onlyanintuitiveconnection,whichisalways subject to revocation. From axioms, one can make certaindeductions (S), which deductions may lay claim to being correct. Inessence, Einstein was saying that the theory determines what weobserve.Einsteinarguedthatscientificthinkingisspeculative,andonlyin its end product does it lead to a system that is characterized as“logical simplicity.” Unable to satisfactorily describe his thoughts inwords, Einstein made his thought visible by diagramming hisphilosophy’smainfeaturesandcharacteristics.

DiagramYourThinking

The notebooks of Einstein, Martha Graham, da Vinci, Edison, andDarwinsuggestthatoneoftheprimaryreasonstheyachievedgreatnesswastheirabilitytorepresenttheirsubjectsvisuallybydiagrammingandmapping. In Darwin’s notebooks there is a frequently occurringdiagrammaticrepresentationofnatureasanirregularlybranchingtree.His tree diagrams helped him capture his thoughts about evolutionarychangebyallowinghimtoreachoutinmanydirectionsatonceandpullseemingly unrelated information together. Each diagram was denselypacked with potential meaning. Darwin drew a number of thesediagrams,bothtoperfectthediagramsandtousethemtocomprehendwhatisknownandtoguideinthesearchforwhatwasnotyetknown.

Darwin’sdiagramswerepivotalfactorsinthethinkingprocessthatled

tohistheoryofevolution.Heusedthemtoworkthroughmanypoints:asawayofclassifyingtherelationofdifferentspeciestoeachother,asaway to represent the accident of life, the irregularity of nature, theexplosiveness of growth, and of the necessity to keep the number ofspecies constant. Within fifteen months after drawing his first treediagram, Darwin had solved the major problems of his theory ofevolution.Try looking at your problem diagrammatically, as well as verbally.

First, write your problem statement as completely as you can. Thendiagramitbyprintingtheprobleminthecenterofapieceofpaperanddrawingaboxaroundit.Askyourself,“Whatarethemainfeaturesandcharacteristics of the problem?” Print all potential answers abovestraight lines that emanate from the box. The following is a simplediagramonimprovinganorganization’sproductivity.Themainfeaturesbranchoutfromtheproblem.

Youcanextendyourthinkingbymappingtheanswerstothequestion.Inotherwords, ifX is theanswer to the firstquestion—“Whatare themain features and characteristics of the problem?”—then you can ask,“What are themain features and characteristics ofX?” (What are themain featuresandcharacteristicsofpeople,capital, technology,andsoon?)Bydrawingcirclesaroundrelatedanswersandlinkingthemupinacontrastingcolor,youstarttogivetexturetoyourunderstandingoftheproblem. Arranging information in this way invites you to look for

relationshipsandconnectionsamongtheanswers.Whenyoufinish,ask,

•Didthediagramaddtomyunderstandingoftheproblem?•DidIfindoutanythingabouttheapproachoftheproblem?•What’smissing?•Whatareasarefoggy?•WhatamInowseeing?•WhatshouldIbethinkingabout?

Everyone who thinks at all has noticed that language is practicallyuselessfordescribinganythingthatgoesoninthebrain.Purethinkingisadynamic,shifting,activething.Itiscondensedandtelegrammatic,andonly when it is expanded in form and made communicable to othersdoesitloseitsactive,volatile,andcreativecharacter.Awaytocaptureyourthoughtbeforeitlosesitsactivenatureistomindmapit.

MindMapping

Mindmappingwas formalized as a technique in the early 1970s byTonyBuzan, aBritishbrain researcher, as awhole-brainalternative tolinearthinking.Mindmappingmakesiteasiertoaccessthetremendouspotentialofyourbrainbyrepresentingyourthoughtsusingkeywords.It’s anorganizedbrainstormingmethod to findoutwhatyouknowbywritingacentralthemeandthendepictingthoughtsandassociationsasvinesgrowinginalldirectionsfromthecentraltheme.Mind mapping does not select information by categories, but seeswhateverisinthemind.Intheillustrationbelow,Istartwiththeword“yellow”asthecentralthemeandthenprintthefirstthoughtsthatcometomind.Myfirstthoughtsare“bus,”“green,”“orange,”“daffodil,”and“banana.” A quick spray of associations comes from each thought as“bus” leads to “truck” to “ambulance” to “fire engine” to “fire” to“ambulance”to“hospital”and“green.”Otherthoughtsleadtofruitsandflowers and school. The associations are potentially infinite as eachassociationtriggersnewones.

Amindmap reachesout inalldirectionsandcatches thoughts fromanyangle.Oncethehumanbrainrealizesthatitcanassociateanythingwith anything else, it will instantaneously find associations. After youmap your thoughts, you can then look for unifying patterns andconnectionsthatmightlinkseeminglydifferentthoughtsorthemesintoanewideaorcreativesolutiontoaproblem.Amajor characteristicof creativegeniuses is the tendency toextend

their associative horizonwidely and unusually. The rest of us tend toconstrainourassociativehorizons,inthespiritoflinearandexplanatorythinking, and tominimize imaginative connections, which are seen ascarelessness and lack of discipline. Yet associations and imaginativeconnections are essential elements of creativity; they distinguish ideasthat are truly original and innovative from those that are logical butinconsequential.Amindmap isa tool tohelpusdeliberatelyandconsciouslyextend

our associations sowe canmake imaginative connections and unleashour creative powers. Following is an example of a mind map aboutmind-mappingguidelines.

Herearetheguidelines:

1.Theme.Printawordorshortphrasethatdescribestheessenceofyoursubjectonalargesheetofpaper(thebigger,thebetter).Drawacirclearoundit.Ifyouprefer,drawapicturethatrepresentsyoursubject.Apicturewillenhanceyourabilitytothinkcreatively.

2. Key words and prompts. Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s fellow poet Arthur Henry Hallamobserved that Tennyson’s genius was the ability to collect fragments of thought and usethem as themes fromwhich his writing would spring. Tennyson would explore a theme,usuallyawordorshortphrasethathadpoppedintohismind,andletittriggerassociatedideasandimages.Thisprocessallowedastreamofideastogushforthwhereonlyatricklepreviouslyhadbeenfound.Key words enable us to draw out related ideas through the process of association. It’s

possible todrawout complexpatternsof association froma fewkeywords. For example,fromadropofwateronemightassociateoutintothegushingNiagaraorthevastAtlantic.Writedownasquicklyasyoucanthoughtsassociatedwiththecenterword.Usekeywords.Ignore all irrelevantwords and phrases and concentrate only on expressing the essentialsandwhatthese“associations”exciteinyourmind.

3.Printyourkeywords.Printingmakesmoreofavisualimageinyourmindandiseasierto remember than handwriting. Express your thoughts with a minimum number of key

words. You want to minimize clutter and allow yourself the freedom to make creativeassociations.

4.Putdowneverythingthatcomestomind.Fillout thepageasquicklyasyoucanbyprintingall spontaneousassociationseven if they seemridiculousor irrelevant. If yougetstuck,pickoutanythoughtonthemapandprintthefirstassociationyoumakefromthatthought.

5.Connect.Connectthekeywordswithlinesradiatingfromthecenter.Bylinkingwords,youshowclearlyhowonethoughtrelatestoanotherandyouwillbegintoseerelationshipsthatwill help you gather and organize your ideas into clusters. Add additional words ifnecessary.Our brains are wired to see order and we invent elaborate architectures to do so.

Psychologistshavefoundthatifyouputpeopleinaroomwithacontraptionoflightbulbswired to blink on and off at random, they will quickly discern what they believe arepatterns, theories forpredictingwhichbulbwillbenext toblink.Onceapersonbecomesimmersedinthinkingaboutasubject,heorshewillfinditdifficultnottoseepatternsandmakeconnections.

6.Usegraphics.Colors,pictures,andsymbolscanbeusedtohighlightimportantthoughtsand to show relationships between different areas on themap. Youmight color code themainpoints:redformostimportant,greenforsecondarypoints,andsoon.Oryoucoulduseasterisks, numbers, letters, or geometric symbols as tools to help organize your thoughts.Pictures and abstract symbols can be used to stimulate your creativity by triggering yourrightbrain.

7.Cluster.Organizethemajorclustersintothemes.Amindmapisacreationonpaperthatcomesclosetothewayyourmindclustersconceptsinyourbrain.Becauseofthis,thebrainmorereadilyacceptstheinformationcontainedonamap.Itcanbepicturedinthemind’seye.Onceyourideasareclustered,youcanmovefromtheviewpointofthecreatortotheviewpointofthecriticwhoisseeingtheideasforthefirsttime.Asacritic,youcantestyourassociations,missing information, andareaswhereyouneedmoreandbetter ideas.Mindmappingisanideagenerator.Itisnotthesupplierofrawmaterial,soyourmapmayshowareaswhereyouneedtocollectmoreinformation.

8.Revise.Darwin’s first treediagramwasprimitiveand fragmentary.Asheprogressed inhiswork,hisdiagramsbecomemoreelaborateanddetailed.Similarly,VincentvanGogh’sartisticgeniusfollowedasimilarprocessofrevision.Hewouldmovefromhisoriginalvisiontocompletedexpressionbythefollowingstages.Hewouldstartwithaconceptualizationfor

asubjectandpaintitinonesession,perhapsinthreeorfourhours.Thenhewouldcreateawholeseriesofpaintingsforthesubject,tryingtogetcloserandclosertohisvision,untilhewassatisfied.In thesameway,bycontinuallyrevising, refining,andelaboratingyourmindmap,you

keepyour thinkingactiveandgetcloserandcloser to theultimateanswer.Readily reviseyourmindmapbyaddingnewthoughtsoreliminatingelementsthatseemextraneous.

Mindmappingallowsyoutogroupandregroupconcepts,encouragingcomparisons.Movingandsynthesizingconcepts intonewclustersoftenprovokesnewideas.Howwouldyoudescribethefigurebelow?

Theyaretwelveseparateandunrelateddots.However,becauseofthewaytheyareclustered,weperceivethemasseparategroupsofdots.Infact,itisalmostimpossibletoseethemanyotherway.Byorganizingthedotsintoclusters,onegivesthemanewidentity.Thisiswhathappenswhen you graphically map your thinking. When you organize yourthoughtsintoclusters,yougivethemanewidentityandtheprocessofideaevolutioncanreallybegin.Inthedotillustration,youcanalsochoosetofocusononespecificdotoronegroupofdotsoronthreeseparategroupsofdots.Similarly,whenyoumapyoursubject,youcanemphasizeeitherindividualthoughts,aclusterofthoughts,orthesubjectasawhole.Mindmappingprovidesaneasywaytomovefromthegeneraltothespecificandfromthespecifictothegeneral.Inaddition,mindmapping

•Clearsyourmindofmentalclutter•Focusesyouonthesubject•Activatesyourwholebrain•Allowsyoutodevelopadetailedorganizationofyoursubject•Demonstratesconnectionsbetweenisolatedpiecesofinformation•Givesyouaclearpictureofboththedetailsandthebigpicture•Gives you a graphic representation ofwhat youknowabout the subject, allowing you toeasilyidentifygapsinyourinformation

• Requires you to concentrate on your subject, which helps get information about ittransferredfromshort-termtolong-termmemory

GroupMindMaps

Inagroup,individualscombinetheirenergiestocreateagroupmindmap as “hard copy” for the group’s brainstorming session. First, haveeachparticipantcreateamindmapaboutthesubject.Havingcompletedtheindividualmaps,createagroupmap.Usewall-sizedsheetsofpaperto record the basic structure. Cover an entire wall with paper. Thedrawingof themapcanbedonebyonegoodmindmapperorby thewholegroup.Colorandcodesshouldbeagreedoninadvancetoensureconsistency and clarity. All ideas are totally accepted and areincorporatedintothemap.

Variations

Once you understand the basic principles of mind mapping, trydifferentvariationsuntil you find themethod thatworksbest foryou.Followingaresomesuggestions.Movingmindmaps.An interestingway to cluster your thoughts after

mindmappingistocopyyourkeywordsfromyourmaponindexcards,groupthemintostacksofassociatedthoughts,andthentapethemtoawall. This creates amovingmindmaponawall. Thebasic guidelinesare

1.Printthekeywordsfromyourmindmaponindexcards,onekeywordpercard.2.Writethecentralthemeoftheproblemonadifferent-coloredcardandtapeittothewallorchalkboard.3.Tapealltheothercardstothewallorchalkboard,aroundthecentralthemecard.Clusterrelatedthoughtstogether.Theactoftransferringyourthoughtsontocardsmakes iteasierfor you to group and regroup your thoughts, which facilitates comparisons.Moving yourcardsaroundintonewjuxtapositionsoftenwillprovokenewideas.4.Onceyourcardsaretapedtothewallinclusters,youcantestyourassociations,discoverwhat’smissing,anddiscoverareaswhereyouneedmoreandbetterideas.5.Addcardsasnewthoughtsandrelationshipsoccurtoyou.6.Ifyoutapedthecardstoachalkboardoralargesheetofpaper,youcanconnectrelatedthoughtswithcoloredarrows.Onawall,youcanusestickpinsandstringtoconnectrelated

areas.

Itoftenhelpstoinvolveyourselfcompletelyinasubject,inmuchthesame way you might become totally absorbed in a movie or novel,beforeyoumindmapit.TheSpanishartistPabloPicassowouldtotallyimmersehimselfinhissubjectbeforehepaintedit.

Picasso’stechnique

The artist, Picasso observed, paints to unload feelings, visions, andthoughts.This,hebelieved,was thewhole secretof art.WhenPicassowent for awalk in the forest, he thought about nothing but the colorgreenuntilhegot“greenindigestion.”Togetridofthis“full”sensation,heunloaded it intoapicture.Picasso’s copiousworkwasaproductofthiscontinualrefillingandemptyingofhismindoncanvas.AfterPicassowas“filled”withhissubject,hewouldstartaworkofart

from some arbitrary point, proceeding in a desultory manner, andsomehowendupwithsomethingnovelandoriginal.Onerepresentation

of thismethod is found in themovieTheMysteryofPicasso.Hebeginswitha flower, transforms it intoa fish, then intoachicken—switchingbackandforthfromblackandwhitetocolor—whichhethenrefashionsintoacatsurroundedonthesidebyhumanbeings.AsPicassopainted,histopicchangedashisthoughtschanged.Thetruepainting,heseemstoindicate,canonlyoccurafteraprocessuncoverswhatisthere.TotryPicasso’stechnique,collectasmuchmaterialasyoucanabout

your problem in an easily readable form—for example, summaries ofrelated articles andbooks, the experiences of others, ideas that peoplehavegivenyou,andcompetitors’actions.Readthroughallthematerialas rapidly as you can in one sitting until you are “filled” with yoursubject. Then, like Picasso did with his art, start from some arbitrarythemeandmindmapit,lettingthethoughtsflowwhileyouareinthis“activated” state. Refashion your map as your thoughts and topicschange,justasPicassotransformedobjectsandswitchedbackandforthbetweentopicsashepainted.Finally, ask yourself what your mind map means. What have you

uncoveredthatyoudidn’tknowwasthere?Doyounoticeanypatterns?Ifso,whatdotheysuggest?Whatsolutionspopintoyourhead?Ifyouallowalltheinformationtoevolvenaturally,newideaswilldevelop.Thoughtcards.Purethinkingisgenerativeandcanbecharacterizedby

rapidburstsofideasembeddedinthesustainedthoughtofthethinker.Picasso’s technique activates generative thinking with mind maps.Anotherwaytoactivatearapidflowofideasistouseindexcards.First, collectandreadmaterialasdescribed in“Picasso’s technique.”

Afteryouhavereadthroughallthematerialasrapidlyasyoucanand“filled”yourself,write your thoughts on index cards as quickly as youcan. Write one thought per card, using key words or phrases. Writeanything thatcomes tomindasquicklyasyoucan.Keepwritinguntilyour thoughts stop. Then, arrange the cards in stacks of associatedthoughts.Go through them again and add new cards as new thoughtsoccurtoyou.Write the subject or problem on a card and tape it to the wall or

chalkboard.Tapealltheothercardstothewallaroundthesubjectcards.Clusterrelatedthoughtstogether.Onceyourcardsaretapedtothewall,lookforassociations,connections,gaps,andareaswhereyouneedmoreinformation. Keep grouping and regrouping your cards into new

juxtapositionsuntilyougettheinspirationyouneed.Picasso’stechniquebeginsbyfillingyourselfwithinformationfroma

varietyofsourcesaboutthesubjectandthenmindmappingassociations.Eventually, thoughts are clustered and organized into commoncomponentsorthemes.Thethemesevolvefromthemap.Analternativeistofirstdetermineyoursubject’sbasicthemesorcomponentsandthenmapeachseparatetheme.

ThemeMapping

WhenCharlesDarwinfirstsetouttosolvetheproblemofevolution,hesimplywasnotreadyfornaturalselection.Heinitiallyorganizedhisthinkingaroundeightsignificantthemesoftheproblem.Overtime,herejectedsomeofhisthemes—theideaofdirectadaptation,forinstance.Other ideas were emphasized, like the idea of continuity, or wereconfirmedforthefirsttime-liketheideathatchangeiscontinuous.Somewere recognized, such as the frequency of variation. These themesbroughtaboutshiftsinhisthinking.Heplayedthecritic,surveyinghisownpositions; the inventor,devisingnew solutionsand ideas; and thelearner,accumulatingnewfactsnotprominentbefore.The original method of mind mapping is simply to map lots of

thoughtsandthenweedouttheonesthatarenonsensicalorunrealisticby revising themap several times.Themajor themesand ideasevolveovertimeinmindmapping.Inthememapping,thegoalistomapmorerealistic and theme-related thoughts and ideas from the outset byestablishing a structure of connected themes in advance. Here are theguidelines:

1.Subject.Printordrawyoursubjectorprobleminthecenterofalargesheetofpaper.

2. Themes. List the significant themes, components, or dimensions of your subject. Theoptimalnumberofthemesforamanageablemapisbetweensixandeight.Ifyouhavemorethaneight,makeadditionalmaps.Askquestions:Whataremyspecificobjectives?Whataretheconstantsinmyproblem?Ifmysubjectwereabook,whatwouldthechapterheadingsbe?Whatarethedimensionsofmyproblem?Forexample,supposeyouwantedtoimprove

brainstorming.Ifbrainstormingwereabook,whatwouldthechapterheadingsbe?

3.Branches.Printthesignificantthemesaroundthesubjectandconnectthemtothesubjectwithstraightlines.Forexample,ifyoursubjectis“ImprovingBrainstormingSessions,”yourthemesmight be “People,” “Environment,” “Resources,” “Facilitator,” and “Rules.” In theexampletofollow,thethemesareconnectedtothesubjectasbranches.

4.Mindmap.Nowextendyourthinkingbymindmapping(seemind-mapguidelines)eachthemeasaseparatebranch.Freeassociateandmakeassociations.Forexample,thetheme“Rules” leads to thekey thoughtsof “Defer judgment,” “Quantity,” “Quota,” “Freewheel,”“Hitchhikingonotherideas,”“Combineideas,”andsoon.

Theideaistoextendeachthemeasfarasyoucan.Whenyou’vefinishedmappingeachseparatetheme, lookfor linksandconnectionsbetweentheseparatethemes.Exploreeachthemeforpossiblenewinterpretationsandideas.The strategy of organizing creative thinking around core themes is a favorite of manycreativethinkers,includingthemajorpoetT.S.Eliot.HispoemTheWasteLandisarguablythemostfamousandinfluentialpoemofthiscentury.Eliotstartedwiththecentralthemeof“thedeclineofselfandcivilization”andbranchedoutonanamazingnumberofsubthemes.Each of the lines, and certainly each of the stanzas, is pregnantwithmeaning and coulditself launch a separate poemon a separate topic. This strategynot only conveyed to thereaderauniverseofpoetrybutprovidedseveraldifferentuniverses,eachwithanenormousnumberofentrypointsfortheaudience.

LotusBlossom

Eliot’sstrategywastostartwithatheme,subdivideitintosubthemes,and then to make variations on each of the subthemes. YasuoMatsumura of Clover Management Research in Chiba City, Japan,developed Lotus Blossom, a creative-thinking technique thatdiagrammaticallymimicsT.S.Eliot’s strategy.Youstartwithacentralthemeandexpandintosubthemesandideasuntilyou’vecreatedseveraldifferentsubthemes,eachwithseparateentrypoints. InLotusBlossom,thepetalsaroundthecoreoftheblossomarefiguratively“peeledback”oneatatime,revealingakeycomponentorsubtheme.Thisapproachispursued in ever-widening circles until the problem or opportunity iscomprehensivelyexplored.Theclusterofthemesandsubthemesthataredevelopedinonewayoranotherprovideseveraldifferentpossibilities.Theguidelinesare

1.Writethecentralthemeinthecenterofthediagram.2.Write ideas or applications in the surrounding circles labeledA toH surrounding thecentraltheme.3. Use the ideas written in the circles as the central themes for the surrounding lotusblossompetalsorboxes.Thus,theideaorapplicationyouwroteincircleAwouldbecomethecentralthemeforthelower-middleboxA.Itnowbecomesthebasisforgeneratingeightnewideasorapplications.4.Continuetheprocessuntilthelotusblossomdiagramiscompleted.

Suppose, for example, you want to create more value for your

organizationby increasingproductivityordecreasingcosts.Youwouldwrite “Add Value” in the center box. Next, write the eight mostsignificant areas in your organization where you can increaseproductivityordecreasecostsinthecircleslabeledAtoHthatsurroundyourcentralbox.Alsowritethesamesignificantareasinthecircleswiththecorrespondinglettersspreadaroundthediagram.Each area now represents a main theme that ties together thesurrounding boxes. For instance, in the sample diagram, the word“technology” in thecircle labeledA servesas the theme for the lower-middlegroupofboxes.Foreachtheme,trytothinkofeightwaystoaddvalue.Thinkofeightideasorwaysyoucanusetechnologytoincreaseproductivityorreduceexpenses, eight ideas or ways to make personnel more productive orwaystodecreaseexpenses,eightideasorwaystocreatemorevalueforyourdeliverymethods, and soon. If youcomplete theentirediagram,you’ll have sixty-four new ideas or ways to increase productivity ordecreaseexpenses.

In Lotus Blossom, ideas evolve into other ideas and applications.Becausethecomponentsofthetechniquearedynamic,theideasseemtoflowoutwardwithamomentumalltheirown.Another dynamic thinking strategy is systemic thinking. Reality ismadeupof curves,butwe’rebiased to seea straight-line, cause-effectviewoftheworld.Geniusestendtooperatemoreintermsof“loopsofinteraction”or“mutualinteraction”thanlinearormechanicalcauseandeffect. This thinking strategy typically allows them to track wholesystemsofinteractingelements.Freud, for instance,viewedmentalprocessesas“merely isolatedactsandpartsofthewholepsychicentity”andclaimedthatthe“meaning”ofa symptom could only be found in its relation to the larger system.Einstein rejected the mechanical statistical approaches to physicsbecausehethoughttheyignoredthedeeperdynamicsofthesystemandfocusedtoomuchontheresultsandnotenoughontheprocesses.FreudandEinsteinbothbelieved thatunlessyou lookedat thewhole systemandallof itscomponentsyoumaymiss thekeyrelationshipsandhowtheyinteract.

SystemMapping

Considernature’screations.Naturedoesn’tjustmakeleaves;itmakesbranchesandtreesandrootstogowiththem.Itmakeswholesystemsofinteracting elements. Similarly, Edison didn’t just invent an electriclightbulb—other people had invented electrified lamps. He invented awhole practical system for electric lighting, including dynamos,conduits, and ameans for dividing up current that could illuminate alargenumberofbulbs.Astrategytothinksystematicallyissystemmapping.Systemmappingwill shift us from focusingon theparts to seeing thewhole, and fromreacting to static “snapshots” of the problem to creating new possiblefutures by seeing new relationships and connections between thedifferentcomponents.When you have a good sense, a goodmap, of how all the differentcomponents interact, you’ll begin to see the deeper dynamics of theproblemandwill begin to look at it in a differentway. Following are

guidelinesonhowtomakeasystemmap:

1.Writeasinglewordorshortphrasethatidentifiesyoursubject.Placeitinthemiddleofthe page and circle it. Your subject can be anything: declining sales, training anddevelopment,marketing,futuremarkets,corporatereorganization,andsoon.Example:An insuranceagency that customizesandbrokers insurancepackagesbetweeninsuranceprovidersandcorporationsis interestedinlookingforwaystoimprovebusinesspossibilities.Theirsubjectis“ImprovingBusiness.”

2. Identify major components. These are the major areas of the domain that need to beconsidered.Thereareusuallythreetosixmajorareas(forexample,company,competition,environment,customer)thatneedtobeconsidered.AccordingtoBuckminsterFuller,threeelements are theminimum number of elements necessary to have a structure or pattern.Evenwhenthenumberofvariablesissmall,iftheelementsallmutuallyinfluenceandrelatetooneanother,quitesophisticatedinteractionscanbestimulated.Freud’sabilitytohandleagreatdealofcomplexitywithhissimplemodeloftheego,id,andsuperego;WaltDisney’sabilitytoplaytheroleoftheDreamer,Realist,andCriticwhencreatingideas;andEinstein’sfamousE=MC2exemplifydynamicmodelsbasedonthreeinterrelatedelements.Drawyourmajorcomponentsasoutlyingcirclesandlinkthembacktothecentralsubject.Example:Themajorcomponentsfortheinsuranceagencyare“OurCompany,”“InsuranceProviders,”the“CorporateCustomer,”andthe“Environment.”

3.Identifytheinfluencesoneachcomponent.Everyinfluence,whetherpositiveornegative,is both cause and effect. Nothing is ever influenced in just one direction. Geniuses focusmore on “relationships” between objects than on the objects themselves. In his theory ofgravitationalattraction,IsaacNewtonpointedoutthere isnotoneoperationbywhichthesun attracts Jupiter and another bywhich Jupiter attracts the sun, but one operation bywhichthesunandJupiterendeavortoapproacheachother.Theideaistoidentifyandlinkasmanyinfluencesaspossibletoeachcomponent.Someexamplesofcommoninfluencersare

A.Things that influencea company:productdesign, suppliers,workforce,management,materials, methods, machinery, financial performance, distribution channels, marketing,salespersonnelB.Thingsthatinfluenceacustomer:competition,economy,needs,goalsC.Thingsthatinfluencetheenvironment:economy,technology,demographicsD.Inourexample,theinfluencersofourinsurancecompanyaretechnologies,cost-cuttingprocedures,competition,management,operations,andservices.

Thekeytoseeingrealityisseeingcirclesofinfluenceratherthanstraightlines.Bylinkinginfluences to the major components, we break out of the reactive mindset that comesinevitablyfromlinearthinking.Everycircletellsastory.Bymappingtheflowofinfluence,youcanseemajorpatternsandtrends.

4. Identify and link important factors for each influence. This step prompts a questioningprocess that often reveals trends and new developments. What has an impact on theinfluence?What’shappeningnow?Whataretherecenttrendsanddevelopments?Whataretherecentchangesthatareaffectingtheinfluence?Listasmanyaspossibleandlinktoeachinfluence.Example: Inour example, the important factors for the influence “Technologies”on the“Customers” component are “Fax,” “Networks,” “Database,” “Internet,” “Teleconference,”and“EDI.”

5.Prioritize influencesand factors.Decidewhich influencesandwhich factorsor changesarehaving thebiggest impacton themess,orwhich influencesarecapableofhaving thebiggest influence. Use color pens to color code the influences: Red—major; Green—moderate, Yellow—none. In our example the major influences are “Downsizing,” “Cost-Cutting,”and“Technologies.”

6. Analyze the major impact items. Are the factors positive or negative? Why did thechangeshappen?Do they reflect a trendor a short-termevent?What are all thepossiblecauses of the change?Color code each item as to its impact. In our example, the agencyrealizesthattheadvancesintechnologywillgivetheinsuranceprovidersandcorporationsthemeanstoeliminatethemiddleman,theagency.Soon,thecorporationswillusetheirowncomputer power to scan a comprehensive database and select and customize an optimalinsurancepackageforthemselves,intheprocesscuttingouttheinsuranceagency.If the insurance agency had used traditional brainstorming, listing linear cause-effectchains, theymaynothaveseentheinterrelationshipsbetweentechnologyandcost-cuttingthatdominatetheirdomain.ImaginethedifficultiesusingeverydayEnglishtodescribethedomain’s components, the influences upon the components, the major factors upon theinfluences,andtheinterrelationshipsbetweenthem.However,when the agencymaps and explores the relationship of technology and cost-cutting on them, the customer insurance providers, the corporate customer, and theenvironment,thechancesareverygoodthatitwillidentifyitasamajorchallenge.

7. Brainstorm. Select an impact item factor and generate as many ideas, possibilities, orsolutionsaspossible.Inourexample,theagencyrealizesthatthechangesintechnologyandcorporate interest in cost-cutting is a long-term trend that will not be influenced by anychanges in their services.Theydecide tobrainstorm forways to redefine their services toinclude fast, customized solutions to clients’ emerging business problems, new kinds ofvalue-addedinformation,newspecializednicheservices,andwaystosignificantlyimprovepersonalizedcustomerserviceineverythingtheydo.

Systemmappinghelpsustorestructuretheproblem.Inotherwords,onemaysuddenly lookataprobleminadifferentwayandbeable tosee it in terms of a different question. In our example, the insuranceagency started out looking forways to improve their existing servicesandendedupredefiningtheirbusiness.Systemmappinghasseveralbenefits:

• Themap tells a story. Themain skill is to see the “story” that themap tells: how thecomponentsofthesubjectinterrelate,howpatternsofchangeareemerging,andhowthosepatternsmight be influenced. Einstein did no experiments, gathered no new information,andinventednothingnewbeforehecreatedthetheoryofrelativity.WhatEinsteindidwastotella“new”storyabouthowspace,time,andenergyinterrelatedandhowthoseconceptsinfluenceandareinfluenced.

•Themaphelpsustoseeandkeep“thebigpicture.”ThegreatsculptorAugusteRodinsawthe task of genius as keeping his “global idea.” Rodin said it was necessary for him tomaintain energetically his global idea so as to remain unceasingly close to it and closelyconnectwithitthesmallestdetailsofhisthought.

•Themaphelpsus tosee therelationshipsandconnectionsbetweenmajor factors, ratherthanlinearcause-effectchains.Mozart’smusicalgeniusdidn’tcomesimplyfromhisabilityto recognize and play specific notes and manipulate qualities of sound such as tempo,volume,andtone.Hisgiftinvolvedperceivingandrepresentingdeeppatterns,relationships,anduniversalsthroughsound.

•Themaphelpsus to identifyprocessesofchange rather thana seriesofunrelated staticsnapshots. LeonardodaVinci’s geniuswas theability to see the “processesof the results”ratherthanthe“resultsoftheprocess.”

• The system map allows us to see the details. For Freud, it was the details that seemcontrarytothecontextortypicalculturalassumptionsthatsooftenbecamekeyelementsin

hiscreativethinking.ThestrengthofFreud’sstrategy,andofhisgenius,wastobeabletofind what was significant in the clusters of details that most people overlooked. Freudbelieved that the ideal reasonerwould,whenonce showna single fact inall itsbearings,deducefromitnotonlyalltheeventswhichleduptoit,butalsoalltheresultswhichwouldfollowfromit.Forexample,Freud’sstudyofLeonardodaVinci’smemoryisanexpressionofthebeliefthatapartofanysystemisinsomewayanexpressionofthewhole.

Imagineyourself in a large auditorium.Above, you seemany lights.Each bulb is separate from the others, and you may think of them,regarded that way, as so many separate entities. But now considerfurther. Eachof these separate lightbulbs is a vehicle of light, and thelightisnotmanybutone.Thelight,whichisone,appearsthroughmanydifferentbulbs.Similarly, when you look at a subject, you may think of its

componentsasseparate fromeachotherandthinkof themasseparateentities. System mapping gives you a way to visibly see how thecomponentsinteractwitheachothertomakethesubjectwhatitis.Thesubject,whichisone,appearsthroughdifferentcomponents,influences,andfactors.

DiagrammingExtremeConditions

Systemmappingconsistsoftwoprocessingstages:agenerativephase,inwhich the subject ismapped, followed by an exploratory phase, inwhich themap isexplored forpossible interpretationsand ideas.Oncethe dynamics of a subject are represented, insight is gained and ideasbegin to flow.Anotherway tovisually represent thedynamicsofyoursubjectorsituationistodiagramitsextremeconditions.LeonardodaVinci observed that to reallyunderstand a subject, you

shouldexamineitunderextremeconditions.Hewouldfirstidentifythesignificant factors of his subject, either through observation orimagination, and then explore the interaction of these factors undervariousconditions—especiallyextremeones.Forexample,tounderstandhuman anatomy, da Vinci investigated a variety of questions:When apersonputsonweight,whatorgansputonweightfirst?Whenthebodyisstarved,whatisthelastorgantoshrink?Whenyoupushyoursubjecttoitsextremes,you’llquicklyseeitsessentialparts,crucialrelationships,

anddrivingprinciples.

ForceFieldAnalysis

Force field analysis is a powerful technique that was developed byKurtLewin,a socialpsychologist, tovisually identifyhowpositiveandnegative forcesdynamically influence subjectsor situationsbypushingthemtooneextremeortheother.Wetendtoseesubjectsasstaticandfixed. Yet the world is in a constant state of flux and subjects andrelationships are dynamic and fluid. Positive and negative forces areconstantly pushing and pulling a subject to one extreme or the other.Force fieldanalysis is away to explore the forces inorder todevise apracticalmeansofgettingatthem.Thistechniquecanhelpyou

•Betterdefinewhatyourchallengeis•Makeacarefulassessmentofallrelevantfactors•Identifystrengthsyoucanmaximize•Identifyweaknessesyoucanminimize•Addmorestrengths

Tomakeaforcefielddiagram:

1.Writethechallengeyouaretryingtosolve.

2.Determinetheextremes.Ontheleftsideofthesheet,describetheworst-casescenario.Onthesameline,attheright,describethebest-casescenario.

3.Inthecenter,listallthesignificantfactorsorconditionsofthesubjectorsituation.Itishelpfultolistasmanysignificantfactorsasyoucanwhenconstructingthediagram.

4.Asyoulisttheconditions,youwillfindsomeoftheforcespushingyoutothebestcasewhileotherforcesarepullingyoutowardcatastrophe.DrawalinethatreflectswhetheryouarebeingpushedorpulledbythatfactorandplaceanXwhereyoufeelyouareatpresent.

5.Finally,examinealltheXsandplaceanXonthegeneralcontinuumthatextendsfromthe“Best-CaseScenario”tothe“Worst-CaseScenario.”Thisgivesyouasnapshotofwhereyouareatthistime.

In the example below, the situation being analyzed is creativethinking. An individual is interested in becoming more of a creativethinkeranddecidestoanalyzehercreativity.Shedescribesherbestcasescenario as “Becoming Leonardo da Vinci,” and her worst case is“BecomingaDunce.”Inthemiddle,shelistedhersignificantfactorsforcreativethinking.

Someofthefactorsarebeing“pulled”towardthebestcase,andsomearepushed toward theworst case. There are three options formovingtheXtowardthebest-casescenario:

1.Minimizeoreliminateyournegatives.2.Maximizeyourpositives.3.Addmorepositiveforces.

In the example, one could choose to developways tominimize thenegativesbyworkingonthem.Forexample,shemightincreaseherideaproductionbygivingherselfadailyideaquota,allocateonehoureachday for creative thinking, readbookson creative thinking to learn thetechniques, start practicing creative-thinking habits, such as learning

howtotakerisks,orbecomemorepersistentbyrefusingtogiveuponanideauntilshemakesitwork.Or,shecouldchoosetofurtherstrengthensomeofthepositiveforces

byputtingstillmoreenergyintohercreative-thinkingefforts,improvingherpreparationby learningasmuchasshecanabouthersubject,andaskingher supervisor tomakecreative thinkingoneofhermeasurablegoalsinherjobperformance.Shecouldalsocreatenewpositiveforcestofurtheroutweighthenegativeforces;forinstance,shemightworkonherdrawingskillssoshecouldrepresenthersubjectsvisuallyaswellasverballyandaddthatforcetoheranalysis.Theparticularvalueof theanalysisgrowsoutof thewaythefactors

arediagrammedandassessed.Inourexample,theXonthe“daVinci”to“Dunce”generalcontinuumisdriftingtowardthe“Dunce.”Thefactorsthatrelatetospecificthinkingskills,ideaproduction,andtechniquesaremoving toward theworst-case scenario.Eventually thedynamicnatureofthecomponentfactorsmakesitclearthatonemustcreateactiveideasandactionstoreversetheforcesandmovethefactorstowardthebest-case scenario. For example, to dramatically improve her creativethinking (move theX toward thebest-casescenario),oursubjectcouldenroll in a creative-thinking class at a local college, attend open-enrollmentseminarsoncreativity,andaskhersupervisor tobring inacreativity expert to conduct on-site workshops for her and otheremployees.When Mozart composed, he started with the large structure of his

musical composition—its shapeandbasicdynamics.Oncehaving fixedthesignificantdetailsoftheoverallstructure,Mozartwouldgobackandadjustandrefinethedetailstowarda“best-casescenario”forhismusicalcomposition. Sometimes this activity would inspire him to add a newmusical dimension to the piece, which he would excitedly move tointegrate into the whole composition. This is something like the wayfactorsareworkedoninforcefieldanalysis.Let’s consider theprobability of getting amajor sale.The first thing

wedo is construct a force field analysiswith the best-case scenario ofclosingthesaleandtheworst-casescenariooflosingthesale.Thenthefactorsarelistedanddiagrammedasfollows.

Inthissituation,wehavethesuperiorproduct;however,ourpriceishigher;ourcompetitionisperceivedbythecustomertobesuperior;wegave a poor sales presentation; and there is a sense that the customerdoesnotlikethesalesperson.Wehaveagoodchanceoflosingthesaleunlesswetakespecificactions.

Toimproveourchances,wemight

•Offerpackagedfinancingtooffsetthepricedifferential

• Bring in support personnel (product managers, engineers, etc.) to offset the poor salespresentationandtheperceiveddislikeofthesalesperson

•Emphasizeourcustomerservicetooffsettheperceptionofasuperiorcompetitor

•Bringintestimonialsfromsatisfiedcustomers

A force field analysis of the sales situation allows us to realisticallyassess our probability of getting the sale and gives us the chance tocreatealternativeideastomovetheforcesinapositivedirection.JustasMozartwouldbeinspiredtointegrateanewmusicaldimensionintohiscomposition as a result of his refinements, our analysis inspires us tointegrate packaged financing, support personnel, and customer service(newdimensions)intothesalessituation.

VisualBrainstorming

Creative geniuses use a great diversity of graphicmeans in shapingandcommunicatingtheirthoughts.Someusediagramsormaps.Othersbuild three-dimensional, physical models. For example, Francis Crickand James Watson built and experimented with single-and double-chainedthree-dimensionalmodelsthatledtothediscoverythattheDNAmolecule is in the shape of a “double helix,”winning them theNobelPrize in 1962. And still others, like Martha Graham, use simple,fragmentaryschematicdrawingsandsketches.Martha Graham, a creative genius in modern dance, defied the

conventionsoftraditionalballetandcreatedherowndancevocabularywithsimpledrawingsandsketches.Hernotebooksare fullofdrawingsand sketches of her ideas and thoughts, which enabled her toconceptualize them without using words. Virtually each new danceprovedmoredaringthanitspredecessors.Composer John Corigliano, whose much-lauded works include The

GhostsofVersailles, prepares for abig commission in a similarway. Inthebuildingofapieceofmusic,atfirst,hecreatesnomusicorwordsatall.Instead,hesketcheshisideasandthoughtsandsometimesjustdrawsabstractshapes.In the illustration below, I’ve visually arranged the letter T, the

numbereight,andtheletterPintoavisualsynthesis.Mostpeopleeasilyinterpret this as a mallet striking balls through a hoop in a game ofcroquet.Thedynamicsofthedrawingimmediatelysuggestaparticularinterpretation.

If I had asked you to synthesize theT, eight, andP into a game ofcroquet, youwould have found it difficult, if not impossible, to do sowithoutdrawingorsketchingvariouspossibilities.Infact,ifyoureadadetailed description of how you can combine a T, eight, and P to

represent a game of croquet, you would still find it impossible tounderstandwithoutvisualizinganddrawingit.Weknowmorethanwecantellinwords.Forexample,weknowourbest friend’s face and can recognize it among a million faces, yet weusuallycannottellhowwerecognizeaface.Somuchofourknowledgesimplycannotbeputintowords.Infact,experimentshavedemonstratedthat when people were asked to describe their best friend’s face inwriting before identifying it, the written description significantlyinterfered with the ability to recognize it. In this instance, a writtendescription constrains the ability to recognize the face. However, ifasked to draw or sketch that best friend’s face, people were able toconceptualizewhatheorshelookslikeand,thus,finditmorequickly.Visual brainstorming is an attempt to use drawings and sketches toconceptualize and capture ideas.Thebasic idea is todrawa sketchofhow the problem might be solved. The sketches may be abstract,symbolic,or realistic.Draw the solution toyourproblem.Thenreviewand revise it bymodifying it or bymaking a new sketch or drawing.Keep modifying or making new sketches as long as you can. Finally,construct a final solution from one of the sketches or from parts ofdifferentsketches.

Groups

Participants are allowed fiveminutes todraw sketchesof aproblemsolution.Thesketchesmaybeabstract,symbolic,orrealistic.Notalkingis permitted.After fiveminutes, theparticipants pass their sketches tothe person on their right. They review the sketch they receive, addfeatures,modifythedrawing,ormakeanewsketchonthesamepage.Theythenpassthisdrawingtothepersonontheirright.Thisprocessofmodifyingandpassingthemodifiedsketchescontinuesforaboutthirtyminutes. Finally, the participants collect and examine all the drawingsand select a final solution or construct a final solution from parts ofdifferentsketches.

PARTII

THINKINGWHATNOONEELSEISTHINKING

Creative genius operates similarly to Darwin’s theory of biologicalevolution. According to Darwin, nature creates many possibilitiesthrough blind “trial and error” and then lets the process of naturalselection decide which species survive. In nature, 95 percent of newspeciesfailanddiewithinashortperiodoftime.Geniusisanalogoustobiologicalevolutioninthatitrequirestheunpredictablegenerationofalarge quantity of alternatives and conjectures. From this quantity ofalternativesandconjectures,thegeniusretainsthebestideasforfurtherdevelopment and communication. The first strategy, “ThinkingFluently,”inPartIIpresentshowgeniusesproduceprodigiousquantitiesofideas.An importantaspectof this theory is that, as inevolution,youneed

somemeansofproducingvariationinyourideas,andforthisvariationto be truly effective, it must be “blind.” To count as “blind,” thevariationsareshapedbychanceorunrelated factors. Innature,agenepool totally lacking invariationwouldbeunable toadapt tochangingcircumstances, with consequences that would be fatal to the species’survival. In time, the genetically encoded wisdom would convert tofoolishness.A comparableprocessoperateswithinus.Every individualhas the ability to create ideas based on his or her existing patterns ofthinking, on the way he or she was taught to think. But without anyprovision for variations, ideas eventually stagnate and lose theiradaptive advantages. As I said before, if you always think the wayyou’ve always thought, you’ll always getwhat you’ve always got. Thesameold,sameoldideas.Speak the followingwords aloud: joke, joke, joke.Now,what is the

white of an egg called? Your brain organizes incoming informationaccording to your existing patterns of thinking, selecting a thinkingpattern toprocess the information. Ifyousaid“yolk,”youwere fooledbythepatterncreatedbytherepetitionoftheword“joke.”Theansweris“albumen,”whichisthewhitepartoftheegg.Ourmindsbuilduppatternsthatenableustosimplifyandcopewitha

complexworld, based on our experiences in life, education, andwork

thathavebeensuccessfulinthepast.Welookat6×6and36appearsautomatically, without conscious thought.We examine a new productforourcompanyandknowit isagooddesignatanappropriateprice.Welookatabusinessplanandknowthat the financialprojectionsarenotgood.Wedothesethingsroutinely,becauseofourthinkingpatterns,basedonourpastexperiences.Inaddition,thesethinkingpatternshelpusperform repetitive tasksprecisely, suchasdrivinganautomobileormakingasalespresentation.Butthissamepatterningmakesithardforus to come up with new ideas and creative solutions to problems,especiallywhenconfrontedwithunusualdata.Creativity implies a deviance from past experiences and procedures.Forexample,cutacakeintoeightslicesusingnomorethanthreecuts.Mostpeoplehavetroublecomingupwithonesolutionbecauseoftheirpast experiences cutting cakes. To solve this, you need to change thewayyouthinkaboutcakes,apieceofcakeandhowtocutacake.Onesolution is tocut thecake inhalfandstack theonehalfon topof theother.Cutthispieceinhalf,stackthepiecesontopofoneanotherandcut them. Or cut the cake into quarters and then slice the cakehorizontallythroughthequarters.Orcutthecakeasillustratedbelow.

When you break out of your established patterns and ignore theconventionalwisdom,you’lldiscoverthattherearemanysolutions.Innature,ageneticmutationisavariationthatiscreatedbyarandomor chance event that ignores the conventional wisdom contained inparentalchromosomes.Naturethenletstheprocessofnaturalselectiondecide which variations survive and thrive. An analogous processoperates within geniuses. Creative geniuses produce a rich variety oforiginal ideas and solutions because they ignore conventionalways ofthinking and look for different ways to think about problems. Theydeliberatelychangethewaytheythinkbyprovokingdifferentthinkingpatterns that incorporate chance and unrelated factors into theirthinking. These different thinking patterns enable them to look at thesameinformationaseveryoneelseandseesomethingdifferent.

The strategies in Part II enabled creative geniuses to produce a richvarietyoforiginalideasandcreativesolutionstoproblemsbyprovokingdifferentthinkingpatterns.Theyincludeseveralstrategies:

•Combiningthingsinnovelwaysin“MakingNovelCombinations”•Usingrandomstimuliin“ConnectingtheUnconnected”•Thinkinginoppositesin“LookingattheOtherSide”•Thinkingmetaphoricallyandanalogicallyin“LookinginOtherWorlds”•Activelyseekingtheaccidentaldiscoveryin“FindingWhatYou’reNotLookingFor”

The strategies do not reproduce the creative experience; they onlysuggest it. To illustrate, let us say that you acceptmy notion that thebestway toseemyneighborhood is tostandon theroofofmyhouse.Thisdoesnotreproducetheexperience;itisasuggestion.Torealizetheexperience, you cannotwill yourself to fly up to the roof. Youneed aspecific tool, such as a ladder, that allows you to get on the roof andlookaround.Inthesameway,whenyouacceptmynotionthatgeniusesgetideasbycombiningthingsinnovelways,youcannotwillyourselftosuddenlystart thinkingthisway.Youneedspecific techniques toshowyouhowtodoit.Thisiswhyeachstrategycontainsspecifictechniquesand practical toolswith precise instructions on how to implement thestrategytogettheideasyouneedinyourbusinessandpersonallife.These strategies liberate your creativity by breaking up yourconventionalthinkingpatternsandstimulatingnewthinkingpatternsbyjuxtaposing unlikely information. Illustration A shows a conventionalthinkingpattern,whichshowsthoughtmovinglinearlyfromaproblemtoasolution.Thisishowwe’vebeentaughttothink.Whenconfrontedwith a problem, we analytically select the most promising approachbasedonpastexperiencesinlife,education,andwork,excludeallotherapproaches, and work within a clearly defined direction toward aconventionalsolution.

IllustrationA

Illustration B shows how a genius will break up this conventionalthinking pattern by introducing random stimuli. This action provokesnew thinking patterns that lead to the formation of new ideas andconceptsthatyoucannotgetusingtheconventionalwayofthinking.

IllustrationB

This part concludes with a final strategy, “Awakening theCollaborative Spirit,” which presents conditions for open and honestcollaborativethinkingingroupbrainstormingsessions.

STRATEGYTHREE:THINKINGFLUENTLY

A distinguishing characteristic of genius is immense productivity. Allgeniusesproduce.Bachwroteacantataeveryweek,evenwhenhewassick or exhausted. Mozart produced more than six hundred pieces ofmusic. Einstein is best known for his paper on relativity, but hepublished248otherpapers.Darwinisknownforhistheoryofevolution,buthewrote119otherpublicationsinhislifetime.Freudpublished330papersandMaslow165.Rembrandtproducedaround650paintingsand2,000 drawings and Picasso executed more than 20,000 works.Shakespearewrote 154 sonnets. Someweremasterpieces,while otherswere no better than his contemporaries could havewritten, and someweresimplybad.Infact,morebadpoemswerecomposedbythemajorpoetsthantheminorpoets.Theycomposedmorebadpoemsthanminorpoetssimplybecausetheyproducedmorepoetry.The common misconception that phenomenal creative geniuses

contribute only a few selective masterworks is plain wrong. ThomasEdison may be best known for his incandescent lightbulb andphonograph,butheheld1,093patents,stilltherecord.Edisonlookedatcreativityassimplygood,honesthardwork.“Genius,”heoncesaid,“is1 percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration.” It took him ninethousand experiments to perfect the lightbulb and fifty thousand toinvent the storage-cell battery. Once,when an assistant askedwhy hecontinued to persist trying to discover a long-lasting filament for thelightbulb after thousands of failures, Edison explained he didn’tunderstandthequestion.Inhismind,hehadn’tfailedonce.Instead,hediscoveredthousandsofthingsthatdidn’twork.

True-NorthThinking

Geniuses produce because they think fluently. Fluency of thought

meansgeneratingquantitiesofideas.Tothinkfluently,it’snecessarytoorganizeyour thinkingarounda setnumberofprinciples,which I call“True-North Thinking.” True North is a standard against which allcourses are measured. A run-of-the-mill compass points to magneticnorth,whichshiftsovertime.Onlyagyrocompasspointsto“truenorth,”an unyielding spot that won’t lead ships astray. Only if you organizeyourthinkingaroundasetofTrue-Norththinkingprincipleswhenyoubrainstorm for ideaswill true idea production follow. These principlesaretimeless,timely,solid.

TheTrue-Northprinciplesforcreativethinkingare

•Deferjudgmentwhilegeneratingideas.•Generateasmanyideasaspossible.•Recordideasastheyoccur.•Elaborateorimproveupontheideas.

DeferJudgment

Whenlookingforideas,eitheraloneorwithagroup,itisessentialnottojudge,evaluate,orcriticizeideasastheyaregenerated.Nothingkillscreativity more quickly or more absolutely than critical, judgmentalthinking.Thisisdifficultforustodo.Wehavebeeneducatedandconditionedto be critical, judgmental creatures, and we judge new thoughts andideas instinctively and immediately. Only humans can try to come upwithnewideaswhilesimultaneouslycomingupwithallthereasonswhytheideaswon’twork.It’slikedrivingacarwithyourfootonthegasandyour foot on the brake at the same time. Consequently, whenever webrainstorm for ideas, we spend most of our time imagining all thereasonswhyanideacan’tworkorcan’tbedone,insteadofgeneratingasmanyideasaswecan.Judging,itseems,issaferthanattemptingtogeneratesomethingnew,andpeopleoftenconcentrateonjudgingideas,totheexclusionofgeneratingthem.Difficultiesarisewhenpeoplejudgeideas too early and reject them before all their implications areconsidered.

Below isadiagramofapersonevaluating ideasas theyareoffered.ThepersonthinksofideaAandrejectsitasunsound.Thenthepersonthinks of ideas B and C and rejects both out of hand. Eventually, theperson moves toward idea D, which is a safe, conservative idea thatcompares favorably with the person’s past experiences and carries norisk.Onceanideaisjudged,creativethoughtcrystallizesandstops.Fewnew ideas are generated, and eventually, thoughts are channeled toweak,safe,conservativeideas.

Thenextdiagramrepresentsthethoughtprocessofapersonwhodoesnotevaluateideasastheyareoffered.Here,thepersonisabletothinkfluidlyandfreely,freewheel,hitchhike,piggyback,andcombineideastocreate even more ideas, until the breakthrough “eureka” idea isachieved. Nonjudgmental thinking is dynamic and fluid. Ideas bounceoff each other to trigger additional ideas and combinations of ideas,multiplyingthepossibilities.

FrancisDarwin,CharlesDarwin’s son, admiredhis father’s ability toreservejudgmentonthemanyuntenabletheoriesthatoccurredtohim,not condemning them out of hand the way his colleagues did. Hisrichnessofimaginationwasequaledonlybyhiswillingnesstoconsiderwhatothersdidnotconsiderworthwhile.Hiscolleagueswouldcomparenewideasandtheorieswiththeirexistingpatternsofexperience.Iftheideasdidn’tfit,theywouldrejectthemoutofhand.Conversely,Darwinwould consider all ideas and theories to see where they led. Hiscolleagues’ thought was static. Darwin’s was dynamic and fluid. Thiswillingnesstoconsiderwhatotherscalled“fool’sexperiments”ledtohistheoryofevolution.

Possibilitythinking

Thesecrettodeferringjudgmentwhilegeneratingalotofideasistoseparate your thinking into two stages: possibility thinking andpracticalitythinking.Possibilitythinkingistherawgenerationofideas,

withoutjudgmentorevaluationofanykind.Youturnoffyourinternalcritic. Your internal critic is that part of yourmind that is constantlytellingyouwhysomethingcan’tworkorcan’tbedone.Thestrategyistogenerate as many ideas, both obvious and novel, as possible, withoutcriticismofanykind.After you’ve created the maximum number of ideas possible, youchange your strategy to practicality thinking, the evaluation andjudgment of ideas, to find the ideas that have themost value to you.Edison once declared that he constructed three thousand differenttheories in connection with electric lighting, each one of themreasonable, before he decided on the one theory that was the mostpractical and profitable. His first goal was to construct as manypossibilitiesashecould,andthenheturnedtothebusinessofevaluationto find the one that was themost practical and profitable. Possibilitythinking and practicality thinking are two separatemental operations,withoutacompromise,in-betweenposition.

Quantity

Edison’s New Jersey laboratory contains a staggering display ofhundredsofphonographhornsofeveryshape,size,andmaterial.Somewereround,square,angular, thin, short, squatwhileothersarecurvedand as long as six feet. This collection of rejected ideas is a visualtestament to Edison’s thinking strategy—in essence, to explore everyconceivablepossibility.ForeverybrilliantideaEdisonhad,hehadmany

duds,likethehorse-drawncontraptionthatwouldcollectsnowandiceinthewinterandcompressitintoblocksthatfamiliescoulduseinthesummerasarefrigerant.

Quantitybreedsquality

Imagineapearl diveronan island in theSouthSeas.Hepusheshiscanoeoff from shore,paddlesout into the lagoon,divesdeep into thewater, picks an oyster off the bottom, surfaces, climbs into his boat,paddles to shore, and opens the shell. Finding nothing inside but anoyster, he pushes his canoe off again and begins paddling into thelagoon.Whatanincrediblewasteoftime.Thereasonablethingtodoisnotto

paddlebacktoshorewithoneoyster,buttodiveagainandagain,tofillup thecanoewithoystersand then return to shore.Pearls arerare—adivermustopenmanyoystersbeforefindingone.Onlyafoolishpersonwouldwastetimeandenergymakingaseparatetripforeachoyster.It’sthe samewith producing ideas.Many timeswe’ll produce one or twoideas and proceed as if they are the answers. But creative ideas, likepearls,occurinfrequently.Sothesensiblethingtodoistoproducemanyideasbeforeweevaluate.Justasagoodideamaystopyoufromgoingontodiscoveragreatone,agreatideamaystopyoufromdiscoveringtherightone.Increasing your idea production requires conscious effort. Suppose I

asked you to spend threeminutes thinking of alternative uses for thecommonbrick.Nodoubt,youwouldcomeupwithsomecases,butmyhunch isnotverymany.Theaverageadultcomesupwith three tosixideas.However, if Iaskedyouto list fortyuses for thebrickas fastasyoucan,youwouldhavequiteafewinashortperiodoftime.

Quota

Aquotaandtimelimitfocusedyourenergyinawaythatguaranteedprofluencyofthought.Thequotaisnotonlymoreeffectiveatfocusingyour energy, but also a more productive method of generatingalternatives. Tomeet the quota, you find yourself listing all the usualusesforabrick(buildawall,fireplace,outdoorbarbecue,andsoon)aswell as listing everything that comes to mind (anchor, projectiles inriots, ballast, device to hold down newspaper, a tool for leveling dirt,material for sculptures, doorstop, and so on) as you stretch yourimagination tomeet the quota. By causing us to exert effort, a quotaallowsus togeneratemore imaginativealternatives thanweotherwisewould.Thomas Edison guaranteed productivity by giving himself and his

assistantsideaquotas.Hisownpersonalquotawasoneminorinventionevery ten days and a major invention every six months. A way toguarantee productivity of your creative thought is to give yourself anideaquota,forexample,anideaquotaof40ideasifyou’relookingforideasaloneoraquotaof120ideasifagroupisbrainstormingforideas.By forcingyourself to comeupwith forty ideas, youputyour internalcritic on hold and write everything down, including the obvious andweak.The first thirdwillbe the sameold, sameold ideas.The secondthirdwillbemoreinterestingandthelastthirdwillshowmoreinsight,curiosity,andcomplexity.Initial ideas are usually poorer in quality than later ideas. Just as

watermust run froma faucet forawhile tobecrystalclear,cool,andfreeofparticles,sothoughtmustflowbeforeitbecomescreative.Earlyideasareusuallynottrueideas.Exactlywhythisissoisnotknown,butone hypothesis is that familiar and safe responses lie closest to thesurface of our consciousness, and therefore, are naturally thought offirst. Creative thinking depends on continuing the flow of ideas longenough to purge the common, habitual ones and produce the unusualandimaginative.Followingisalistoffivewords.Writethefirstassociationthatoccurs

to you for eachword.Nowdo this fivemore times and for each timewriteanassociation that isdifferent fromtheassociationyougave thesamewordonthepreviousoccasions.

123456

Fish

Military

Government

Ocean

AutomobileYouwillnotethatthelatterassociationsaremuchmoreoriginalandunique than the earlier ones. The first responses are the commondominant associations you have for that word. By arranging to giveresponsesthatarenotcommonordominant,youexperienceanincreaseinoriginalityandimaginativenessoftheresponses.Researchers have discovered an interesting correlation between thebirth order of human beings and revolutionary creativity, as well.Firstborn children tend tobecomeconservatives, and “laterborns,” likeDarwin, are more likely to become free thinkers. Firstborns tend toidentifymorewithestablishedtraditionthantheirsiblingsdo.Theytryto dominate their siblings. Laterborns are more open to experience,becausethisopennessaidsthem,aslatecomerstothefamily,infindingan unoccupied niche. Their openness tends to make them moreimaginativeandcreative.Fromtheirrankshavecometheboldexplorersand revolutionary creators. Darwin, Marx, Jefferson, Joan of Arc,Rousseau, Lenin, VirginiaWoolf, and Bill Gates typify the behavior oflaterborns.Whenyouwishtocreatesomethingnewortocomeupwithacreativesolutiontoaproblem,itisoftennecessarytodistanceyourselffromyourfirstbornideasaswell.IfIwanttosurprisemywifeonValentine’sDay,IknowthatImustdisregardthefirstideathatcomestomindforwhattodo. I probablywill have to disregard the second, third, and fourth aswell.Inordertocomeupwithsomethingcreative,wemustgetbeyondourhabitualresponsetointentionallycreatesomethingnew.

Listyourideas.

Whenyougiveyourselfaquota,youforceyourselftolistyourideas.LeonardodaVincihadamaniaforlistingandcataloginghisthoughtsinlittlenotebooks thathecarriedeverywhere.The thousandsofpagesofliststhathemadeconstitutetherawmaterialforahugeencyclopediaoncreativity.Ahabittoconsciouslycultivateistoalwayswriteorlistyourideas when brainstorming. List making will help you permanentlycapture your thoughts and ideas, speed up your thinking, keep youfocused,andwillforceyoutodwelluponalternatives.Listing ideas also helps you remember them. We have all had theexperienceof lookingupaphonenumber,thenbeingdistractedbeforedialing and forgetting the number in a matter of seconds. What ishappening is that new information is bumping out older informationbeforeyourmindcan readyolder information for long-termstorage inyourmemory.Readthefirstseriesofnumbers,coverthenumbers,andrecallthem.Chances are you remembered them correctly. Now, read the secondseries,cover them,andseehowmanyyoucanrecall.Chancesareyouhaddifficultyrecallingthisseries.

Psychologistshavedemonstratedthatthehumanbrainisonlyabletoretain about five to nine chunks of information at a time.After abouttwelve seconds, however, recall is poor, and after twenty seconds theinformation will disappear entirely, unless you keep repeating it toyourself orwrite it down. (In fact, by the timeyou finish reading thischapter, you will have forgotten the first series of numbers as well.)Writingsignalsyourbrainthatthispieceofinformationismorecrucialthanothersandshouldbestoredinlong-termmemory.Ifyoudon’tlistyour ideas, you’ll spend all yourmental energy trying to resurrect oldthoughtsinsteadofgeneratingnewones.Without lookingatyourwatch,drawapictureof itasaccuratelyasyou can. Now compare your drawing with your watch. If you’re like

mostofus,yourdrawingisnotanaccuraterepresentation.Youprobablydiscoveredmanymissingdetails.Eventhoughthis isan instrumentwelookatseveraltimesaday,ourmentalimageofitisweak.Writing or listing your ideas as they occur also speeds up your

thinkingandfocusesyourattentiononyoursubject.

•Speed.Writing ideas speedsup thought.Manyofusharbor the illusion thatweare fastthinkers. Visualize the alphabet in capital letters. How many letters have curved lines?Observehowyourbrainthinks.First,youseetheA,thenB,andsoforthandsoon.It’slikewatching a slide show. First, one, then the next, one after the other, one at a time untilyou’refinishedscanningtheentirealphabet.Thisisasfastasyourbrainthinks.Youthinkno faster than the speed of life. Visualize a tennis match. Now, speed it up 100 times.Difficult, isn’t it?We think sequentially,not simultaneously. Incidentally, thereareelevenletterswithcurvedlinesinthealphabet.

•Focus.Writingideasfocusesyourattention.Anothercommonillusionisthebeliefthatwecanperformmultipletasksatthesametime.Forexample,Icanwriteaworkreport,listentoafootballgame,andpayattentiontomychildatthesametime.Ifyoubelievethat,trycountingbysevenswhileatthesametimecountingbackwardsbythree.You’llfindthatyoucanonlydothisbyalternating.Yourthinkingisoccupiedbyonetopicuntilitswitchestoanother. Try thinking ofwhat you did yesterday andwhat youwill do tomorrow.Noticehowyoudothissequentially,notsimultaneously.

Listing ideas is one of the simplest methods of increasing yourconceptualability,becauseitdoesnotrequireachangeinbehavior.It’salso surprisingly powerful, because it utilizes the compulsive side ofmostofusinawaythatmakesusintomorefluentandflexiblethinkers.

ElaborateonYourIdeas

Contrary to popular belief, Thomas Edison did not invent thelightbulb;hisgenius,rather,wastoperfectthelightbulbasaconsumeritem.He tookan ideaandelaboratedon it.Not satisfiedwith just thelightbulb, he invented a whole practical system for electric lighting,includingdynamos,conduits,andameans fordividingupcurrent thatcouldilluminatelargenumbersofbulbs.Later,whenAlexanderGraham

Bellannouncedhisworkonthetelephonein1876,EdisonimmediatelywenttoworkonwaystoelaborateonBell’swork.Outofthiswork,thephonograph,thedevicethatmadeEdisonacelebrity,emergedoneyearlater.PyotrTchaikovsky,thebrilliantRussiancomposer,setdownhisideas

in moments of intense ardor and then spent many days improving,extending, or condensing his ideas. Paul Valery, the French poet,asserted that stubborn elaboration was an important component ofcreativityandtookgreatexceptiontothesuggestionthatpoetsreceivethe best part of their work from muses. He called that a concept ofsavages.Hisownlaborwasstubborn,weknow—Valerymade250typeddraftsofhismasterpiece,“LaJeuneParque.”In1845EdgarAllanPoepublished“TheRaven.”Oneyearlater,Poe

published the critical essay “The Philosophy of Composition,” whichrecounted the process by which this poem emerged. We might haveexpected Poe, as a poet in the romantic age, to describe the flash ofdivine inspiration by which the entire poem appeared at once—in anecstatic frenzy. Yet Poe wrote that no one point in its composition isreferabletodivineguidance.Instead,theworkproceededmethodically,stepbystep,toitscompletion,ashemadeconstantmodificationsabouteverychoice,fromthepoem’slengthandthemesdowntosinglewords.Evensmallchangesaresignificant.Youmeetafriendyouhaven’tseen

inawhile.Thefriendlooksdifferent.Yousay,“Whathappenedtoyou?Did you lose weight?” But you’re wrong. You learn to yourembarrassmentthat it’sbecausehehasgrownamustacheorshehasanewhaircolor.Ofcourse.Howcouldyouhavemissedit?Youmisseditbecauseyouviewyourfriendasawhole,sothatevery

partofyourvisualimageinextricablyaffectedeveryotherpart.Changeonepart and thewhole seemed changed. It’s the samewith ideas andconcepts.Weviewanideaasawhole,“agestalt,”sothatanychange,nomatter howminor, affects thewhole and thewaywe see it. Considerhow Manco changed the whole gestalt of their duct tape by simplychangingitsnametoDuck™tape,orhowtheJapaneseengineerYumaShiraishidevelopedawholenewentertainmentconcept—thehomeVCR—bysimplysuggestingthatvideotapesneededtobelongenoughforafeature-length movie. This simple modification changed the wholegestaltofvideomachinesandledtotheVCRrevolution.

Constantlyimproveyourideasandtheideasofothersbyelaboratingonthem,addingdetail,depth,anddimensions.PhysicistEdWittenhasbeen called the most brilliant physicist of his generation. He is themasterofstringtheory,afieldasarcaneasitisfundamental:Itpromisesto explainwhatmatter is. Never satisfied, hewakes up eachmorningwith the intention of improving his ideas. After you’ve emptied your“box” and generated asmany ideas as you can, extend your ideas byelaboratingonthembycombiningormodifyingtheminsomefashion.

SCAMPER

Elaborate on your ideas by applying a checklist of nine creative-thinking principles that were first formally suggested by Alex OsbornandlaterarrangedbyBobEberleintothefollowingmnemonic.

S=Substitute?C=Combine?A=Adapt?M=Magnify?Modify?P=Puttootheruses?E=Eliminate?R=Rearrange?Reverse?

SCAMPERisbasedonthenotionthateverythingnewissomeadditionormodificationofsomethingthatalreadyexists.Youtakeasubjectandchangeitintosomethingelse.(Forexample,drilledpetroleumbecomeschemicalfeedstockbecomessyntheticrubberbecomesautomobiletires.Natural gas becomes polyethylene becomes milk jugs. Mined orebecomesmetalbecomeswirebecomespartsofamotor.)

Isolate the subject you want to think about and ask a checklist ofquestionstoseewhatnewideasandthoughtsemerge.Thinkaboutanysubject, from improving the ordinary paper clip to reorganizing yourcorporation,andapplytheSCAMPERchecklistofquestions.You’ll findthatideasstartpoppingupalmostinvoluntarily,whenyouasktherightquestions:

CanIsubstitutesomething?CanIcombineitwithsomethingelse?CanIadaptsomethingtoyoursubject?CanImagnifyoraddtoit?CanImodifyorchangeitinsomefashion?CanIputittosomeotheruse?CanIeliminatesomethingfromit?CanIrearrangeit?WhathappenswhenIreverseit?

Substitute something? Substitution is a sound way to developalternativeideastoanythingthatexists.Thinkupwaysofchangingthisforthatandthatforthis.ThescientistPaulEhrlichkeptsubstitutingonecolor for another—well over five hundred colors—until he found therightdyetocolortheveinsoflaboratorymice.Youcansubstitutethings,places,procedures,people,ideas,andevenemotions.Ask,

CanIsubstitutesomething?Whoelse?Whatelse?Cantherulesbechanged?Otheringredient?Othermaterial?Otherpower?Otherplace?Otherapproach?Whatelseinstead?Whatotherpartinsteadofthis?

Combineitwithsomethingelse?Muchofcreativethinkinginvolvescombining previously unrelated ideas or subjects to make somethingnew.Thisprocessiscalledsynthesisandisregardedbymanyexpertsastheessenceofcreativity.GregorMendelcreatedawholenewscientificdiscipline,genetics,bycombiningmathematicswithbiology.

Whatcanbecombined?Canwecombinepurposes?Howaboutanassortment?Ablend?Analloy?Anensemble?Combineunits?Combinematerials?Whatotherarticlecouldbemergedwiththis?Howcouldwepackageacombination?Whatcanbecombinedtomultiplypossibleuses?Combineappeals?

Adaptsomethingtoit?Oneoftheparadoxesofcreativityisthat,inorder to think originally, we must first familiarize ourselves with theideasofothers.ThomasEdisonputitthisway:“Makeitahabittokeepon the lookout for novel and interesting ideas that others have usedsuccessfully.Yourideaneedstobeoriginalonlyinitsadaptationtotheproblemyouareworkingon.”Ask,

Whatelseislikethis?Whatotherideasdoesitsuggest?Doesthepastofferaparallel?WhatcouldIcopy?WhomcouldIemulate?WhatideacouldIincorporate?Whatotherprocesscouldbeadapted?Whatelsecouldbeadapted?WhatdifferentcontextscanIputmyconceptin?WhatideasoutsidemyfieldcanIincorporate?

Magnifyit?Aneasywaytocreateanewideaistotakeasubjectandaddsomethingtoit.JapaneseengineerYumaShiraishimadethehomeVCRpossiblebyfiguringouthowtolengthenvideotapessotheywouldbelongenoughforfeature-lengthmovies.Ask,

Whatcanbemagnified,madelarger,orextended?Whatcanbeexaggerated?Overstated?Whatcanbeadded?Moretime?Stronger?Higher?Longer?Howaboutgreaterfrequency?Extrafeatures?Whatcanbeduplicated?Whatcanaddextravalue?

HowcanIcarryittoadramaticextreme?

Modifyit?Whatcanbemodified?Justaboutanyaspectofanything.The hub-and-spoke transportation system that makes Federal Expressworkwasafeatureofatleastthreeairfreightservicesasearlyas1930.What Fred Smith did was to modify the dimensions, process, andpurposesofthesystemandturnanoldideaintoanelegantconcept.Ask,

Howcanthisbealteredforthebetter?Whatcanbemodified?Isthereanewtwist?Changemeaning,color,motion,sound,odor,form,shape?Changename?Whatchangescanbemadeintheplans?Intheprocess?Inmarketing?Otherchanges?Whatotherformcouldthistake?Whatotherpackage?Canthepackagebecombinedwiththeform?

Put it to some other use? A subject takes its meaning from itscontext. Change the context, and you change the meaning. GeorgeWashingtonCarver,botanistandchemist,discoveredoverthreehundreddifferentusesforthelowlypeanut.Ask,

Whatelsecanthisbeusedfor?Aretherenewwaystousethisasis?Otherusesifmodified?Whatelsecanbemadefromthis?Otherextension?Othermarkets?

Eliminate?Sometimessubtractingsomethingfromyoursubjectyieldsnewideas.Trimmingdownideas,objects,andprocessesmaygraduallynarrow the subject down to its truly necessary part or function—orspotlightapartthat’sappropriateforsomeotheruse.Ask,

Whatifthisweresmaller?Understate?WhatshouldIomit?Delete?Subtract?What’snotnecessary?ShouldIdivideit?Splititup?Separateitintodifferentparts?Streamline?Makeminiature?Condense?Compact?Cantherulesbeeliminated?

Rearrange it into something else? Creativity, it could be said,consistslargelyofrearrangingwhatweknowinordertofindoutwhatwedonotknow.Rearrangementusuallyofferscountlessalternativesfor

ideas,goods,andservices.Abaseballmanager,forexample,canshufflethelineup362,880times.Ask,

Whatotherarrangementmightbebetter?Interchangecomponents?Otherpattern?Otherlayout?Othersequence?Changetheorder?Transposecauseandeffect?Changepace?Changeschedule?

Reverse it toseewhathappens?Reversingyourperspectiveopensyour thinking. Look at opposites, and you’ll see things you normallymiss.Ask,“Whatistheoppositeofthis?”tofindanewwayoflookingatthings.ThehistoricalbreakthroughsofColumbusandCopernicuswerethepolaroppositesofthecurrentbeliefsoftheirday.Ask,

Whataretheopposites?Whatarethenegatives?CanItransposepositiveandnegative?ShouldIturnitaround?Upinsteadofdown?Downinsteadofup?Consideritbackwards?Reverseroles?Dotheunexpected?

Toagenius,allideasareinastateofconstantflux.Therecanbenosuchthingasanultimateidea,justastherecannotbetheultimatepoemthat would make all further poems unnecessary or the ultimatesymphonythatwouldrenderallfurthermusicalcompositionredundantandunnecessary.Allideascanbeimprovedbyelaboratinguponthem.Mostpeoplefeelthat there must be inadequacy or fault before we look for ways toimprovethings.Geniuses,ontheotherhand,don’tneedinadequacyasjustificationforimprovingsomething.Theylookforwaystoelaborateorimproveideasanytimetheywantto.Forexample,aphysicistlearnedofthe invention of the electronmicroscope. It was touted as the perfectmicroscope.Heimmediatelyworkedoutthreedifferentwaysbywhichitcouldbebuilt.Laterhecheckedthepatentandfoundoneofhismethodswassuperiorandmadetheoriginalpatentobsoleteovernight.

Takeitapart

An easy way to elaborate on your ideas is to take them apart andimproveorchangeonepartatatime.Imaginerenovatingahousewithmanyrooms.Eachoftheroomsispartofthefunctionofthehouse,andwetendtothinkofone“house”insteadofabuildingcomposedofmanyrooms.To change thenatureof thehouse, youdonotblow it upandbuildadifferentone.Itismuchmoreproductivetoshiftyourfocusfromtheone“house”tothemanyseparate“rooms”andimproveoneroomatatime.Byconvertingafewrooms,youcanconvertalargehousemadeupofmanyroomsintoamansion.Everyideaisahouseofmanyrooms.Toelaborateonyouridea,taketheproblemandimproveonepartatatime.In the illustration,a target is split into twohalveswhichcreates theillusionofawhitesquareinthemiddle.Separatingthetargetintotwopartscreatedsomethingnew.

In a similarway, dividing a subject into its separateparts is a goodway to change your fixation on a subject and see its components in anewway.LeonardodaVincifeltitwasessentialtolearnhowtoseparatetheparts fromthewhole.Forexample,seeingisoneof themostrapidoperationspossible:Itembracesaninfinityofforms,yetitfixesonbutoneobjectatatime.Toreadatext,onehastoconsiderthewordsonebyone,thenthesentencesthewordsmakeup,notthetotalnumberofletterswrittenonthepage.Leonardobelievedthat,tounderstandthings,youbeginwiththedetailandmovefromonedetailtoanother.Moving from one detail to another leads to original or novel ideasthroughtheassemblingofall thepossibilities.Trylistingtheattributes(attributesarecharacteristics,parts,ordimensions)ofyoursubjectandthenfocusingyourattentiononeachattributeinturn.Thinkofwaysto

change or improve each attribute by asking yourself the SCAMPERquestions.Forexample,ifyouwantedtodevelopanewofficeprocedureorworkflow,youcouldfirstidentifyandlistallthestepstaken.Thengothroughthechecklistofquestionstotriggerideasonhowtoimproveorchangeeachstep.Supposeyouwanted to improve the common toaster.Youwoulddothefollowing:

1.Listtheattributesonasheetofpaper.Someoftheattributesofatoasterare

•Madeofmetalorplastic•Usesoutsidepowersource•Operatedbypushingaleverdown•Toast“pops”upwhendone•Heatedcoils•Toastbreadvertically

2.Foreachattribute,ask,“Howelsecanthisbeaccomplished?and“Whydoesthishavetobethisway?”Comeupwithasmanyalternativesasyoucanforeachattribute.

3.SeeifyoucanchangeorimproveeachattributebyaskingtheSCAMPERquestions.Youmight endupwith something like a see-through toasterwithheat-resistant glasssides that let the user see the bread as it toasts. The sides can be removed for easycleaning.Inaddition,thetoasterpivotstoallowforbothverticalandhorizontalopen-facetoasting.

Listingattributeshelpsyouthinkbeyondyourstereotypicalnotionsofthings.Weusuallydescribeanobjectbyitsfunction,adescriptionthatgrows out of our experience and observation. But the function of anobject is not inherent in the object itself. Instead, it comes from ourassociation with it. In one experiment, a group of subjects were firsttaughthowtousetoolsintheirconventionalways—forexample,plierstogripandunfastenwiresorapapercliptoholdpaperstogether.Thentheywere presentedwith problems that could only be solved throughusing the tools inunconventionalways.They solved11percentof theproblems.Anothergroupwasgiven the same toolswithout instructionandpresentedthesameproblems.Theyscored97percentsuccesses.Becausetheonegroupwasfixatedontheordinary,conventionaluses

oftools,theywereunabletousethetoolsinunconventionalandnovelwaystosolvetheproblems.Focusingonattributeshelpsclearawaythisfixationonstereotypicfunctions.Often,ifyouconsidertheattributesofsubjects, you’ll comeupwithdifferent conclusions than if youoperatewithyourstereotypes.Byexamining“steelshank”asaseparateattribute,wecanmoveaway

from our stereotypic label of a screwdriver and come up with newapplications.Possibleotherusesincludeprobe,pointer,plug,shoehorn,paint-can opener, weapon, measuring rod, tool to remove paper jamsfromcopiers,pryingdevice,minidowel,telephonedialer,andsoon.Just the act of listing attributes focuses your thinking and helps

overcome deeply entrenched patterns of thought. Suppose you weregiven a candle, a corkboard, and a box of tacks. Can you fasten thecandleinsuchawaythatitdoesnotdriponthefloor?Typically,whengivenacandle,acorkboard,andaboxof tacksand

asked to fasten the candle on thewall so that it does not drip on thefloor, most people have great difficulty coming up with a solution.However, when people are given a candle, corkboard, and thethumbtacksandtheboxseparately,mostsolve theproblemquickly. Inthe first case, the box containing the tacks is subject to a particularassociation. Participants see it only as a container for tacks, not as apossible wall fixture for the candle. When it is separated out,participantsquickly are able to seehow they coulduse it to solve theproblemby tacking the box to thewall as a platform and placing thecandleontop.(Thefunctionofanyobjectisnotinherentintheobjectitselfbutdevelopsfromourobservationandassociationwithit.)

CounttheFsinthefollowingsentence:

FINISHEDFILESARETHERESULTOFYEARSOFSCIENTIFICSTUDY

COMBINEDWITHTHEEXPERIENCEOFYEARS.

If you found less than six, you probably ignored theFs in theword“of.”Ifso,youareprobablythinking,“Ofcourse,itwasrightbeforemy

eyesthewholetime.”Ordinarilywedonotmakethefullestuseofourabilitytosee.Welookatasubjectanddonotseethedetails.Andthedetailssometimescontainthegermofanideathatwillleadtoacreativebreakthrough.GeorgeWestinghousetooktheworkingsofasimplewellinhisbackyardapartandexaminedtheseparateparts.Hethenmodifiedsomeofthepartsandreassembledthemintoanefficientwaytotransmitclean natural gas to homes and industry, creating the natural-gasindustry. Inmusic, theRussiancomposer IgorStravinsky, took specificdetails from folk music and reassembled the details into differentpatterns and invented a new artistic style that began with hispathbreakingworkPetrushka.Inthefigurebelow,weseethedottowhichthearrowispointingas

partofthediagonalline,eventhoughitisactuallyclosertotheverticalline.Wetendtoignoretherelationshipwiththeverticallineandseethedot only as a continuation of the diagonal one. This illustrates theprincipleofcommonfate:Eventsthatseemtobecontinuousarelikelytobeseenasasingleentityratherthanasdiscreteevents.

ThegeniusofFrenchartistsGeorgesSeuratandPaulCézannewasintheir realization that even color itself was not continuous. This wascontrary to the prevailing technique of shading from one patch toanother through intermediate tones as if nature was one continuouswhole.SeuratandCézannebelievedthatcolortransitionsdonotexistinnature,becauseeach littlepatchof color isan independentexperiencethat had to be independently painted. They broke down the discreteexperiencesofnatureastinyindependent“dots”andthengroupedthemin variousways to act on each other and create stunning new artisticexperiencesthatrevolutionizedthewayartistsperceivedtheworld.Breakingnaturedownintoindependentparticlesandthenfocusingon

one particle at a time helped Seurat and Cézanne break theirstereotypicalnotionsanddiscovernewrelationshipsandexperiences.Inthesameway,listingtheattributesofasubjectandthenfocusingononeattributeatatimehelpsustobreakourstereotypicalnotionofasubjectas a continuous whole and to discover relationships that we wouldotherwisemiss.Forexample,supposewewanttoimprovetherevolvingdoor of the kind used in office buildings and department stores. Wecould list the attributes of a revolving door and then focus on eachattributeoneatatime.Thefollowingattributesmightbelisted:

•Hasindividualcompartments•Pushingitmanuallycreatestheenergytomoveit•Madeofglasstoseethrough•Oneormorepeoplepushingitaroundatatime

Theattribute“pushingitmanuallycreatestheenergy”inspiresonetothinkofwaystoharnessallthatenergythatisbeingvoluntarilycreatedbythousandsofpeoplepushingthroughthedooreachday.Thistriggersthe idea ofmodifying the revolving door tomake electricity from theforce of people pushing it around. Separating the revolving door intoattributesbrokeourstereotypicalnotionofarevolvingdoorandinspiredus to thinkofenergyandofacreativewaytouse thedoor toharnessthatenergy.

WrittenRecords

Anotherhabittocultivateiskeepingawrittenrecordofyourcreativeattemptsinanotebook,onfilecards,orinyourcomputer.Arecordnotonly guarantees that the thoughts and ideas will last, since they arecommitted to paper or computer files, but will goad you into otherthoughts and ideas. The simple act of recording his ideas enabledLeonardodaVincitodwellonhisideasandimprovethemovertimebyelaboratingon them.Thus,Leonardowasable to take simple conceptsandworkthemintoincrediblecomplexinventionsthatwereyearsaheadoftheirtime,suchasthehelicopter,thebicycle,andthedivingsuit.

Edison’sNotebooks

LeonardodaVinciwasThomasEdison’sspiritualmentor,andEdison’snotebooksillustratethestrengthoftheirspiritualkinship.FollowingdaVinci’s example,Edison relentlessly recordedand illustratedevery stepofhisvoyagetodiscoveryinhis3,500notebooksthatwerediscoveredafter his death in 1931. Keeping a written record of his work was asignificantkey tohisgenius.Hisnotebooksgothim into the followinghabits:

• They enabled him to cross-fertilize ideas, techniques, and conceptual models bytransferringthemfromoneproblemtothenext.Forexample,whenitbecameclearin1900thataniron-oreminingventureinwhichEdisonwasfinanciallycommittedwasfailingandonthebrinkofbankruptcy,hespentaweekendporingoverhisnotebooksandcameupwithadetailedplantoredirectthecompany’seffortstowardthemanufactureofPortlandcement,whichcouldcapitalizeonthesamemodelastheiron-orecompany.

•Wheneverhe succeededwithanew idea,Edisonwould reviewhisnotebooks to rethinkideasandinventionshe’dabandonedinthepastinthelightofwhathe’drecentlylearned.Ifhewasmentallyblockedworkingonanewidea,hewouldreviewhisnotebooks tosee iftherewassomethoughtorinsightthatcouldtriggeranewapproach.Forexample,Edisontookhisunsuccessfulworktodevelopanunderseatelegraphcable-variableresistance—andincorporateditintothedesignofatelephonetransmitterthatadaptedtothechangingsoundwavesofthecaller’svoice.Thistechniqueinstantlybecametheindustrystandard.

• Edison would often jot down his observations of the natural world, failed patents andresearch papers written by other inventors, and ideas others had come up with in otherfields.Hewouldalsoroutinelycombawidevarietyofdiversepublicationsfornovelideasthatsparkedhisinterestandrecordtheminhisnotebooks.Hemadeitahabittolookoutfornovel and interesting ideas that others had used successfully on other problems in otherfields.ToEdison,anideaneededtobeoriginalonlyinitsadaptationtotheproblemhewasworkingon.

•Edisonalsostudiedhisnotebooksofpast inventionsandideastouseasspringboardsforother inventions and ideas in their own right. To Edison, his diagrams and notes on thetelephone(soundstransmitted)suggestedthephonograph(soundsrecorded),which,inturn,suggestedmotionpictures(imagesrecorded).Simpleinretrospect,isn‘tit?Geniususuallyis.

WaltWhitmanwasanothergeniuswhocollectedideastostimulatehis

creative potential. His journals describe an ingenious technique hedeveloped for recording ideas. Any time an idea would strike hisimagination,hewouldwriteitdownonasmallslipofpaper.Heplacedtheseslipsintovariousenvelopesthathetitledaccordingtothesubjectareaeachenvelopecontained.Inordertohaveaplaceforeachnewideaheencountered,Whitmankeptideasinmanydifferentenvelopes.Whitman, whenever he felt a need to spawn new thoughts or

perspectives,wouldselectthevariousenvelopespertainingtohiscurrentsubjectorinterests.Heretrievedideasfromtheenvelopes,randomlyattimes, or on other occasions, only those ideas relevant to his subject;then hewould “weave” these ideas together as if hewere creating anidea tapestry. These idea tapestries often became the foundation for anewpoemoressay.

Followingareguidelinesforkeepingawrittenrecord:

1. Collect all interesting ideas that you encounter from brainstorming sessions, ideas youreadabout,orideasyoucreate.

2. Record them thematically in a notebook, in your computer, or on note cards, and filethem by subject (organizational improvement, sales presentations, new markets, newproductideas,etc.)inafilebox.Intheeventyouneedfurtherinformationaboutanidea,indicate the sourcewhere you found the idea.Cross-reference any ideas thatmay fit intoseveraldifferentcategories.

3.Onceyouhavedevelopeda fairlyextensive ideabase,use it toglean insightwhenyouhaveaproblem.

Wheneveryouexperienceaproblem,retrieveideasfromyourfilethatyou feelmayapply toyourneed.Spread the ideasoutbeforeyouandreview them. Use the following suggestions to select the ideas mostsuitedtoyourneeds:

1.Selectideascontainingattributescloselyrelatedtoyoursubject’sattributes.

2.Onceyouhaveselectedseveralideasfromthelargergroup,preparetoapplytheideastoyourcurrentneeds.Youmayrealize that theentire ideaappliesoronlyoneprocedureorportionoftheideaapplies.Likewise,ideasmayhavetobemodifiedinordertoapplythemtothesituation.

3.Combineandapplyappropriateattributesorproceduresfromtwoormoreideas.

Geniuses recognize theessentialmeritsandattributesofagood ideaandcanadapttheseelementstotheirsubjects,thereby“creating”anewidea.Manyoriginalideasaresecondhand,consciouslyorunconsciouslydrawn from a million outside sources and used by the garnerer withprideandsatisfaction.HenryFord,founderoftheFordMotorCompany,oncesaidthathissimplegeniuswastheabilitytocreatesomethingnewfromtheideasandinventionsofothers.

MindPopping

When you keep a historical record of your ideas and problems, youinitiateaphenomenonthatGeorgeMandler,aleadingresearcherintheproblemsofconsciousness,calls“mindpopping.”Mindpoppingiswhenasolutionor ideaseemstoappear,afteraperiodof incubation,outofnowhere.Very possibly, the act of recording your thoughts and ideas about a

particularproblemplants the information intoyour long-termmemoryandintoyourunconscious.Whileconsciousnessplaystheimportantrolein our daily lives of restricting the boundaries of our actions, in theunconscious we can activate complexes of information withoutboundary. Information held in long-termmemory can be processed inparallelintheunconsciousandfinditswayintoconsciousthought.Aninnovative ideaemergesnot inanyreal-timesequencebut ina“mind-popping”explosionofthought.

Supposeyournotebookcontains•Informationabouttheproblemyouareworkingon•Informationaboutotherideas,concepts,andproblemsyouarecurrentlyworkingon

Byperiodicallyreviewingyournotebook,youactivatealltherecordedinformation in your conscious and subconsciousmind. You’ve now setup a mental system of network thinking where ideas, images, andconcepts from completely unrelated problems combine to catalyze thenascentmomentofcreativity.Thisnecessarilynonlinearthoughtprocesscanoccurunconsciously—andnotnecessarilyinrealtime.

Conceptscombinelikelightraysfocusingatapointandpopintoyourconsciousness. In the illustration below, A represents the brain cellconnections of an average brain working on a problem, while Brepresents the brain cell connections of a brain that is constantlystimulatedbyrecordingandreviewingofinformation.

Recording your work plants the information in your subconsciousmind and somehow activates relevant patterns so it can be processedintoamind-poppingsolution,evenafteralongdelayduringwhichtheproblemisabandoned. In the1970s,FrankWilczekof the Institute forAdvancedStudy, inPrinceton,NewJersey,deducedhow thenuclei ofatoms stay together, one of those rare “knowing the mind of God”discoveries.Hisbreakthroughoccurredwhenhewasreviewingatotallydifferent problem—in fact, a completely different force of nature. Hesuddenlyexperienceda“mindpop”andrealizedthatafailedapproachinoneareawouldbesuccessfulinanother.Archimedesgothissuddeninsightabouttheprincipleofdisplacement

whiledaydreaminginhisbath.Accordingto legend,hewassoexcitedby his discovery that he rushed naked through the streets, shouting,“Eureka!” (I’ve found it.) Henri Poincaré, a French genius, spoke ofincredible ideas and insights that came to him with suddenness andimmediatecertaintyoutoftheblue.Sodramaticaretheideasthatarrivethattheprecisemomentinwhichtheideaarrivedcanberememberedinunusualdetail.Darwincouldpointtotheexactspotonaroadwherehearrived at the solution for the origin of species while riding in hiscarriageandthinkingofsomeothersubject.Othergeniusesoffersimilarexperiences. Like a sudden flash of lightning, ideas and solutionsseeminglyappearoutofnowhere.That this is a commonplace phenomenonwas shown in a survey of

distinguishedscientistsconductedoverahalf-centuryago.Amajorityof

the scientists reported that theygot theirbest ideasand insightswhennot thinkingabout theproblem. Ideas camewhilewalking, recreating,or working on some other unrelated problem. This suggests how thecreative act came to be associated with “divine inspiration,” for theilluminationappearstobeinvoluntary.Themoreproblems, ideas, and thoughts that you recordand review

from time to time, the more complex becomes the network ofinformationinyourmind.Thinkofthoughtsasatomshangingbyhookson the sides of your mind.When you think about a subject, some ofthese thoughts are released and put intomotion in your subconsciousmind.Themoreworkyouputintothinkingaboutaproblem,themoreinformation you put into your long-term memory by systematicallyrecording it, the more thoughts are put into random motion. Yoursubconsciousmindneverrests.Whenyouquitthinkingaboutthesubjectand decide to forget it, your subconsciousmind doesn’t quit working.The thoughts keep flashing freely in every direction through yoursubconscious.Theyare colliding, combining, and recombiningmillionsof times. Typically, many combinations are of little or no value, butoccasionally, a combination is made that is appreciated by yoursubconsciousasagoodcombinationanddeliveredup to theconsciousmindasa“mind-popping”idea.

Ourconsciousmindsaresometimesblockedfromcreatingnewideasbecausewearetoofixated.Whenwediscontinueworkontheproblem

foraperiodoftime,ourfixationfades,allowingoursubconsciousmindsto freely create new possibilities. This is what happened to NobellaureateMelvinCalvin.Whileidlysittinginhiscarwaitingforhiswifetocompleteanerrand,hefoundtheanswertoapuzzlinginconsistencyin his research on photosynthesis. It occurred quite suddenly andsuddenly also, in a matter of seconds, the path of carbon becameapparenttohim.Toexperience“mindpopping,”trythefollowingexperiment.Writea

lettertoyourunconsciousaboutaproblemyouhavebeenworkingon.Maketheletterasdetailedaspossible.Describetheproblem,whatstepsyou have taken, the gaps,what is needed,what the obstacles are, theidealsolution,andsoon.Instructyoursubconscioustofindthesolution.Write“Yourmissionistofindthesolutiontotheproblem.Iwouldlikethesolutionintwodays.”Sealtheletterandputitaway.Forgetit.Opentheletterintwodays.Iftheproblemstillhasnotbeensolved,writeonthe bottom of the letter, “Let me know the minute you solve this.”Sooner or later, when you are most relaxed and removed, ideas andsolutionswillpopupfromyoursubconscious.Your mind also works when you are sleeping. The reason most

creativepeoplegivefortheirmorningworkschedulewasexpressedbyBalzac,thegreatFrenchnovelist,whosaidhewantedtotakeadvantageof the fact thathis brainworkswhilehe sleeps.Once askedwherehefoundhismelodies,JohannSebastianBach,oneofthegiantsofmusicalhistory,saidthattheproblemisnotfindingthem,it’sgettingupinthemorningandnotsteppingonthem.ThomasEdisonsometimessleptonatableinhislaboratorysothathecouldstartworkassoonashewokeupandnotforgetanything.Try this exercise before you go to sleep. Take a few minutes and

reviewaproblemthatyouarestuckon.Writedownthekeywordsonasheetofpaperandputthepaperonyourbedstand.Forgettheproblemandgotosleep.Whenyouwakeup,lookatthepaper.Youwillprobablythinkofnewinsights,willseetheproblemmoreclearly,andmaygeta“mindpopping”idea

Summary

We think of a creative genius as a mysterious person whospontaneously creates ideas out of the blue. This is not so. This is nothowacreativegeniusgets ideas.Heor sheget ideasbyworkinghardandincorporatingdeliberatethinkingpractices.Creativegeniusesthinkfluentlyandflexibly.Fluentthinkingmeanstogeneratequantitiesofideasandflexiblethinkingmeanstothinkbeyondthe ordinary and conventional nature of things. Geniuses are fluentthinkersbecauseofthefollowingpractices.They

•Deferjudgmentwhenlookingforideas•Generateasmanyideasaspossible•Listtheirideasastheyoccurandkeepawrittenrecord•Constantlyelaborateorimprovetheirideas•Allowtheirsubconscioustogenerateideasbyincubatingtheirsubject

Geniuses are flexible thinkers because they extend their thinking byincorporatingrandom,chance,andunrelatedfactorsintotheirthinkingprocesses. The next strategies in Part II show how geniuses produceoriginalideasandcreativesolutionstoproblemsusingrandom,chance,andunrelatedfactors.

STRATEGYFOUR:MAKINGNOVELCOMBINATIONS

InhisbookScientificGenius,psychologistDeanKeithSimontonoftheUniversity of California at Davis suggests that geniuses are geniusesbecause they formmore novel combinations than themerely talented.He suggests that, ina loose sense,geniusandchanceare synonymous.His theory has etymology behind it: cogito—“I think”—originallyconnoted “shake together”; intelligo, the root of intelligence, means to“select among.” This is a clear, early intuition about the utility ofpermittingideasandthoughtstorandomlycombinewitheachotherandtheutilityofselectingfromthemanythefewtoretain.Intheillustration,thesquareseemstobedeformed(thesidesseemto

bebent).Itisnot.Thesidesofthesquareareperfectlystraight.Placeastraightedgealongthesidesofthesquaretodeterminethisforyourself.Combining a perfect square with a circular background changes ourperceptionofthefigure.

Creativity takes place in the perceptual phase of thinking. This iswhereourperceptionsandconceptsareformed,andthisiswheretheyhave to be changed. Combining a square with a circular backgroundchanged our perception of the square. In the same way, combininginformation in novel ways increases your perceptual possibilities tocreatesomethingoriginal.Consider Einstein’s equation, E=mc2. Einstein did not invent the

concepts of energy, mass, or the speed of light. Rather, he combinedtheseconceptsinanovelandusefulway.Bycombiningtheconceptsinadifferentway,hewasabletolookatthesameinformationaseveryoneelseandseesomethingdifferent.Einsteinvaguelyreferredtothewayhethought as “combinatory play” in response to a survey that wasconductedby thebrilliantFrenchmathematicianJacquesHadamard in1945. To Einstein, this combinatory play seemed to be the essentialfeatureinhiscreativethought.LikethehighlyintelligentchildwithpailfulsofLegosbuildingblocks,a genius is constantly combining and recombining ideas, images, andothervariousthoughts.Thinkforamomentabouthydrogenandoxygen.Put them together in the right combination and you have somethingdifferent from either of the gases alone. You could not have predictedthaticewouldfloat,ahotshowerwouldfeelsorelaxing,oracooldrinkwould be so refreshing. Simple concepts are like these simple gases.Alone,theyhaveknownandobviousproperties.Putthemtogether,andseeminglymagical transformations canoccur. But it is notmagic; it issimplyacreativeaspectofordinarycognition.Becausegeniusesarewillingtoentertainnovelcombinations,theyareable todiscardaccepted ideasofwhat ispossibleand imaginewhat isactually possible. In 1448 Johannes Gutenberg combined themechanisms forpressingwineandpunchingcoins toproducemovabletype,whichmadeprintingpractical.Hismethodofproducingmovabletypeenduredalmostunchangedforfivecenturies.Thelawsofheredityonwhich themodern scienceofgenetics isbasedare the resultof thework of Gregor Mendel, who combined mathematics and biology tocreatethisnewscience.ThomasEdison’sinventionofapracticalsystemof lighting involved combining wiring in parallel circuits with high-resistance filaments in his bulbs, two things that were not consideredpossible.Thinkofyourmindasabowloficecreamwithaflatsurface.Imaginepouringhotwaterfromaspoonontheicecreamandthengentlytippingitsothatitrunsoff.Aftermanyrepetitionsofthisprocess,thesurfaceoftheicecreamwouldbefullofruts.Wheninformationentersthemind,itflows,likewater,intothepreformedruts.Afterawhile,ittakesonlyasmallamountofinformationtoactivateanentirerut.Thisisthepattern-recognitionandpattern-completionprocessofthebrain.Evenifmuchof

theinformationisoutoftherut,themindwillautomaticallycorrectandcompletetheinformationtoselectandactivateapattern.Whenwesitdownandtrytowillnewideasorsolutions,wetendtokeepcomingupwith the sameold ideas. Information is activating thesameoldrutsmakingthesameoldconnections,producingthesameoldideasoverandoveragain.Ortoputitanotherway,ifyoualwaysthinkwhatyou’vealwaysthought,you’llalwaysgetwhatyou’vealwaysgot.Creativity occurs whenwe tilt the bowl of ice cream and force thewater(information)outoftherutsandgetitflowinginanewdirection.You tilt the bowl of ice cream by combining information in differentways. These new combinations give you different ways to focus yourattentionanddifferentwaystointerpretwhateveryouarefocusingon.Itisthesedifferentwaysoffocusingyourattentionanddifferentwaysofinterpretingwhatyouarefocusingonthatleadtonewinsights,originalideas,andcreativesolutions.A number of techniques follow that are designed to help you getoriginal and novel ideas through the chance combination of dissimilarsubjects, ideas, concepts, and thoughts. The first technique ismodeledafteroneofLeonardodaVinci’sfavoritethinkingstrategies.Hebelievedthat once you listed a set of distinctions, you could generate newpossibilities by combining them in various ways, or fill in holes andmissing links by anticipating features that have not yet beenencountered. Combining key elements for the purpose of constructingsomethingnewwasacornerstoneofhisgenius.

DaVinci’sTechnique

Leonardo’s grotesque heads and famous caricatures are examples oftherandomvariationsofthehumanfacemadeofdifferentcombinationsof a set number of features. He would first list facial characteristics(heads,eyes,noses,etc.)andthen,beneatheach,listvariations.Nexthewould mix and match the different variations to create original andgrotesquecaricatures.BelowisahypotheticalexampleofaboxsimilartoonethatdaVincimighthaveconstructed:

Whilethenumberof itemsineachcategoryisrelativelysmall, therearethousandsofpossiblecombinationsofthelistedfeatures.Thecircledfeatures indicate only one out of thousands of different groupings offeaturesthatcouldbeusedforanoriginalgrotesquehead.

Fromhisnotebooks, it isclearthatdaVinciusedthisstrategyinhisproductionofartandinvention.Headvisedtobeonthewatchtotakethe best parts of many beautiful faces, rather than create what youconsidertobeabeautifulface.ItisintriguingtospeculatethattheMonaLisa,probably themostadmiredportrait in theworld, isaresultofdaVinci combining the best parts of the most beautiful faces that heobserved and systemized. Perhaps this is why admirers find so manydifferentexpressionsinthemixoffeaturesonthefaceofthewomaninthepainting.Itisespeciallyinterestingtoconsiderthispossibilityinthelightofthefactthatthereissolittleagreementabouttheactualidentityofthesubject.

One can almost see Leonardo composing a matrix of elements(apostles, types of reactions, conditions, facial expressions, types ofsituations) and experimenting with their variations and combinationsuntil he found the right configuration to create that once-in-a-lifetimemasterpiece—TheLastSupper.ManyotherartistsbeforehimhadmadetheirownversionsofJesusChristhavinghis lastmealwiththetwelveapostles.WhenLeonardopaintedthepicture,however, thescenecamealivewithnewmeaningthatnooneelsewasabletogivenorhasbeenabletogivesince.LeonardodaVinciwouldanalyzethestructureofasubjectandthenseparate the major parameters (“parameter” means a characteristic,factor, variable, or aspect). He would then list variations for eachparameterandcombinethem.Bycomingupwithdifferentcombinationsofthevariationsoftheparameters,hecreatednewideas.Think of the parameters as card suits (hearts, spades, clubs, anddiamonds)andthevariationsasthedifferentcardswithineachsuit.Byexperimentingwithdifferentcombinationsofthevariations,youcreatenewideas.TousedaVinci’stechnique,followtheseprocedures:

1.Specifythechallenge.

2.Separatetheparametersofthechallenge.Theparametersarethefundamentalframeworkofthechallenge.Youchoosethenatureandthenumberofparametersthatyouwishtousein your box. A good question to ask yourself when selecting parameters is “Would thechallengestillexistwithouttheparameterI’mconsideringaddingtothebox?”

3. Below each parameter, list as many variations for the parameters as you wish. Thecomplexity of the box is determined by the number of parameters and the number ofvariations used. The more variations and the more variety to the variations of eachparameter,themorelikelytheboxwillcontainaviableidea.Forinstance,aboxwithtenparameters, each of which has ten variations, produces ten billion combinations of theparametersandthevariations.

4.Whenyouarefinishedlistingvariations,makerandomrunsthroughtheparametersandthevariationsfortheparameters,selectingoneormorefromeachcolumn,andassemblethecombinations into entirely new forms. During this step, all of the combinations can beexaminedwithrespect to thechallengetobesolved. Ifyouareworkingwithtenormore

parameters, you may find it helpful to randomly examine the entire group, and thengraduallyrestrictyourselftoportionsthatappeartobeparticularlyfruitful.

Let’slookatanexample.Acar-washownerwantedtofindanideafora new market or new market extension. He analyzed the activity of“productwashing”anddecidedtoworkwithfourparameters:“methodofwashing,”“productswashed,”“equipmentused,”and“otherproductssold.”Helistedtheparametersandlistedfivevariationsforeachparameter.

He listed four parameters on top.Under each parameter he listed fivevariations for each parameter. He randomly chose one or more itemsfromeachparameterandconnectedthemtoformanewbusiness.

New Business: The random combination of parameters (“self,”“dogs,” “brushes,” “stalls,” “sprayers,” “dryers,” “related products”)inspiredanideaforanewbusiness.Thenewbusinesshecreatedwasaself-service dogwash. The self-service dogwash has ramps leading towaist-hightubswhereownersspraythedogs,scrubthemwithbrushesprovidedbythewash,shampoothem,andblow-drythem.Inadditiontothewash,healsosellshisownlineofdogproducts,suchasshampoosandconditioners.Petownersnowwashtheirdogs,whiletheircarsarebeingwashedinthefull-servicecarwash.Fivealternativesforeachparametergenerates3,125possibledifferent

combinations.Ifonly10percentproveuseful,thatwouldyield312new

ideas. In theory, if you list the appropriate parameters and variations,you should have all of the possible combinations for a specifiedchallenge. Inpractice,yourparametersmaybe incompleteoracriticalvariationforaparametermaynothavebeendescribed.Whenyoufeelthismaybethecase,youshouldreconsidertheparametersyouspecifiedandadjusttheparametersorthevariationsaccordingly.Wetendtoseetheelementsofoursubjectasonecontinuous“whole”

anddonotseemanyoftherelationshipsbetweentheelements,eventheobvious ones. They become almost invisible because of the way weperceivethings.Yettheserelationshipsareoftenthelinkstonewideas.When you break down a subject into different parts and combine theparts in various ways, you restructure your perception of the subject.Thisperceptualrestructuringleadstonewinsights,ideas,andnewlinesofspeculation.Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Köhler demonstrated perceptual

restructuringwithanimals.Hewouldpresentanapewithaprobleminwhichbananasweredisplayedoutofreachandcouldonlybeobtainedby using techniques new in the ape’s experience. For example, Köhlerwould give an ape boxes to playwith for a few days. Then hewouldhangbananas from the ceilingoutof theape’s reach.Whenheplacedtheboxesbehindtheape,itwouldtryallthefamiliarwaysofreachingthefruitandfail.Whenheplacedtheboxesinfrontoftheapesothatthey were visible, the ape would sit and think and suddenly have aninsight and use the boxes to stand on to reach the bananas. Whathappenedwasthatthevisibilityoftheinformationrestructuredtheape’sperception.Itsuddenlysawtheboxesnotasplaythingsbutassupportsto build a structure. It saw the relationship between the boxes andbananas.In the sameway,when you combine and recombine information in

different ways, you perceptually restructure the way you see theinformation. In addition, the greater the number of combinations youare able to generate, themore likely it is that some combinationwillserveasanassociative linkto ideasyoucouldnotcomeupwithusingyourusualwayofthinking(A,B,andDmaybecomeassociatedbecauseeach in someway is associatedwithC). For example, the threewords“surprise,”“line,”and“birthday”incombinationserveasanassociativelink to the word “party.” That is, “surprise party,” “party line,” and

“birthdayparty.”Inthecarwashexample,anassociativelinkwasmadefromtheinformationthatwaslistedtotheideaofabirdwash.Thebirdwash is a miniature clamp device that holds the bird securely in anupright stance so it canbe gentlywashed andhosed (much like a carwash). It’s designed to help workers cleanse birds who are damagedfromoilspillsatsea. It’sexpectedtosavethousandsofbirds thatnowexpirefromtheroughhandlingduringcleanupoperations.Afoodcompanywantednewideasforproductsandmarketsfortuna.Followingaretheparameterstheyusedandtheirvariations.Theyusedtheparameters“usesfortunafish,”“kindsofcontainers,”“productsusedwithtunafish,”and“howtunaisseasoned.”

These variables triggered many new ideas. One idea that wasmarketedwasportable,single-serve,pull-topcansofwater-packedtunawith packets of mayo and pickle relish, whole wheat crackers, and amixingspoon.Otherideasincludedcanola-oiltunaforvarietyandtunamix-ins,whicharelow-fatseasoningpacketsthatrequirenomayo.The food company also saw an associative link between mayo andtunathatinspiredthemtoworkondevelopingasyntheticmayothatcanbe premixed and canned with the tuna, instead of being packagedseparately.The foodcompanybrokeapart theirchallenge intodiscreteparts,whichopenedthewayforthemtoseethepartsfromallsidesatonceandtorecombinethosepartsinnewways.Intheworldofart,PabloPicasso’sLesDemoisellesd’Avignonrepresentscubismasthefinalbreakingofthepaintingandtheworldintodiscreteparts,whichalsoopenedthewayforPicassotorecombinethepartsin

newandstartlingways.Thefiguresinthepaintingwereperceivedtobethe first figures inWestern art to have been painted from all sides atonce. As cubism conquered the exhibition halls, Picasso also showedhowtocombinethepartsofapaintingwiththepartsoftheworldintoanewartform,whichhecalledacollage.

InventiveProblemSolving

ThemathematicianHenriPoincarébelievedthatinventioninproblemsolvingconsistedofconstructingalargenumberofvariouscombinationsof possibilities and the essential ability to select those that are mostlikelytobeuseful.Ausefultechniqueforescapingfromthefixedpartsofaproblemistobreak thepartsdown into still smallerpartsand then recombine thesesmallerunitstoformlargernovelunits.Itisusuallymucheasiertoputtogethersubpartsindifferentformationsthantodividethesituationintonovelpartsfromthefirst.Thenumberofdifferentwaysinwhichsomethingcanbelookedatislimitednotonlybytherigidityoftheavailableunitsofdescriptionbutalsobythenumberofavailablerelationships.Thelargertherepertoireofrelationshipsthatcanbehandledwithconfidence,themoreoriginalcanbethelinesofdivision,thewaysoflookingatasituation.

1. First, select the parameters or dimensions. You can select as many as you want. It’ssuggestedthatyouselectatleastfour.

2.Listasmanyvariationsasyoucanforeachparameter.(Seetheexamplebelow.)

3.Makerandomruns linkingoneormorevariations ineachcolumnwithoneormore inothercolumns.

4.Forceeachrandomcombinationofvariationsintonewideas.

5.Keeptryingdifferentcombinations.

Forexample,aMidwesterntownwantedamorereliablewaytowarnpeople about approaching dangers, such as floods, tornadoes,earthquakes,andsoon.Theparameterstheyselectedwere

•Howtolocatepeople•Howtogettheirattention•Howtodeliverthedesiredmessage•Howtogetthedesiredreactionfromthecitizens

Theythenrandomlylinkedthevariationstotriggerideas.Oneofthecombinations (“Bells,” “Telephone,” “Find protection,” “Information”)with “all the ways to locate people” triggered the idea to make anarrangement with the telephone company to cause all the telephonesthroughout the city (including cell phones and public phones) to ring.When answered, the phones relay a prerecorded message informingpeople about the particular emergency and instructing peoplewhat todo.Additionally,theyemployedamass-mediaadvertisingcampaignthattoldofthedangeralertsystemandhowitworks.

Supposeyouwanttocreateanewproductpromotion.Theparametersforanewmarketingcampaignmightbe

•Waystogetattention•Waystogetpeopletoact•Themes•Markets•Waystosurprisepeople

Undereachparameterlistasmanyvariationsasyoucan.Thenmakerandomrunslinkingoneormorevariationsineachcolumnwithoneormoreinothercolumns.Keeptryingdifferentcombinationsuntilyougettheideasyouwant.Whenyoulookintoakaleidoscope,youseeapattern.Ifyouthenadd

anewpieceofcrystalandmanipulatethedrum,youhaveamultitudeof

newpatterns.Whenyoumake randomcombinations linkingvariationstogether, it’s like adding crystals to a kaleidoscope. You create amultitudeofnewpossibilities.

Key-WordCombinations

Creative thinking isoftenamatterof formingnewassociations,newsyntheses, or new combinations of elements of existing knowledge,ratherthanproducingsomethingthatisnewineveryrespect.Takethefollowing elements: speedymessenger service, discounted jets for sale,and empty skies at night. Fred Smith combined these elements andcreatedFederalExpress.Lookfornewideasinyourbusinessbyanalyzingthevariablesofyour

business,listingcomponents,andmakingrandomcombinations:

1.First,ask,“What isourbusiness?”and“Whatshouldourbusinessbe?”Thesequestionswill help focus your attention. For example, the business of a publisher is not producingbooks, it’s informationandentertainment,andthebusinessofatelephonecompanyisnotprovidingtelephones,it’sservice.

2. Next, define the variables of your business. For instance, some variables for a typicalbusiness are products, services, markets, functions, technologies, pricing, distribution,management,andsoon.Selectfourorfivethatyoubelievetobethemostsignificant.

3.Undereachvariable,listtheattributesorcomponents.Createakey-wordindex.Usekeywordstodescribethecomponentsorattributesofeachvariable.Followingisakey-wordindexforabusinessbookpublisher.

4.Mixandmatchyourproducts, functions,markets, technologies, and services invarious

ways to explore new ideas, for instance, connecting electronic networks, information,resources,Internet,print,andinformationservicestotriggertheideaofanelectronicdatabank.Thebankwouldcontainalltheinformationfromthepublisher’sbacklistofbusinessbooks.TheinformationwouldbesoldasabusinessresourcebywayofacomputernetworkforbusinessesandovertheInternet.Inkey-wordcombinations,wepredeterminethevariablesbydefiningourbusiness,extendourthinkingbyusingkeywords,andthenmakerandomcombinations.Anotherinterestingexerciseistowriteallpossiblecharacteristics,components,ordimensionsforyourbusinessaskeywordsoncardsorslipsofpaper,onepercard.Comeupwithasmanyasyoucanandthenrandomlydrawthemfromafishbowl,abox,orasimilarcontainer.Thefollowingaresomecommonexamples.

Communication Character Strength

People Color Quality

Cohesion Shape Characteristics

Design Package Dimensions

Movement Size Patterns

Position Parts Purpose

Materials Image Opportunities

Functions Trends Options

Obstacles Research Competition

Information Environment Value

Functions Products Partnership

Expense Benefits Success

Technology Markets Service

Prices Management Distribution

Staff Space ProcessWheneveryouarethinkingaboutabusinessproblem,randomlydraw

threetosixcardsfromthebox.Listanyandallthoughtsthateachcard

triggers and then combine the thoughts. Supposewewant to create anew product promotion, andwe pulled the cards “design,” “benefits,”and“image.”Undereach, list the thoughts that thecards inspire.Lookforwaystosatisfytherequirementsof“design,”“benefits,”and“image”in a new product promotion. Extend your thinking by listing asmanythoughtsasyoucan.

Read through the thoughts and let your imagination begin to formideas.Thenmakerandomcombinationsfromtheseparatethoughtsandforce the combinations into new ideas. Continue making randomcombinations until you have the ideas you want. The key thoughts“frequently handled,” “something that surprises,” “immediate reward,”and “authorizedby someauthority” combined into a new idea for thecompany running a grand lottery that benefits the Alzheimer’sFoundation. The promotion for the lottery, the tickets, the winner’scelebrationwouldallbetiedintotheproductpromotion.Jacques Hadamard, the brilliant French mathematician who proved

the prime number theorem, argued that invention, includingmathematical invention, requires the discovery of unusual but fruitfulcombinationsofideas.Tofindsuchnovelties,itisnecessarytoconstructnumerous random combinations. It is the random combinations ofvariablesthatallownewandexcitingideastoformandemerge.A physicist I know makes systematic use of the idea that new

associationsmaybe formedbyaccidental combination.Hewill cutupindexes of physics textbooks and then throw the fragments into afishbowl.Lastly,hewilldrawoutseveralatatimetoseewhetheranynew useful combinations emerge. This simple technique has producedinsights and ideas that he could not generate using his usual way ofthinking. Cut up an index of a book in your field, for example, amarketingbookifyouareinmarketing,andtrythesametechnique.

CombiningExistingInformation

Thenotionthatgeniusescombineitemsofexistingknowledgebecausetheybecomeawareofsomesimilarityoroverlapbetweenthemhasbeenfavored for some time.WilliamJameswasverydecisiveon thispoint.He explained that was why Newton noticed the law of squares andDarwin noticed the survival of the fittest in nature. Their discoveriesrequired a remarkable eye for resemblances between items of existinginformationandtheabilitytocombinetheminanovelway.Wepossessanabundanceofthoughtsaboutmostofourproblems.By

organizing our thoughts efficiently, we can systematically createcombinations that will generate multiple solutions to problems. Thefollowingisatechniquedesignedtohelpyourecognizeitemsofexistingknowledgeaboutasubjectandhowtocombinedifferentitems:

1.Collectallavailablematerialrelatingtotheproblem.

2.Thinkofeveryfactorrelatedtotheproblem,regardlessofitsimportance,andwriteeachfactoronasmallcard.

3.Lookforconnectionsbetweenthecards.Groupthemintogeneralcategories.

4.Keep integratingandgrouping themuntil theyare reduced to four to sixmaingroups.Placeanewcardontopofeachgroupthatdescribesthegeneralcategory(thetitlecard).Thesefinalgroupsarethefundamentaldimensions,orparameters,oftheproblem.

5.Onablanksheetofpaper,writetheparametersacrossthetop.Beloweachparameter,listitscomponentsfromthecards.

6. Cut the sheet into vertical strips. Each strip will contain one parameter and itscomponents.

7. Lay the strips side by side. If you move each strip up and down, you’ll notice newrelationships between the components, which in turn may trigger new ideas or creativesolutions.

Anoptionalwaytodisplaytheinformationistotapethetitlecardstoawall.Beloweachparameter,tapetheappropriatecards.Makerandomruns through the parameters and their components, selecting one ormore components from each column and assemble into new

combinations.

CombiningtheUnrelated

Whenthelinesattheleftarecombinedtoformthefigureontheright,weseetheoriginaltwopatternsonlywithgreateffort.Instead,weseeacontinuouswavy line running through a series of bars. Combining thelinescreatesanewpatternwithnewproperties.Theillustrationverifiesthe seemingly obviouspoint that froma combination can emergenewpropertiesthatwerenotevidentineitheroftheoriginallines.It is the same with concepts and ideas. Gregory Murphy of theUniversityofIllinoishadpeopleratehowtruecertainpropertieswereofindividual concepts and their combinations. One set of conceptsconsisted of the individual words “empty” and “store” and theircombination“emptystore.”Considertheproperty“losingmoney.”LikesubjectsinMurphy’sstudy,youprobablyrecognizethatlosingmoneyistypicalof“emptystores,”butnotof“stores”ingeneralorofthingsthatare “empty.” Meaning changes when we combine concepts, and themorenovel thecombination, themorenovel thenewmeaning.This iswhy genius is often marked by an interest in combining previouslyunrelated ideas, goods, and services,making novel combinationsmorelikely.Therearemanydifferentwaystocreatenovelcombinations:

RandomObjects

Selecttwentyobjectsatrandom.Youcanselectanyobjects,objectsathome, objects at work, or objects you might find walking down thestreet.Oryoucanimagineyouareinatechnologicallyorientedsciencemuseum,walking through theSmithsonian Institute,orbrowsing inanelectronicstoreandmakealistoftwentyobjectsthatyouwouldlikely

see.Maketwolistsoftenobjectseachontheleftandrightsidesofthepaper(seeexamplethatfollows).Pickonefromtheleftandcombineitwith one on the right. When you find a promising new combination,refineandelaborateitintoanewinvention.

In the example, the illustrated combinations yielded the followingideas:

•Combiningabagelwithsliceryieldsabagelslicerwithplasticsidesdesignedtoholdthebagelandpreventrotationwhenslicing.•Bathtubandhammockcombinesintoababytubwithasimplehammockinthetubwithaheadresttoholdthebaby’sheadsecurely,leavingtheparent’shandsfreetodothewashing.• Sunglasses andwindows combine to form the idea of tinted housewindows, like tintedsunglasses,designedtochangecolorswithultravioletlighttohelpkeepthehousecool.• Suntan lotion and insect repellent combines to form a new product—one lotion thatprotectsagainstboththesunandinsects.

Youcanalsotrythe inverseheuristic togenerate ideas,whichstatesthatifanobjectperformsonefunction,anewartifactmightberealizedbycombiningitwithanobjectthatperformstheoppositefunction.Theclawhammerisagoodexample.Soisapencilwithaneraser.Canyoucreate new objects from the list of random objects by combining theobjectwithsomethingthatperformstheoppositefunction.Howaboutasmall cap for tightly sealing a soda can that could be attached to theleverofthepop-topdevice?Whatisthefigureinthefollowingillustration?

Itcanbeseenaseitheraduckorarabbit.Ifyoufocusontheleftyouseeaduck,andifyoufocusontheright,youseearabbit,astheduck’sbeakbecomestherabbit’sears.Anovelimageiscreatedbyintegratingtwo different images into one. In the same way, when we randomlycombineddissimilarobjects,weeasilycreatedmanynovelproducts.AlbertRothenberg, inhisbookTheEmergingGoddess, defines this as“homospatial thinking.” He presents an ample number of examplesdrawn from the visual arts. Leonardo da Vinci, Paul Klee, OskarKokoschka, Henry Moore, Claes Oldenberg, and others all provideillustrations. For instance, in Klee’s 1927 masterpiece painting,PhysiognomicLightning, thechief featuresofaman’sfacearedelineatedby a bolt of lightning: an integrated image ensues from twoheterogeneouselements.Rothenberg demonstrated that integrated images can stimulatesuperior creative ideas.Newton,according tohisown story, conceivedtheconceptofuniversalgravitationwhenheobservedanapple fallingandat thesametimenoticedtheMooninthesky.Thesesimultaneousimages inspiredhimto speculate if the same lawsgoverned the fallingappleandtheMoonorbitingtheEarth.Thisinturnledhimtodevelopthelawsofmechanicsandestablishmathematicalanalysisandmodelingastheprincipalfoundationsofscienceandengineering.Combining two dissimilar subjects creates a cognitive fusion thatsometimesleadstoanovelinsightoridea.Wecombinedrandomobjectsto create new products, the artists in Rothenberg’s studies combinedimagestocreatestunningmasterpieces;andNewtoncombinedsubjects(theappleandtheMoon)fromunrelatedfieldstocreatenewscience.

CombiningSubjectsfromUnrelatedFields

SigmundFreud’s interest in fields thatwereunrelated topsychologywas a key to his uncommon insights. For example, in his psychiatricpractice, heusednot only knowledge about thedataof aperson’s lifehistory and psychical mechanisms, but also knowledge about culturalpatterns,literaryworks,andworldhistorytomakeinferencesanddrawconclusions. His ability to synthesize elements of information fromdifferentfieldscontributedtohisabilitytoseethingsdifferentlyfromhiscontemporaries.When looking for original ideas, try combining subjects fromunrelated fields. Among combinations, the most fertile will often bethose formed of elements drawn from domains that are far apart. Forexample, one entrepreneur created two lists of objects: One listcontainedhousehold objects, and the other list contained objects fromthe world of sports. The combination of “laundry hamper” with“basketball”inspiredhimtocreateanewlaundryhamperfashionedintoa basketball net, approximately forty inches long, attached to acylindrical hoop and hung on a backboard that is attached to a door.Thisallowskidstoplaybasketballwithdirtylaundryasthey“stuff”thebasket.Whenitisfull,atugonadrawstringreleasestheclothes.Another way to make random combinations with subjects fromunrelated fields is to select two unrelated subjects, break each subjectdownbylistingitsattributes,andthenrandomlycombinetheattributes.Suppose, for example, you want to invent a new product. You wouldfirst select twoobjects that interestyou.Make two listsof theobjects’attributesorcharacteristicsandrandomlycombinethemtotriggerideas.For example, we select “bedroom” and “automobile.” Some of theirattributesareasfollows:

Combining“senseofsecurity”and“automaticdoorlocks”inspirestheideaofamasterlocknearthebed,whichlocksandunlocksallwindows,doors,computersystems,andeverythingelseinthehousewithonekey.

Combining “window shades” and “moves” triggers the idea ofincorporatinglightsensorsintowindowshadesthatautomaticallyraiseorlowertheshadesaccordingtotheintensityoftheoutsidelight.Combiningattributesofdifferent subjects isaquickway togenerate

ingeniousideas.Supposeyouwantedanewadvertisingcampaign.Selecttwo advertising campaigns from different fields that you liked (forexample, an advertising program for a political campaign and anadvertising program for a sports team). List the attributes of eachprogram in twocolumnsand thenmake randomconnectionsuntilyoucreate ideas for a new campaign. Or suppose you wanted to improveofficemorale.Thenyouwouldidentifytwoofficesfromdifferentfields(adentist’sofficeandyourspouse’soffice)thathadterrificmorale, listtheattributesof each, and thenmake randomconnections to comeupwithnewanddifferentideastoimprovemoraleinyouroffice.

CombiningProblems

ThomasEdison’s labwasabigbarnwithworktables throughout theroom holding separate projects in progress. He would work on oneproject and then another. His workshop was designed to allow oneproject toaffectaneighboringone,so thatmovesmadeheremayalsobe tried there. This method of working allowed him to consistentlyrethinkthewayhesawhisprojects.Use a notebook to do in timewhat Edison’sworkshopdid in space.

Workontwoormoreunrelatedproblemsinparallel.Oneproblemmightbe about finding the capital and resources for a new project. Anotherproblemmightbeaboutimprovingtheemployeeevaluationsystem,andstill another might be a new advertising campaign. When you’restonewalledononeproblem,movetothenext.Whenyoucomeupwithideasormovesthatworkforoneproblem,trytheideasorrelatedideaswiththeotheraswell.

CombiningWords

The French poet Paul Valery believed that it takes two differentthinkingstrategiestoinventsomethingnewinwritingapoem.Withone

strategy, you make up combinations, and with the other you choosewhat is important.Followingare some techniques that takewordsandcombinethemindifferentways.Identify the main verb and noun in the problem you are trying to

solve.Generatewordssimilarinmeaningtothemainverbandnounandlistthemintwoseparatecolumns.Useathesaurus.Selectawordfromthefirst list,combine itwithawordfromthesecondlist,andusethiscombinationtogenerateideas.Trydifferentcombinations.Forexample,suppose you wanted to reduce conflict between two opposingdepartments.Yourlistsmightlooklikethis:

Considerthefollowingcombinations:“dilute-discord”triggerstheideato reduce the number of interactions between the departments;“downgrade-discord” triggers the thought to downgrade departmentalperformance ratings until the conflict diminishes, and “discount-disharmony”encouragesonetoignoretheconflictandhopeitresolvesitself.Another way to generate ideas is to take a problem apart and

randomly combine the words in different ways. Suppose you want toencourage employees to daily clean up their work areas at the office.Writethewordsormajorphrasesonslipsofpaperorindexcards—onethought per card. For example, in our problem our words would be“encourage,” “employees,” “work areas,” “work,” “clean up,” “office,”and “daily.” Shuffle the cards and place them face down. Randomlyselecttwo,combinethewords,andtrytoforceanidea.Keepshufflingand combining until you get the ideas you want. “Encourage-workareas” leadsone to thinkofmaking theenvironmentmorepleasantbyincreasing theaccessibilityof trashreceptacles. “Employees-encourage”inspirestheformationofqualitycirclediscussiongroups.“Daily-office”motivatestheideaofsettingasideacertaintimeperiodattheendofthe

dayforeachemployeetocleanhisorherworkspace.Athirdtechniqueusingwordsistofirstgeneratealistofnouns(five

totenorso)andanotherlistofadjectivesandverbsthatpertaintoyoursubject. Each noun should represent some aspect of or the essence ofyoursubject.Useathesaurusifyouwish.Thelistofadjectivesandverbsshouldbefreelyassociated(writewhateveradjectivesandverbscometomind).Nextrandomlychooseanounfromthe first listandcombine itwithanadjectiveorverbfromthesecondlistandusethiscombinationtogenerateideas.Trydifferentcombinations.ThisisthetechniquethatIusedtocreatethetitleformybookThinkertoys:AHandbookofBusinessCreativity for the90s. I randomly combined “toys”and “think.”Then, Ireverseditto“thinktoys.”Next,Ielaboratedonthewordsto“ThinkingToys”andcombinedthetwoagaininto“Thinkertoys.”Here is an example of how to use this technique to discover new

productor service ideas for commercial airlines. ListA containsnounsthat capture some aspect or essence of airliners and List B containsadjectivesandverbs.

Combining “meal tray” with “eat” prompted the idea of organic,ediblemeal trays. The edible traysmade out of soybean starches andproteinswouldnotbemeant forhumanconsumption,but rather tobecollected and distributed for cattle and other livestock as part of thenational recycling effort. You could possibly get soybean farmers tofinancetheresearchanddevelopment.

CombineIdeas

J.Bronowski,theauthorofthebookTheAscentofMan,claimedthat“ageniusisapersonwhohastwogreatideas.”Theworkofgeniusarisesfromtheperson’sability toget themto fit together. In1979,physicist

AlanGuthwas puzzling overmagneticmonopoles-hypothetical chunksofmagneticnorthpolesdivorced fromany south.Hewasalsoplayingaroundwitha totallydifferent idea, theoddnotionof“falsevacuums”freezingandunifyingtheforcesofnature.Combiningthesetwounlikelysubjects,hehituponnolessthananewtheoryofgenesis.His“inflationtheory”posits that theuniversebegan inahyper-explosion thatmakesthebigbanglooklikeawhimper.Itanswersmysteriesofcosmologyonwhichearliertheorieshadbeenmute.ThemathematicianGregoryChaitinonceprovedthatnoprogramcan

generate a number more complex than itself, any more than a one-hundred-poundwomancangivebirthtoatwo-hundred-poundchild.Anidea grows by annexing its neighbor. Perhaps the two ideas catalyzeeachotherliketwochemicalsthatbothneedtobepresentinorderforanewconcept,product,or ideatoform.Combiningideas intostillmoreand better ideaswill help yourmindwork to the peak of its creativeefficiency.Trythisstrategytocombineideas.Collectallyourideasandputthem

intotwocolumns,columnAandcolumnB.Eitherlistthemonpaperorwritethemoncards,andputthemintotwopilesortapethemontothewall in two columns. Randomly connect one idea from columnA andoneideafromcolumnB.Trytocombinethetwointooneidea.Seehowmanyviablecombinationsyoucanmake.Inagroupbrainstormingsession,askeachparticipanttosilentlywrite

or print five or six ideas on index cards. Then have each participantprioritize their ideas and select one. The facilitator collects andplacestheleftovercardsfaceuponatable.Next,asktheparticipantstocometothetable,reviewtheleftoverideas,selectoneandthenreturntotheirseat.Thisisalsodonesilentlyandshouldtakeaboutfivetotenminutes.Finally, ask each participant to combine their idea with the one theyselectedfromtheleftoverpiletocreateanewidea.

Combineelementsofextremeideas

LeonardodaVincibelievedthattoreallyknowhowthingswork,you

shouldexamine themundercritical conditions.Hebelieved inpushingconceptstotheextremeinhisimagination.Createtwooppositeextremeideas. For instance, what idea would you create if you had all theresources(people,money,time,etc.)intheworld?Then,askwhatideawouldyoucreateifyouhadnoresources?Andthentrytocombinethetwo into something practical. Think of the elements and attributes ofeachextremeandthenmakerandomconnectionsbetweenthetwolistsofextremes.Suppose you want to reward employees for ideas that increase

productivity.Oneextremewouldbetoawardeachemployeeonemilliondollars for each idea. The other extreme would be to award eachemployee a penny. The combination of the two extremes inspires a“PennyforYourIdeas”campaign.Buyagumballmachineandplaceitinyourofficefilledwithcoloredgumballs.Foreveryidea(oreveryfiveortenideas)awardthecontributorapennyforuseinthemachine.Awardacashprizeaccordingtothecolorofthegumballthatcomesout($2forgreen,$5foryellow,$100forred,etc.)

CombineMultiplePerspectives

Genius comes from a passionate commitment to the integration ofmultiple perspectives. When one excels in several different areas andthenisabletosynthesizethem,onebeginstoapproachgenius.Throughthe integration ofmultiple perspectives, the deeper structures of ideasbecomerevealedtous.Thediscoveryofthedeepstructurebeneaththemanyandvariedsurfacestructuresisthecorecriterionofgenius.

SIL

SIL is a German acronym which means “successive integration ofproblemelements.”SIL isanotherof themanybrainwriting techniquesthat were developed at the Batelle Institute in Frankfurt, Germany. Itfirst involves silent individual generation of ideas about a previouslystated problem. It differs from most other methods in that ideas are

generated by progressively integrating previous ideas. The guidelinesare:

1.Eachindividualinthegroupsilentlywritesideas.2.Twoofthegroupmembersreadoneoftheirideasoutloud.3.Theremaininggroupmemberstrytointegratethetwoideasintooneidea.4.Athirdmemberreadsanideaandthegroupattemptstointegrateitwiththeoneformedinstepthree.5.Thisprocessofreadingandintegratingideascontinuesuntilalltheideashavebeenreadandintegratedintoonefinalsolution.Whileitmaynotbepossibletointegrateallideas,atleastitensuresthatallideasgetafairhearing.

TheExquisiteCorpse

This is a technique used by surrealist artists to create conceptualcombinations in art. Artists in a group would take turns, eachcontributing anyword that occurred to them in a “sentence,”withoutseeing what the others had written. The resulting sentence wouldeventuallybecomeacombinationofconceptsthattheywouldstudyandinterpret, hoping to get a novel insight or a glimpse of some deepermeaning.Itwasthoughtthatthejuxtaposedwordsofindividualswouldapproach the freedom of thought consciousness constrains. Thetechnique is named “The Exquisite Corpse” after a sentence thathappenedtocontainthosewords.Following isagroupgamebasedon this technique; it isdesigned to

procureandcombineunrelatedconcepts.Thegroupdiscussesaproblemorsubjectforfivetotenminutes.Then,eachparticipantsilentlywritesonewordona card.Thegroup then tries to combine the cards into asentence(wordscanbeaddedby thegrouptohelp thesentencemakesense).Lastly,thegroupisinvitedtostudythefinalsentenceandbuildanideaorideasfromit.

CombineTalent

Lookforwaystocombinetalent.HowardGardnerhypothesizedinhisbookCreatingMindsthat,withoutthestimulationandcritiqueofferedbyclosefriends,Einsteinmightnothavecompletedhisinnovativework.Heappreciated the opportunity to try out his ideas on others such as hiswifeMilevaandMichaelangeloBesso,anengineerhebefriendedatthepatent office. Einstein thanked Besso explicitly for a conversation thatledtothespecialtheoryofrelativity,andscholarshavespeculatedthatMilevamayhaveaidedinthedevelopmentofhismostoriginalideas.Inhis passionate letters to her, Einstein spoke of “our theory.” Einstein’sfriends and wife helped stimulate his thinking by offering diverseviewpointsandcritiques.Intheworldofart,PabloPicassoandGeorgesBraque,bycombining

their talents, invented cubism. Perhaps either one of them, workingalone,mighthaveinventedit.Butwithoutquestion,theparticularformcubism took and its speed in transforming the artistic world resultedfrom this combination of talent of two artists, still not thirty years ofage.Asamoreproficientdepicterofthenaturalandthehumanworlds,Picasso may have been responsible for the stronger representationalaspects, the focus on objects with their idiosyncratic peculiarities,whereasBraquepushedmoretowardabstraction.Theircombinationofcontrastingtalentsinspiredcubism’sparadoxicalproperties.Lookforways tomaximize themanydifferentanddiverse talents in

group brainstorming sessions. You could divide the group into smallergroupsbygender,workexperience,departments,geographical regions,education, and so on.Have each group brainstorm for ideas and thencombine the groups to share ideas and to look for ways to combinethem. For example, youmight divide a large group into three groups:very experienced,moderately experienced, and little or no experience.Ordivideagroupbyposition,forexample,salespeople,customerservicerepresentatives, and service personnel. Have each group separatelygenerateideasandthencombinethegroupstosuccessivelyintegratetheideasusingtheSILguidelinesonthispage.

Left-BrainersandRight-Brainers

Aninterestingwaytocombinetalentistodividethegroupintoleft-brain(rational)thinkersandright-brain(intuitive)thinkers.Asktheleft-brainerstocomeupwithpractical,conventional,andlogicalideas;asktheright-brainerstocomeupwithfar-out,unconventional,andillogicalideas.UsingtheSILguidelines,havethegroupsuccessivelyintegratethelogicalideaswiththeunconventional.

CombiningDomains

Many breakthroughs are based on combining information fromdifferentdomainsthatareusuallynotthoughtofasrelated.Integration,synthesis both across andwithindomains, is thenorm rather than theexception. Ravi Shankar found ways to integrate and harmonize themusicofIndiaandEurope;PaulKleecombinedtheinfluencesofcubism,children’sdrawings,andprimitivearttofashionhisownuniqueartisticstyle; Salvador Dali integrated Einstein’s theory of relativity into hismasterpiece Nature Morte Vivante, which artistically depicts severaldifferent objects simultaneously in motion and rest. And almost allscientists cross and recross the boundaries of physics, chemistry, andbiologyintheworkthatturnsouttobetheirmostcreative.Another way to combine talent is to elicit advice and information

about your subject from people who work in different domains.Interestingly, Leonardo da Vinci met and worked with NiccolòMachiavelli, the Italianpolitical theorist, inFlorence in1503.The twomenworkedon severalprojects together, includinganovelweaponofwar: the diversion of a river. Professor Roger Masters of DartmouthCollegespeculatesthatLeonardointroducedMachiavelli totheconceptof applied science. Years later,Machiavelli combinedwhat he learnedfromLeonardowithhisowninsightsaboutpoliticsintoanewpoliticaland social order that some believe—this author included—ultimatelysparkedthedevelopmentofmodernindustrialsociety.JonasSalk,developerof thevaccinethateradicatedpolio,made ita

standardpractice to interactwithmenandwomen fromverydifferentdomains.He felt thispracticehelped tobringout ideas that couldnotarise in his ownmind or in theminds of people in his own restricteddomain. Look forways to elicit ideas frompeople in other fields. Ask

three to five peoplewhowork in other departments or professions fortheirideasaboutyourproblem.Askyourdentist,youraccountant,yourmechanic,etc. Describe the problem and ask how theywould solve it.Listenintentlyandwritedowntheideasbeforeyouforgetthem.Then,atalatertime,tryintegratingallorpartsoftheirideasintoyouridea.This is what Robert Bunsen, the chemist who invented the familiar

Bunsenburner, didwithhis problem.Heused the color of a chemicalsample in a gas flame for a rough determination of the elements itcontained.Hewaspuzzledby themanyshortcomingsof the techniquethatheandhiscolleagueswereunable toovercome,despite theirvastknowledgeofchemistry.Finally,hecasuallydescribedtheproblemtoafriend,Kirchhoff,aphysicist,whoimmediatelysuggestedusingaprismto display the entire spectrum and thus get detailed information. Thissuggestionwasthebreakthroughthatledtothescienceofspectrographyandlatertothemodernscienceofcosmology.If you’re brainstorming a business problem in a group, try asking

anotherdepartmenttojoinyours.Forexample,ifyouareinadvertisingandwanttocreateanewproductadvertisingcampaign,askpeoplefrommanufacturing to join your session. Separate the advertising andmanufacturingpeopleintotwogroups.Eachgroupbrainstormsforideasseparately.Thencombinethegroupsandintegratetheideas.Physicists in a university assembled a huge magnet for a research

project. The magnet was highly polished because of the requiredaccuracy of the experiment. Accidentally, the magnet attracted someiron powder that the physicists were unable to remove withoutdamaging the magnet in some way. They asked other teachers in aninterdepartmental meeting for their ideas and suggestions. An artinstructor came up with the solution immediately, which was to usemodelingclaytoremovethepowder.

STRATEGYFIVE:CONNECTINGTHEUNCONNECTED

Ifoneparticularthinkingstrategystandsoutforcreativegeniuses,itisthe ability to make juxtapositions that elude most people. Call it afacility to connect the unconnected that enables them to seerelationships towhich others are blind. They set their imaginations inmotion by using unrelated stimuli and forcing connections with theirsubject.Intheillustration,figureBappearslargerthanfigureA.Itisnot.They

areboththesamesize.IfyoucutoutfigureA,youwillfindthatitfitsexactlyoverfigureB.

JuxtaposingthesmallerarcofAtothelargerarcofBmakestheupperfigure seemsmaller.The juxtapositionof thearcs createsa connectionbetweenthearcsthatchangesourperceptionoftheirsize.Wedonotseethearcs(equalinsize)astheyare,butaswethinktheyare(unequal).Inasimilarway,youcanchangeyourthinkingpatternsbyconnecting

yoursubjectwithsomethingthatisnotrelated.Thesedifferentpatternscatch your brain’s processing by surprise and will change yourperception of your subject. Suppose you want a new way to displayexpirationdatesonpackagesofperishablefoodandyourandomlypairthis with autumn. Leaves change color in the autumn. Forcing aconnectionbetween“changingcolors”withexpirationdatestriggersthe

idea of “smart labels” that change color when the food is exposed tounrefrigerated temperatures for too long. The label would signal theconsumer-even though a calendar expiration date might be monthsaway. Our notion of “expiration” dates was changed by making aconnection with something that was unrelated (autumn), whichtriggeredanewthoughtpatternandanewidea.LeonardodaVinciwrotehowhe“connectedtheunconnected”togethiscreativeinspirationinhisnotebooks.Hewroteaboutthisstrategyina mirror-image reversed script “secret” handwriting that he taughthimself.To readhishandwriting, youhave touseamirror. Itwashiswayofprotectinghis thinkingstrategy frompryingeyes.Hesuggestedthat youwill find inspiration formarvelous ideas if you look into thestainsofwalls,ashesofafire,theshapeofclouds,patternsinmud,orinsimilar places. He would imagine seeing trees, battles, landscapes,figureswithlivelymovements,etc.,andthenexcitehismindbyforcingconnections between the subjects and events he imagined and hissubject. According to his notebooks, da Vinci would even sometimesthrowapaint-filledspongeagainstthewallandcontemplatethestains.ThemetaphorsthatLeonardoformedbyforcingconnectionsbetweentwototallyunrelatedsubjectswereextremelycreativeandimaginative.Oncehewasstandingbyawellandnoticedastonethathitthewateratthe same moment that a bell went off in a nearby church tower. Henoticed the stone causedcircles that spreaduntil theydisappeared.Bysimultaneouslyconcentratingonthecircles inthewaterandthesoundofthebell,hemadetheconnectionthatledtohisdiscoverythatsoundtravels in “waves.”Thiskindof tremendous insight couldonlyhappenthroughaconnectionbetweensightandsoundmadebytheimagination.Leonardo’sknackformakingremoteconnectionswascertainlyatthebasis of his genius for forming analogies between totally differentsystems. He associated themovement of water with themovement ofhumanhair,thusbecomingthefirstpersontoillustrateinextraordinarydetailthemanyinvisiblesubtletiesofwaterinmotion.Hisobservationsledtothediscoveryofafactofnaturethatcametobecalledthelawofcontinuity.Leonardo da Vinci discovered that the human brain cannotdeliberatelyconcentrateontwoseparateobjectsorideas,nomatterhowdissimilar,without eventually forming a connectionbetween them.No

two inputs can remain separate in your mind, nomatter how remotethey are from each other. In tetherball, a ball is fastened to a slendercordsuspendedfromthetopofapole.Playersbat theballaroundthepole,attemptingtowinditscordaroundthepoleaboveacertainpoint.Obviously, a tethered ball on a long string is able to move in manydifferentdirections,butitcannotgetawayfromthepole.Ifyouwhackat it long enough, eventually youwillwind the cord around the pole.Thisisaclosedsystem.Likethetetherball,ifyoufocusontwosubjectsforaperiodoftime,youwillseerelationshipsandconnectionsthatwilltriggernewideasandthoughtsthatyoucannotgetusingyourusualwayofthinking.SamuelMorse,forexample,becamestumpedtryingtofigureouthowtoproduce a signal strong enough tobe receivedover greatdistances.Largergeneratorswerenotsufficient.Onedayhesawtiredhorsesbeingexchanged at a relay station. He made the connection between relaystations for horses and strong signals and solved the problem. Thesolutionwastogivethetravelingsignalperiodicboostsofpower.Thismade the coast-to-coast telegraph possible. Nikola Tesla made aconnectionbetweenthesettingsunandamotor.Hisinsightwastohavethemotor’smagneticfieldrotateinsidethemotorjustasthesun(fromour perspective) rotates. He created the AC motor, with electricalcurrentthatreversesdirectionmanytimespersecond.Inmore recent times, amaterials scientist laboring to improve steelmadetheconnectionbetweentheabalone,aseacreature,andsteel.Hebecame intriguedwith the iridescentyet toughshellofanabalone.Hediscovereditwasmadeofsimplecalciumcarbonate,thestuffofchalk,andthat thesamematerialmaymakesuperhardceramicspossible. It’sexpectedthatthesuperhardceramicswillbeusedforliningthepistonsincarsandinproducingsteelsthat“heal”themselveswhencracked.

ThinkingUnpredictably

Inthefollowingillustration,twofigures(A)aregiventosomeonewiththe instructions toarrange them intoa recognizable shape that canbedescribedtosomeonewhocannotseetheshapes.Thefiguresareusuallyarrangedintoarectangle(B).Thenanotherfigure(C)isaddedandthe

taskistoarrangeallthreefiguresintoarecognizableshape.Theresultisalmostalwaysanotherrectangle(D).

Thefirstpatternmakesthesecondrectanglealmostinevitable.We’veactivated the rectangle pattern, which dominates our thinking andproduces another predictable rectangle when given a new piece ofinformation. A square pattern (see A below) is just as good anarrangement,yet fewpeople see ituntil it’spointedout.This exampleillustrateshowourconventionalthinkingpatternsdominateourthinkingandblockoutnewideasandcreativity.You can change your patterns by changing your focus and thinking

aboutsomethingthatisnotrelated.Forexample,twoadditionalfigures(C)areadded.Taking(B)apartandintegratingthefiguresin(C)givesus thearrangement in(D).Theadditionofsomething(C) thatwasnotrelatedtotheoriginalproblemactivateddifferentthinkingpatternsandinspiredustothinkofsquares(D).Wecannowgobackandarrangetheoriginal figures (B) into a square (A). It is the same with creativethinking.Togetoriginal ideas, youneed to lookatyour subject inanunpredictableway.

Itisimpossibletothinkunpredictablybylookingharderandlongerinthesamedirection.Whenyourattention is focusedonasubject,a fewpatternsarehighlyactivatedinyourbrainanddominateyourthinking.Thesepatternsproduceonlypredictableideas,nomatterhowhardyoutry.Infact,theharderyoutry,thestrongerthesamepatternsbecome.If, however, you change your focus and think about something that isnot related, different, unusual patterns are activated. If one of thesenewerpatternsrelatestooneof thefirstpatterns,aconnectionwillbemade.Thisconnectionwill lead to thediscoveryofanoriginal ideaorthought,whatsomepeoplecall“divine”inspiration.Focusonyoursubjectinadifferentwaybyforcingrelationshipswithsomething that is not related. DuPont developed and manufacturedNomex, a fire-resistant fiber. Its tight structuremade it impervious todye. Potential customers (it could be used in the interior of airplanes)wouldnotbuythematerialunlessDuPontcouldmanufactureacoloredversion.ADuPontchemistcomparedNomextoa“mineshaft”inagoldmine—a subject that had nothing to do with Nomex. What is theconnectionbetweena“tightstructure”anda“mineshaft”?Toexcavateminerals,minersdigaholeintotheearthandusepropstokeeptheholefrom collapsing. Expanding on this thought, the chemist figured out away to chemically “prop” open holes in Nomex as it is beingmanufacturedsotheycouldlaterbefilledwithdyes.In nature, a gene pool that is totally lacking in variation would betotally unable to adapt to changing circumstances. In time, the

genetically encoded wisdom would convert to foolishness, withconsequencesthatwouldbefataltothespecies’survival.Acomparableprocessoperateswithinusas individuals.Weallhavearichrepertoireofideasandconceptsthatenableustosurviveandprosper.Butwithoutanyprovisionforthevariationofideas,ourusualideasbecomestagnateandlosetheiradvantages.Forthisvariationtobetrulyeffective,itmustbe“blind.”Einstein learned how to stimulate “blind variation” in his creative

ideas by allowing his imagination to play freely and generate newconnectionsandcombinationsofassociations.Hisgeniuswastheabilitytovoluntarilyreproduceimagesandelementsofthoughtatwillandtoexplore relevant connections between those images and elements ofthoughtandhissubject.Einstein’sgeniushadmoretodowithhowheprocessedinformationthanwiththeamountofknowledgethathehad.Amajor characteristic of creative genius is the ability to generate a

hostofassociationsandconnectionsbetweendissimilarsubjects.Thisisdifficult for most of us to do voluntarily because we have not beentaught to process information in creative ways. When we use ourimaginationstodevelopnewideas,thoseideasareheavilystructuredinpredictablewaysby thepropertiesof existing categories and concepts.We have not been taught how to process information by connectingremotely associated subjects through trial and error. This is true forinventors, artists, writers, scientists, designers, businesspeople, oreverydaypeoplefantasizingaboutabetterlife.

Techniques

Following are a series of techniques that incorporate the thinkingstrategy of “connecting the unconnected” to generate novel andunpredictableideas.Thetechniquesprovideameansofproducingblindvariationofideasthroughtheuseofunrelatedstimuli,suchasrandomwords, random objects, pictures, magazines and newspapers, colors,wishes,andfantasies.

RandomWords

Thistechniqueprovidesameansofproducingblindvariationofideasthrough the use of random words to produce a rich variety ofunpredictableideas.Imaginedroppingastoneinapond.Youseeawaveemanate outward in a plane. The stone jostles the water molecules,which, in turn, jostle neighboring water molecules. Thus, waves ofrelayedjostlingmoleculesarepropagatedbytheactionofthestone.Yetthewavesareessencesofneitherthestonenorthewater.Eachwaveisdistinctandmeasurableandhasitsownintegrityasitvisiblygrowsandtravelsoutward.Theconsequenceisanewpatternofeventsthathasalife of its own, independent of the stone that initiated the action. Bydroppingastoneintothepond,youcreatedsomethingthatdidnotexistbefore:awave.In the sameway, in order to get original ideas, you need away to

createnewsetsofpatternsinyourmind.Youneedonepatternreactingwithanothersetofpatternstocreateanewpattern.The“randomword”technique generates an almost infinite source of new patterns to reactwiththepatterns inyourmind.Randomwordsproviderichsourcesofconnection-makingmaterial. They are like pebbles being dropped in apond. They stimulate waves of associations and connections, some ofwhichmayhelpyoutoabreakthroughidea.Thereareseveralwaystoselectarandomword:

Random Words List (on this page). You can close your eyes andrandomly put your finger on one of the groups of words (each groupcontainsfivewords)titled“RandomWords”thatfollowthissection.Thewords in “RandomWords” are connection-rich. Eachwordwill triggerotherwordsandimagesthatarelinkedtothe“special”word.Whatyoushould not do is read the list and select themost likely one for yourpurposes.

Random Draw. Cut up the “Random Words” list into fragments andthrow them into a fishbowl or box. Add your own words to thecollection.Drawoutrandomwordswheneveryouusethistechnique.

Dictionary. You can retrieve random words from a dictionary byopening it, by chance, at any page, closing your eyes, and randomlyputtingyourfingeronaword.Anotherwayistothinkofapagenumber(page22)andthenthinkofapositionofthewordonthatpage(saythetenthworddown).Open thedictionary topage22andproceed to thetenthworddown.Ifthewordisnotanoun,continuedownthelistuntilyoureachthefirstnoun.

Other resources. You can use any other resource (magazine,newspapers, books, telephone yellowpages, etc.). Close your eyes andstabyourfingeratapage.Takethenounclosesttoyourfinger.Now, howwouldwe use randomwords to generate ideas? Supposeourchallengeistoimprovetheautomobile.Thegroupofrandomwordsweblindlydrewfromthe“RandomWords”listare

noseApollo13soapdiceelectricaloutlet

1. List characteristics. Work with one word at a time. Draw a picture of the word toinvolve the right hemisphere of your brain and then list the characteristics of thewords.Thinkofavarietyofthingsthatareassociatedwithyourwordandlistthem.

Forexample,anosehassomeofthefollowingcharacteristics:•Differentshapesandsizes•Sometimesdecoratedwithpinsandjewels•Hastwonostrils•Canberepairedeasilyifbroken•Hairinside•Decayswithdeath

2. Force connections. Make a forced connection between each characteristic and thechallenge you are working on. In forcing connections between remote subjects,metaphorical-analogicalthinkingopensupnewpathwaysofcreativethinking.Askquestionssuchas

•Howisthislikemyproblem?•Whatifmyproblemwerea…?•Whatarethesimilarities?•…islikethesolutiontomyproblembecause…?•Howis…likeanideathatmightsolvemyproblem?

Example:Connecting“Anosehastwonostrils”with“improvingthecar”triggerstheideaofbuildingacarwithtwoseparatepowersources:acarwithbatteryorelectricpowerforcitydrivingandliquidfuelforlongdistances.

3.What is its essence?What is theprincipleor essenceof your randomword?Canyoubuild an idea around it? For example, the essence of a nosemight be “smell.” Forcing aconnection between “smell” and “improving the automobile” inspires the idea ofincorporating a cartridge in the auto during manufacturing that warns the driver ofmalfunctionswithvariousodors.Ifyousmellorangeblossoms,forexample,it’stimetohaveyourbrakeschecked,orifyousmellcinnamon,youmighthaveagasolineleak,andsoon.Foreachrandomword,listtheprincipleoressence,characteristics,features,andaspects,

and force connections with the challenge. Another example is derived from the randomwords“Apollo13.”Astronautsused theLEMas anemergencyalternativepower source inApollo13inordertoreturntoearth.Connectingthisthoughtwiththeautomobileledtotheredesignoftheautomobileenginesothatitcanbeusedasanemergencypowergeneratorforthehouseduringpowerfailures.Youcouldplugthehouseintothecar.

4.Createmanyconnections.Whenusing the“RandomWords” list,useall fivewords inthegroupandforceasmanyconnectionsaspossible.Allowyourself fiveminutesforeachwordwhenyoutryit.Fiveminutesshouldbeampletimetostimulateideas.Youshouldfindthatlongafterthefixedtimeperiodoffiveminutes,furtherconnectionsandideasarestilloccurring.

Oneof thehallmarksofgeniuses is that theyconsciously formmanyconnections and associations between dissimilar subjects. Chancediscoveriesfavortheopen,activemindthatisconsciouslysearchingforconnections. James Watt was not the first person to notice steamescaping from a teapot, but he was the first to make a connectionbetween steam and transportation, and he invented the high-pressuresteam engine. George de Mestral was not the first to notice howcockleburssticktoclothes,buthewastheonewhomadetheconnectionbetween cockleburs and fasteners and invented Velcro. Arthur Frye at

3MmadetheconnectionbetweenabookmarkandatemporarygluethatwasoriginallyinventedforbulletinboardsandcreatedthePost-itnote.An IBM engineer, while watching his daughter playing with buildingblocks,madeaconnectionbetweenplayblocksandcomputerkeyboardsandcreatedacollapsiblekeyboardforlaptops.Theemergenceofnewideasthrough“random”orchanceconnections

maybeillustratedbyananalogywithpaperclips. Imagineyouhaveapileofpaperclips.Youopenouttheclipsalittleandputthemtogetherin a box. If you toss them long enough and vigorously enough, youcreateachain.Achainhasbeenformedbythechanceinteractionandintertwiningoftheclips.Thepatternofthechainisalwaysunexpectedandusuallyoriginal.Themoreclipsyoutoss,themorelikelythepatternwillbenovelandoriginal.Once thepatternhasbeen formed,youcanmodifyorelaborateonitaswell,bytrimmingoraddingmoreclips.The more connections you make, the more likely the chance of an

originalidea.Considersomeonewhocanattendtotwosubjects—AandB—atthesametime.ThatpersonhasachanceofthinkingofacreativeconnectionAB.Apersonwhoattendstothreesubjects—A,BandC—hasthree potential connections:AB,AC, andBC. Someonewho attends tofoursubjectshassixpossiblecreativeconnections.Suchapersonshouldbesixtimesmorelikelytothinkofacreativeideathanthepersonwhoattendstotwoandsoon.

RandomObjects

Justaswaterflowsdownslopes,settlesinhollows,andisconfinedto

riverbeds,soinformationflowsdownyourusualthinkingchannels,andby its very flow, increases the probability of triggering the same oldideas. If you deliberately dam up the old channels, you force theinformation to seek out and take to new and better patterns of flow.Anotherwaytodamuptheoldchannelsandcutnewonesinyourmindistomakeconnectionsbetweenyoursubjectandrandomobjects.This is what happened to NASA engineer James Crocker when theHubble telescope failed and embarrassed NASA. In the shower of aGerman hotel room, James Crocker was contemplating the Hubbledisasterwhileshoweringandlookingattheshowerhead,whichcouldbeextendedtoadjusttotheuser’sheight.Hemadetheconnectionbetweenthe showerhead and the Hubble problem and invented the idea ofplacingcorrectivemirrorsonautomatedarmsthatcouldreachinsidethetelescopeandadjusttothecorrectposition.HisideaturnedtheHubblefromadisasterintoaNASAtriumph.Followingareguidelinesformakingconnectionswithrandomobjects:

1.Generatealistoffiveobjectsthatareunrelatedtotheproblem.ImagineyouareintheSmithsonian Institute, a science museum, a natural history museum, the White House,France, an airplane, or someother interesting location. List objects or things that interestyou.

2.Selectthefirstobjectanddescribewhatcomestomind.Writejustawordorphrase.Drawapicturetogetyourrightbraininvolved.

3.Studyitandlistallofitsdescriptivecharacteristics(specificparts,relationships,whatitdoes,itsessence,etc.).

4. Examine each characteristic and use it as a stimulus for suggesting ideas by forcingconnectionsbetweenthecharacteristicsandyourchallenge.

5.Continuethisprocesswithallthecharacteristicsfortheobject.

6.Testdifferentwaystoconnectcharacteristicsandyourproblem.

7.Selectanotherobjectandrepeattheprocess.

8.Examinealltheideasandselectthemostpromising.

ThoughtWalk

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the famous French philosopher, did his bestthinkingontripshemadealoneandonfoot.Similarly,JohannWolfgangvonGoethetookawalkwheneverhewantedtothinkandcomeupwithnew ideas. During his long hikes in the mountains of Berchtesgaden,Sigmund Freudworked out his imposing structure of the unconscious,preconscious, and conscious that has bound the twentieth-centurypsyche ever since. In fact, he told his good friend Wilhelm Fliess, aBerlindoctor,thathisbookTheInterpretationofDreamswasdesignedtohave the effectofoneofhishikes througha concealedpass in adarkforest thatopensoutonaviewof theplain.Takingawalk stimulatedandrefreshedthesemenintheirthinking.Instead of imagining objects, take a walk around your home orworkplace and the surrounding grounds. Come backwith four or fivethings or objects (or a list of objects) that interested you during yourwalk. (For example, children skipping rope, a pebble, a bag of jellybeans,adrinking fountain,andsoon.)Study theobjectsand list theircharacteristics.Thenbrainstormforideasusingtheproceduresoutlinedpreviouslyin“RandomObjects.”If you are brainstorming in a group, ask each person to take a“thoughtwalk”andcomebackwithfourorfivethingsorobjects(oralist).Askeachparticipanttosilentlylistthecharacteristicsandtobuildideas around the characteristics. The group shares ideas and thenelaboratesonthemintostillmoreideas.A fewmonths back, a group of engineers were looking for ways tosafelyandefficientlyremoveicefrompowerlinesduringicestorms,buttheywere stonewalled.Theydecided to take a “thoughtwalk” aroundthe hotel. One of the engineers came back with a jar of honey hepurchased in the gift shop.He suggestedputtinghoneypots on topofeach power pole. He said this would attract bears. The bears wouldclimb the poles to get the honey, and their climbingwould cause thepoles to sway and the ice to vibrate off the wires. Working with theprinciple of vibration, they got the idea of bringing in helicopters tohoveroverthelines.Theirhoveringvibratedtheiceoffthepowerlines.

IdeaBank

MaxPlanck, the creator of quantumphysics, saidnew ideas arenotgeneratedbydeduction,butbyacreativeimaginationthatenablesoneto make unusual associations. Make it a practice to collect and storeinteresting items like a packrat and use the items to stimulate yourimagination. Keep a container (coffee can, shoe box, desk drawer, filefolder,etc.)ofinterestingadvertisements,quotes,articles,designs,ideas,questions, cartoons, pictures, doodles, poems, interesting words, andotherintriguingitemsthatmighttriggeradditionalideasbyassociation.Whenyouareworkingonachallenge,shakeupthecontainerandpull

an item, at random, to see what connections, links, and intriguingassociations you can discover between the item and your subject.Suppose you wanted to improve your business organization and youdrew a picture about DNA. What is the connection between DNA, anucleicacid thatcarriesgenetic information in thecell,andabusinessorganization?Onemight,forexample,writeoutthevaluesandgoalsofthebusinessasaDNAorganizationalcodethatissotightlycompressedthatitactslikeamathematicalformula.Itwilllockintheorganizationtoprescribedvaluesandrulesofaction.Employeeswillknowwhatthecodeisandwhattherulesare.ThegreatAmericanauthor,F.ScottFitzgerald,onceremarkedthathe

achieved his ideas and insights by holding two dissimilar subjects orideas in his head at the same time. The contradiction caused by thedissimilaritiescreatedatensionwithinhim.Thistensioninspiredhimtoovercome the contradictionwith a creative idea or insight. This is theprinciple behind the “Idea Bank.” When you draw two dissimilarsubjects(randomstimuli)fromthebank,youwillexperienceanalmostinstinctivedesiretoovercomethecontradictionsbymakingconnectionsbetweenthetwo.Theseconnectionstriggernewideas.Othersourcesofrandomstimuliarenewspapersandmagazines.

NewspapersandMagazines

Newspapers andmagazines are excellent sources for random stimuli

thatcanbeusedtoinitiatenewideas.Pickupyourfavoritenewspaperormagazineandopentooneofthefollowingsections:

•Classifieds•Frontpage•Editorials•Sports•Comics•Business•Arts•Fashion

Put the problem aside and forget the problem while you browsethrough the newspaper or magazine. List phrases, pictures, or otherthings that catch your eye but have nothing to do with the problem.Selectanothersection.Keepbrowsingandlistinguntilyouhavealistoffivetoteninterestingitems.Connectyourproblemwithsomethingfromyourlisttogetnewideas.Randomly pick up a magazine and select and read one article, no

matter how remote the article is from your challenge. Then forceconnectionsandlinksbetweenthesubjectmatterinthearticleandyourchallenge by thinking metaphorically. Ask yourself, “What are thesimilaritiesbetweenthisarticleandmyproblem?WhatconnectionscanImake?Whatnewquestionsdoesitinspire?Whatinthisarticleislikeasolutiontomyproblem?”Anengineerneededtoplacealargegeneratorintoanexcavatedarea.

Theusualwaytodothiswaswithaheavycrane,whichcosts$5,000tolease.Hebrainstormedforalternativewaystomovethegeneratorinthehopeof saving themoney.Leafing througha travelmagazine,he readaboutEskimosandtheconstructionofigloos.Heconnectedthearticletohis problem and came up with an ingenious solution. He trucked inblocksoficeandplacedtheiceintheexcavatedarea.Next,hepushedthegeneratorontotheiceandplacedthegeneratoroverthelocationforit.Whentheicemelted,thegeneratorsettledperfectlyintothelocation.ThechancesofpickingupthemagazineandleafingtotheEskimoarticleisalittlelikeplayingroulette,theultimategameofchance.Imagine that you are invited to play roulette with someone else’s

money.Youcankeepyourwinningsbutyourlossesarepaidforyou.It’sagameofchanceyoucannotlose.Youcanneverbesureofwinningonany particular bet, but you know that if you played long enough youwould win, sooner or later. Chances are, you would play as often aspossible despite the unpredictability of the game. You would play asoftenasyoucould,inordertoincreaseyourchanceofwinning.Using this model, it is possible to see what can be done about

randomlyconnectingunrelatedsubjects in thinking.The first step is tobe aware that there is the possibility of this thinking strategy. Thesecondstepistolearnhowtodoit.Thethirdstepistousethisstrategyasoftenasyoucanandtogetridofanyinhibitionsthatinterferewithyourusingit.Themoretimesyouuseitandthemoredifferentwaysyouuse it, themoreyou increaseyourchancesofcomingupwithoriginalideasandcreativesolutionstoproblems.

YouCanConnectAnything

Psychologists have found that if you put people in a room with acontraptionoflightbulbswiredtoblinkonandoffatrandom,theywillquickly discernwhat they believe are patterns, theories for predictingwhich bulbwill be next to blink.We invent elaborate architectures inourmindstoinventpatternstomakeconnections.Try an experiment. Pick eight random words and give the list to

someoneortoasmallgroup(forexample:“flowerpot,”“baby,”“glass,”“grasshopper,” “coffeepot,” “box,” “toast,” and “garage”). Ask them todividethewordsintotwogroupswithoutgivingthemanyrationaleforthe division. You’ll discover that peoplewill come upwith some verycreativeclassifications.They’llgroupthemaccordingto“wordswiththelettero,”“thingsthattouchwater,”“objectsmadeinfactories,”andsoon.Nooneeversaysthereisnoconnection.Theyinventone.Ourmindsareincredibleconnection-makingandconnection-recognizingmachines.Max Ernst, the surrealist artist, became fascinated with the random

patternshe saw inwooden floors.Hedevelopeda techniquewherehewould place paper on the wood and rub it with graphite to make atracingthathewouldsometimesembellishwithpainting.Histechniqueof turning random patterns of wood into art inspired other surrealist

painters to work with other natural patterns and transform them intomeaningfulpiecesofart.When youmake a connection between two unrelated subjects, your

imagination will leap to fill the gaps in order to make sense of it.Supposeyouarewatchingamimeimpersonatingamantakinghisdogout for awalk. Themime’s arm is outstretched as though holding thedog’s leash.As themime’sarm is jerkedbackand forth,you“see” thedog straining at the leash to sniff this or that. The dog and the leashbecomethemostrealpartsofthescene,eventhoughthereisnodogorleash. In the same way, when you make connections between yoursubjectandsomethingthatistotallyunrelated,yourimaginationfillsinthegapstocreatenewideas.Thiswillingnesstouseyourimaginationtofill in the gaps produces the unpredictable idea. This is why Einsteinclaimed that imagination is more important than knowledge andwhySigmundFreudusedahealthydoseofimaginationand“freecreation”inhisinterpretivework.WhenFreud’sfatherdied,Freudclosedtheeyesofhisfather’scorpse,

whichwasaJewishson’straditionaldutyatthetime.Hethoughtalotaboutclosinghisfather’seyesandwhatitcouldmean.HerememberedabookhehadoncereadaboutthelegendofKingOedipus,whichwasthestoryofamanwhotoreouthisowneyes.Hemadeanimaginativeconnection between the action of “closing eyes” and his theories ofpsychologicalrepression.Withinafewmonths,hecameupwithanewtheory of repressed sexual fantasy, popularly known as the Oedipuscomplex,which posits that people repress sexual impulses toward oneparent andhatred toward the other. This insight becamehis crowningmomentinthefieldatthattime.Freud’sactwhenhisfatherdiedinspiredawholenewlineofthinking

that led tooneofhis famous theories.His imaginationallowedhimtoforce a connection between the act of closing eyes andpsychoanalytictheory. If you declare that you are going to pay attention to somerandomstimuli, youcan force connectionsbetweenanythingandyoursubject. You could select a color, blue, for example, and then walkaroundandlistallthebluethingsyouseeforthenextfewminutes(sky,wall,telephone,pen,shirt,andsoon).Thenlistcharacteristicsandforceconnections.Oryoumayselectashape,forexample,acircle,andfocusoncircularthingsthatyousee.Oryoucouldmakeconnectionsbetween

yourfivesensesandyoursubject.

FiveSenses

Psychologistshavelongsensedanassociationbetweenthesensesandcreativity.Artistsandpoets,inparticular,havetakentheunityofsensesforgranted.Thinkofanypoem,andyou’lldiscoverthatthemetaphoricstimulation of one sense elicits a certain response. A description of asound, forexample,mightelicitacertainemotion thatgives thepoemmeaning. After generating ideas, try using the five senses to generatenew possibilities. Concentrating on our senses takes us from ourmaintrack of thinking and deposits us on side tracks. These side trackssometimes lead to original thoughts and ideas. The guidelines for thisexerciseare

1.Writedownthefivesenses:sight,smell,taste,touch,andhearing.

2.Selectoneofyour ideasand forceaconnectionbetween the ideawitheachof the fivesenses.Supposeyouare trying to reduceemployee turnoverandoneofyour ideas is thatemployeesshouldhavemoreinvolvementwiththeirjobs.Applythefivesensestotheideatoextendyourthinking.Forexample:

Sight. Initiatemore activity.Get peoplemeeting in small groups.Have open doors, openareas for interaction.Usebrightlycoloredbulletinboardsandother informationexchangefacilitators.Hearing. Pipe in classical music. Hang a large bell outside the boss’s door. Wheneversomethingisaccomplishedoracompanygoalisreached,thebossringsthebell.Smell.Providesnacks,suchaspopcorn, thathaveenticingodorsto invite interactioninagatheringplace.Taste.Provideoccasionalpizzaandpotluckluncheswherepeoplemeetandtalkshopanddevelop relationships. Have managers make custom hot fudge sundaes every Friday foremployeestocelebratetheweek.Touch. Provide clean, inviting surroundings with soft, comfortable areas and sound-absorbentdividers.

Visuals

Applying your senses to your subject gets you thinking about theproblem in different dimensions. Consider the sense of sight. Pictures,photographsandillustrationsareexcellentsourcesofunrelatedstimuli.Years back, a designer, working to invent a new light fixture, leafedthroughanissueofNationalGeographicandgothisinspirationforanewideafromapictureofamonkey.Heimaginedamonkeyrunningarounda home with a light wherever it was needed. This image led to theinventionoftracklighting.Useimagestohelpwithyourproblems:

1. Browse through newspapers andmagazines. Select two or three interesting pictures atrandom.

2. Describe one of the pictures in detail. List descriptors. Include physical references andaction-oriented statements. List everything that comes tomind (imagery, feelings, words,phrases,etc.).Ifyouthinkofabsurdmaterial,listthattoo.

3.Forceconnectionsbetweeneachdescriptorandyourchallenge.

4.Listyourideas.

The CEO of a Japanese perfume company asked his executives forideas thatwould enable the company to survivepoor economic times.Disappointedwiththeirsuggestions,hegaveeachofthemapictureofakingcrabandinstructedthemtostudyitandtolookforideasfromthecrab theycouldapply to theirbusiness.Someof theirconnectionsandideaswere

“A crab can rejuvenate lost claws. We must develop back-up product lines in case ourprimarylinefalters.”“Acrabcansee360degrees.Wemustimproveourmarketintelligence.”

“A crab moves slowly. We cannot afford this. We must downsize so we can react morespeedilytothemarket.”“Acrabhasdistinct features.Weneed todevelopadistinctivepackage thatdifferentiatesourperfumemoreclearly.”“Acrabisascavenger.Weneedtoallocateresourcestoseewhatotherusesandmarketswecanfindforourproducts.”

PicturePortfolios

Use picture portfolios to stimulate discussion and ideas in groupbrainstormingsessions.Followingareguidelines:

1.Readaproblemstatementaloudandaskthegrouptoverballybrainstormsolutions.

2.Giveeachgroupmemberafoldercontainingeighttotenpicturesthatarenotrelatedtotheproblemarea.

3. Instruct the groupmembers to examine each picture and silentlywrite down any newideasormodificationsofpreviousideassuggestedbythepictures.

4.Afteradesignatedperiod,askthegroupmemberstoreadtheirideasaloud.

5.Aseachideaisread,askthegroupmemberstodiscussitandtrytodevelopnewideasormodifications.Recordallnewideasastheyaresuggested.

6.Collectandevaluate.

An interesting twist is to provide participants with instant-filmcamerasandaskthemtotakeastrollandphotographinterestingobjectsand scenes. Use the photos as prompts. A group of managers fromvariousdepartmentsmettoseekbetterwaystomeshfunctions.Oneoftheirphotographsshowedbirdslookingatapondofgoldfish.Tosomeitseemed that the birds were trying to communicate with the fish whocouldnothearthem.Astheydiscussedthephoto,theyrealizedtheysawthemselvesastheunheardbirds.Marketersfeltthattheresearcherswerepreoccupied with scientific rather than commercial matters while theresearchers felt thatmarketingwasdeaf tonewtechnical insights.The

teamsofmarketersandresearchersnowmeetquarterlytolearn“howtotalktoeachother.”

Children’sDrawings

ThegreatlandscapeartistJ.M.W.Turnerusedanunusualtechniqueto stimulate his imagination. Whenever he visited friends who hadyoung children, he would give the children watercolors and paper tomakedrawings.Sometimeshewouldsuggestageneraltheme,andothertimeshewould let themdrawanything theywanted.The resultswereoriginal and spontaneous expressions of primary consciousness. Turnerwould then take the drawings, observe themwith an openmind, andcreatehisownvisualimpressionsfromthechildren’swork,inmuchthesamewayLeonardodaVinciimaginedfacesandscenesamongstainsonthe wall. Turner would use these visual impressions to inspire hisimaginationtocreatenewperspectivesforthefamiliarlandscape.If you or your friends have young children, try Turner’s technique.

Provide themdrawingmaterials and ask them tomake drawings. Youcouldsuggestageneraltheme.Forexample, ifyourproblemishowtoorganize your companymore effectively, youmight suggest that theymakedrawingsofpeople atwork; or if you’reworriedaboutyour jobsecurity, ask them tomakedrawings of people in danger.Or let themdraw anything theywant. Take the drawings and observe the images,patterns,andcolorswithanopenmind.Thenforceconnectionsbetweentheimagesandyoursubject.

TheDreamer,theRealist,andtheCritic

Imagine a creature living on another planet with a differentatmosphereinadistantsolarsystem.Takeamomentanddrawapictureofthecreaturethatyouimagine.

Most people draw creatures that resemble life as we understand it,even though we’re free to think up anything. Namely, creatures withsense organs to see, hear, and smell, and arms and legswith bilateralsymmetry. Rather than creating something that’s idiosyncratic andunpredictable, most people create creatures that have a great deal incommon with one another and with the properties of typical earthanimals.There is no reason why animals on other planets would have to

resembleanimalsonearth.Peopledrawing spacecreatures couldhavetapped into any existing knowledge base, such as rock formations,tumbleweed, or clouds, to get an idea for the general shape of theirspace creature, and each person could access something different andnovel. But most people draw animals that have similar properties toanimalsonearth.Whatwe’reexhibitingisaphenomenoncalledstructuredimagination.

Structured imagination refers to the fact that even when we use ourimaginationtodevelopnewideas,thoseideasareheavilystructuredinhighlypredictablewaysaccording toexistingconcepts, categories, andstereotypes.Research shows thatwe call up typical instances of a concept faster

thanlesstypicalones.Toseethisforyourself,quicklynamethefirstfivebirds you can think of. Your list is likely to be populated with verytypicalbirds, suchas robins,bluejays, and sparrows, and less likely tocontainunusualbirds,suchaspelicans,ostriches,andpenguins.Becausemore typical instancesofa concept spring tomind first,we

naturally tend to seize on them as starting points in developing newideas.Andbecausethemosttypicalmembersofaconceptaretheonesthat have all of its central properties, this can reduce innovation evenfurther.Forinstance,robinsfly,layeggs,andbuildtheirnestsintrees,butpenguinsdonot.Ifyoubaseanovelalienonthemoretypicalrobin,

itwillresembleastereotypedbirdmorethanifyoubaseitonapenguin.We need ways to open and expand our minds to explore the outerlimits and dazzling variety of our concepts and concoct ideas that arewonderfullyunusual.Oneapproachisacreative-thinkingtechniqueusedby Walt Disney that allowed his vivid imagination to exploreextraordinaryideasandconcepts.Thisapproachallowedhimtoproducefantasticalideas,uncriticallyandunrestrained.Later,hewouldengineerthese fantasies into feasible ideas and then evaluate them. He wouldshift his perspective three times byplaying three separate anddistinctroles:thedreamer,therealist,andthecritic.On the firstday,hewouldplay thedreameranddreamup fantasiesandwishfulvisions.Hewouldlethisimaginationsoar,withoutworryingabout how to implement his conceptions. His fantasy analogiespermitted him to connect words, concepts, and ideas with apparentlyirrelevant objects and events. The result was a rich treasure ofassociations, an imagination avalanchewithwholemountains of ideascrashingdown.Thenextday,hewouldtrytoengineerhisfantasiesbacktoearthbyplaying the realist. As a realist, he would look for ways to work hisconceptionsintosomethingworkableandpractical.Finally,onthelastday,hewouldplaythepartofthecriticandpokeholesinhisideas.Isitfeasible?Canyoutranslatetheidea’sfeaturesintocustomerbenefits?Ifso,canyoumakemoneywithit?Playthedreamer,realist,andcriticusingthefollowingguidelines:

1.YouaretheDreamer.Imagineyouhaveamagicwandthatwillgrantyouanywishyoudesire.What wishes would you create to solve your problem? List at least three to five,especially things that normally wouldn’t be possible. Try to make each wish moreimprobablethanthelast.Example:Acommunitywantstoraisemoremoneybymoreefficientpolicingofparkingmeters.Mywishesare

• Iwishwehadanhonorcode.Everyonekeeps trackof theirparking timeandsends themoneytothepolicedepartmentonceamonth.• Iwish police officers could see cars leave parking spots so otherswould not be able topirateunexpiredtimeonthemeter.•Iwishcars“vaporized”whentimeexpiredonthemeter.

2.Selectoneofthewishes.Example:Iwishpoliceofficerscouldseecarsleaveparkingspotssootherswouldnotbeabletopirateunexpiredtimeonthemeter.

3.Realist.Playtherealistbyworkingthewishintoapractical idea.What is theprincipalfeatureofthewish?Whatfeaturesaboutthewishappealtoyou?Extractaprinciple,feature,orsomeaspectofthewish.Examplesoffeaturesandaspectsofthewish:

•Theprincipleis“seeing.”•Otherswon’tbeabletopirate“unexpiredtime.”•Wewillprovidenewjobs.Wehavetohiremoreparkingofficerstowatchthemeters.• This systemwouldmodify behavior.Motorists would no longer spend time looking forunexpiredmeters.

4.Extractoneprincipleoraspectandtrytoengineeritintoapracticalidea.

Example: “Seeing.”Howcanyouwork “seeing” intoan idea thatwill lead to themoreefficientpolicingofparkingmeters?Imagineered Idea: Manufacture a parking meter with infrared sensors and lithium-poweredcomputerchipsto“see”parkingspaces.Whenacarleaves,theremainingtimeonthemeteriserased.

5.YouaretheCritic.Playthepartofthecriticbypokingholesintheidea.Example:The“seeing”meter is technologicallypossible.Themajordrawback iscost,assuchameterwillcostatleastfourtimesthecostofanormalmeter.Thecost,however,willbemorethanoffsetbythemoreefficientcollectionofrevenues.

You cannowgo back and engineer other features of the samewishintoworkableideasorgobackandworkwithoneoftheotherwishes.Generateasmanyworkableideasasyoucanfromthewishes.

Wishes

Thereisaclearrelationshipbetweenwishfulthinkingandcreativity.Youaremorelikelytohaveacreativeideawhenyouarewishingthanwhenyourthinkingisextremelyintellectual.Wisheshelpusdeliberatelyoversimplify.Thistactichasalonganddistinguishedhistoryinscienceand the arts. Scientists play fast and loose with recalcitrant details.

Newtonian physics was overthrown by Einstein, but it is still a goodapproximationforalmostallpurposes.NophysicistobjectswhenNASAusesNewtonianphysics tocalculate the forcesat liftoffandtheorbitaltrajectoryofthespaceshuttle,butstrictlyspeaking,thisisadeliberateuse of a false theory in order tomake calculations possible. Followingareguidelinesforagroupbrainstormingsessionusingwishes:

1.Thegroup leaderwrites the topicona cardorPost-it note andposts it on thewall orchalkboard.

2.Askparticipantstoimaginetheyhaveamagicwand.Thewandwillgrantthemanywishtheydesire.Whatwishesdo theyhaveabout thesubject,especially things thatwouldnotnormallybepossible?Participantssilentlylistwishesfortwoorthreeminutes.

3.ParticipantsselectonewishandwriteitonacardorPost-itnote.

4.Thewishcardsarecollectedandpostedaroundthetopiccard.Thegroupleaderorganizesthecardsandplacesrelatedonestogether.

5.Selectonewish.Selectthewishthat’smostinterestingtothegroup.Example: Automobile windshields must be constantly cleared when there is any badweatheratall(rain,sleet,snow,ice,frost,dirt,etc.).Wipersandwasherfluidhelpsome,butgrimerarelycanbeeliminatedcompletely.Agroupofengineersbrainstormedforwaystoimprove the windshield. Thewish they decided to workwith was,What if a windshieldcouldcleanitself?

6.Thegroupbrainstormsforwaystomakethewishareality.Howcanyouapproximatethewish by achieving something similar to the desired effect? Ask what specific features oraspectsof thewishappeal tothegroup.Thentrytofigureout feasiblechangesoractionsthat embody these specific features. Ask “could we,” “how about,” and “what if” typequestions.Example:Oneoftheengineersnotedthatcameralensesseemtobeself-cleaning.Lensesarecoatedwithtitaniumdioxide.Whenthesun’srayshitthecoating,theysetoffachemicalreaction that strips the lens of organicmatter. The engineersdecided to see if they couldadoptthisprocesstotheautomobilewindshield.

7.Listandelaborateontheideas.Example:Theengineersdiscoveredthattitaniumdioxidecouldnotbeapplieddirectlytowindshieldsbecauseofsodiumintheglass.Theysolvedthisbycoatingglassfirstwithacid

to purge the sodium and then applying the titanium dioxide. This process keeps thewindshieldscleanofeverythingbutlargebirddroppings.

8.Selectanotherwish.Selectthewishthat’smostuniquetothegroupandgothroughthesameexercise.

9.Continueworkingthewishesuntilthegrouphasgeneratedasufficientnumberofideas.

Themore interesting andunique thewish, thegreater thepossibilitiesareforanoriginalideaortwist.Afrozen-fishprocessor’slineoffrozenfishtastedblandandboring.Hetriedeverything,includingkeepingthefishaliveuntilthelastmoment.Foodchemiststoldhimtheanswerliesin keeping the fish moving. However, the fish remained inactive nomatterhow,orhowmuch,thewaterwasdisturbed.Theownerwavedhismagicwandandwishedhecould“pluck”afishout of the ocean at the lastmoment and process it immediately. Thiswishinspiredhimtothinkofthenaturalhabitatoffish,whichincludespredators.Thiswasthecrucialconnection—predatorsarethereasonfishkeepmovingaround.Hethought,“Whynotputpredatorsintheholdingtankswiththefish?”Thefishkeptmovingtoescapethepredatorsandretained vitality and flavor. Of course, some fish failed to escape andwerelost,butthiswasasmallpricetopayfortastyfrozenfish.Anyprocesswill doas longas it can introduceunforeseenvariationforlaterselectionandrefinement.

PaperAirplanes

Whenyouareactivelyengagedinsolvingaproblem,yourattentionisnarrowlyfocusedandyourrangeofawareness is likelytoberelativelyconstricted.Onlyanarrowrangeofinformationislookedatandutilizedat any one moment. Bringing information from outside sources mayprovidehintsandcuesthatexpandyourfocusandmayprovideavitallinktoanewperceptionoftheproblem.For example, in a recent workshop, participants were asked to tietogether the free ends of two strings that were suspended from theceiling. The problemwas that the two strings were hung so far apart

fromeachother that theycouldnotbe reachedat the same time.Thedesiredsolutioninvolvedrecognizingthatapairofplierslayinginclearviewcouldservenotonlyasatoolforgraspingbutalsoasapendulumbob.Whentiedtooneofthestrings,theplierscouldbeswungtowardthesecondstring,therebypermittingasubjecttoholdontothesecondstringwhile awaiting the arrival of the first one.Most peoplehadnotsolvedtheproblemaftertenminutes.

I subtlynudgedoneof the strings into lateralmotion in frontof thesubjects, without saying anything. After exposure to this clue, mostsolved the problem within sixty seconds. What was at least asinteresting,however,isthatmostofthesesubjectshadnoideathatthenudged-stringcluehadanythingtodowiththeirsolvingtheproblem.Consciousnesshasa limited-capacitymodeof informationprocessingbecause people can be conscious of only a few things at once. Soalthough the subjects may not have consciously noticed the lateralmovementof the string, they seemednevertheless tohavebeen tacitlyinformedbyit.Inotherwords,peopleareabletorespondproductivelyto information that they donot consciously notice or remember. Theyseemtobetacitlyinformedbyhintsandcuesthattheymayormaynotremember.Aninterestingwaytoprovidecuestoparticipantsinagroupistoaskeachparticipanttosilentlywritedownthreetofourideasonasheetofpaperabout thesubjectbeingconsidered.Title thesheet“Ideas.”Onaseparatesheet,askparticipants to list their thoughtsabout thesubject.Title the sheet“Cues.”Freeassociateand listeverything thatcomes tomind on the cue sheet, for example, the characteristics, components,wishes about the problem, obstacles, absurd ideas, and so on. Use astream-of-consciousness technique and write or list everything thatcomestomind.Have everyone take the “Cues” sheet and construct apaper airplaneout of it. At a given signal, everyone flies their “Cues” airplanes to

another part of the room. Everyone picks up someone else’s airplane.Upon readingwhat’sbeenwrittenon theairplane,heor she takes thenew “cues” and uses them to improve or elaborate on their originalideas.

RelationalWords

Thereisanoldexperimentinthepsychologyofproblemsolving.Putsomecornonthegroundandasheetofglassinfrontofthecorn.Putahungry chicken in front of the glass, so that the glass is between thechicken and the corn. The chickenwill try to go straight through theglasstogettothecorn.Thechickenisnotabletochangeitsrelationshipto thecornandgoaroundthebarrier. It’swearingarelationalblinderbeforeitsmind’seyeandonlythinksofgoingstraight.Humans behave thisway too. There is a traffic light nearmyhomewithaleft-turnlaneandastraight-throughlane.Everyweeknightthereisalonglineofaroundtwentycarslinedupintheleft-turnlane,waitingforthelighttochange,andnoneinthestraight-throughlane.And,everynightIdrivestraightthrough,goaroundtheblock,andwheeldowntheroad before any of those cars get past the stoplight. Like the chicken,they,also,arewearingrelationalblindersandcanonlythinkofwaitinginlinetoturnleft,insteadofgoingaroundtheblock.Theelementarystatement“Takeonethinginsomerelationtoanotherthing” is a form of sentence used to describe the statement of adiscovery,aninvention,oranidea.Discoveryandinvention,itcouldbesaid, isnothingmore thanputtingacoupleofold things together inanewrelation.Thinkofitasamathematicalequationwithtwoelementsof a problem on either side of a relational word. You create anelementary action statement: “Take one thing—another thing.” TherearesixtybasicEnglishwordsthatcanfitwherethedashisandchangetherelationshipofelements.Theyarethesixtywordsbelow.

Blueprint

1.Breakyourproblemapartintoelements.Example:Ateamofdesignerswantedtoimprovetherefrigerator.Someoftheelementsof the problem are “refrigerator,” “door,” “freezer,” “electrical power source,” “ice tray,”“foodtrays,”“insidelight,”“retainingcoldair,”“aesthetics,”and“color.”

2.Selecttwomajorproblemelements.Example:“refrigerator,”“door.”

3. Select a relational word and insert it between the two problem elements. Success inproblem solving comes from changing relationships between elements in a situation. Twoparts of a problem concept are “forced” together with one or more relational words toproduceunusualassociations.Theassociationsthenareusedtostimulatenewideas.Example:Refrigerator“without”doors.

4.Examinethecombinationandwritedownanyideassuggested.Example: This relationship (“without doors”) inspired the invention of a refrigeratorwithoutdoors.Acool-air“tornado”circulatesthroughtheinterior,whileverticaljetscreateaprotectivecurtain,whichkeepswarmairout.Therefrigeratoriscircularindesignandcanbepositionedanywhere,includinginthecenterofthekitchen.

5.Repeatsteps2and3.Keepshufflingthroughdifferentsetsofrelationshipsbychangingproblemelementsandrelationalwordstocomeupwithadditionalideas.Example:Inourexample,thedesignerscontinuedlookingforadditionalideas.Shuffling

throughasetofrelationships,theysettledon“refrigerator”beside“electricalpowersource,”which inspired them to design a small battery backup power source that kicks in shouldtherebeabriefpowerfailure.

By shuffling through a set of possible relationships and then havingthewit torecognizeasolutionwhenyouseeone,youcansuccessfullysolve problems. For example, one of the paradoxes in businessorganizations is that you need to “empower” people so they can reactcreativelytofast-changingconditions,yetatthesametime,youneedtohave sufficient control over the actions to achieve your organizationalgoals. Your problem elementsmight be “empowerment,” “employees,”“organization,” “control,” “goals,” “react creatively,” and “managing.”By looking at the relationship—“Empowerment through employees”—yougettheinsighttoinvesttimeandenergyinbuildingtrustandbondsof attachment in employees. By building commitment, trust, andbonding, the organization gains control, not by controlling employees,butbyfreeingthem.

STRATEGYSIX:LOOKINGATTHEOTHERSIDE

Intacklingaproblem,peoplecommonlyassumeasetofboundariestolimit the solution. The boundaries of the problem are defined byassumptionandthen,withinthoseboundaries,conventionalthinkingisused to find a solution. Very often, however, the boundaries areimaginary, and the solution may lie outside them. In 1872 RichardDedekind was the first to reveal that mathematicians were beingdeceived if they thought they were working with a continuum. Hedemonstratedthatnosuchthingexistsfornumbers.Withinanynumericspace,saybetween1and5,youcanincreasethepopulationallyoulike.To natural numbers like 2 and 3 and 4 you can add infinitely morerationalslike¾or118/119,plusinfinitelymoreirrationalslikethesquarerootof2,andyou’llneverbegintopopulatethespace.Hisworkbecameknownastheprincipleofdiscontinuity.“Discontinuity”quicklybecameakeythemeofmodernismandanew

mode of thought in the sciences, art, and invention. Physicist LudwigBoltzmann soon demonstrated that continuity was also a statisticalillusion in physics, since the behavior of atoms is unpredictable. TheFrench painter Georges Seurat used this mode of thinking when heinventedanewtechniquecalledpointillismandcreatedthefirstmodernpainting, Sunday Afternoon on the Island of la Grande Jatte, out ofthousandsofcoloreddots,eachnolargerthananeighthofaninch.Thisgreat masterpiece contains some fifty human figures, dogs, and amonkey, all reducible to little dabs of pigment that somehow form aharmoniouswhole that radiatesanextraordinarycalm.ThomasEdisoninvented themoviecamera,which isanother triumphofdiscontinuity:sixteenstillphotospersecondthattheeyeinterpretsasmovement.

Reversals

Dedekindlookedattheothersideofcontinuitybyreversingthewayhethoughtaboutitandgotthebrilliantinsightthatledtoanewmodeof thinking, discovery, and art. The illustration below is made up ofirregularshapesthatlooklikepuzzlepieceswithoutmeaning.However,if you focus on the background—the spaces between the shapes—theword“WEST”appears.Ifyouhavetroubleseeingit,placeastraightedgeonthetoporbottomborderofthefigurestomakethewordobvious.

Byconcentratingonthebackgroundandnottheshapes,youchangedyourperspectiveandsawsomethingthatyouwereunabletoseebefore.Thisiswhathappenswhenyoureverseyourperspectiveandlookattheother side of things. Suppose you are elected to host a singleselimination tennis tournament. You have 117 entrants. What is theminimumnumberoftennismatchesthatwouldhavetobearrangedforthisnumberofentrants?When facedwith this problemmost people draw diagrams showingtheactualpairingsineachmatchandthenumberofbyes.Otherstrytoworkitoutmathematically.Infacttheansweris116matchesandonecanworkthisoutatoncewithoutanycomplicateddiagramsormath.Toworkitout,reverseyourthinkingfromthewinnersofeachmatchtothelosers.Sincetherecanonlybeonewinnerinasingleseliminationtennistournament,theremustbe116losers.Eachlosercanonlyloseoncesotheremustbe116matches.Thetendencyinthetennisproblemistofocusonthewinnersandnotthe losers. Reversing your thinking leads you to consider the losersinsteadofthewinnersandtheproblemisrapidlysolved.Reversingthewayyoulookatthingsencouragesyoutoconsiderthingsthatmaynotbeconsideredatall.During theMiddleAges,anumberofpeople inaFrench village were dying from the Black Plague. The other villagersdiscovered that they had buried some people who were still alive bymistake.Theirproblemastheyframeditwashowtomakesuretheydid

not bury peoplewhowere still alive.One imaginative soul solved theproblem by reversing it. He proposed making sure people were deadbefore theywere buriedbyputting a stake in the coffin lid above theheart.Reversingtheirproblemreversedtheirviewpoint.Reversals break your existing patterns of thought and provoke newones.Youtakethingsastheyareandthenturnthemaround,insideout,upsidedown,andbacktofronttoseewhathappens.Intheillustration,figureAshowstwolinesofequallengthboundedbyarrow-likeangles.InfigureB,thearrow-likeanglesarereversedononeofthelines,whichchangesourperceptionandcreatestheillusionofthelinebeingshorter.It’snotshorter.Measureitandyouwillfinditisstillequalinlengthtotheotherlines.Thelineshaven’tchanged,yourperceptionofthemhas.

In figure A, the angles at the end of the lines seem to open up apotentially limited space. Reversing the angle seems to close off andlimitthearea,whichchangesyourperceptionofthelengthofthelines.Asimple reversalofanglesdramaticallychangeswhatwesee in theillustration. The same perceptual changes occur when we reverse ourconventional thinking patterns about problems and situations. WhenHenry Ford went into the automobile business, the conventionalthinkingwas that youhad to “bringpeople to thework.”He reversedthis to “bring thework to thepeople”and invented theassembly line.WhenAlSloanbecameCEOofGeneralMotors,thecommonassumptionwas thatpeoplehad topay foracarbefore theydrove it.Hereversedthisto“youcandrivethecarbeforeyoupayforit”andhepioneeredtheideaofinstallmentbuying.Years back, chemists had great difficulty putting a pleasant-tasting

coating on aspirin tablets. Dipping tablets led to uneven and lumpycoats.Theywerestumpeduntil theyreversedtheirthinking.Insteadoflookingforwaystoputsomething“on”theaspirin,theylookedforwaystotakesomething“off”theaspirin.Thisreversalledtooneofthenewertechniquesforcoatingpills.Thepillsareimmersedinaliquidandthenpassedontoa spinningdisk.Thecentrifugal forceon the fluidand thepillscausesthetwotoseparate,leavinganice,evencoatingaroundthepill.PhysicistandphilosopherDavidBohmbelievedgeniuseswereableto

think different thoughts because they could tolerate ambivalencebetween opposite or incompatible subjects. Thomas Edison’sbreakthroughinventionofapracticalsystemoflightinginvolvedwiringhiscircuitsinparallelandofusinghigh-resistancefilamentsinhisbulbs,twothingsthatwereconsideredimpossiblebyconventionalthinkers,infact,werenotconsideredatallbecauseofanassumedincompatibility.Because Edison could tolerate the ambivalence between the twoincompatible things, he could see the relationship that led to hisbreakthrough.Edisonalwaysthoughtintermsofchallengingconventionalthoughts

byreversingthemandtryingtomakethereversalwork.AninterestinganecdoteaboutEdisonisthatwheneverheinterviewedajobapplicant,hewouldinvitethemtolunchandordertheapplicantabowlofsoup.Ifthe applicant seasoned his or her soup before tasting it, hewould nothire the applicant. He felt the applicant had so many built-inassumptions about everyday life that it would take toomuch time totraintheapplicanttothinkcreatively.Intheillustrationbelow,youcanperceivefourblackarrowheadsona

whitebackground,oryoucanperceivefourwhitearrowheadsonablackbackground. You can choose to focus on the black or on the oppositewhitearrowheads.Focusingontheblackarousesthenotionofthewhiteandviceversa.Similarly,anyparticularthoughtwillarousethenotionofitsoppositebysimplyadding“not”orbyreversingit.

Mathematician-philosopher Bertrand Russell once astounded hiscolleagues by demonstrating that, in mathematical argument, everyalternative leads to its opposite. You can provoke new ideas byconsidering the opposite of any subject or action. When bioengineerswerelookingforwaystoimprovethetomato,theyidentifiedthegeneintomatoes that ripens tomatoes. They thought that if the gene hastensripening (black arrowhead), maybe they could use the gene to slowdown the process by reversing it (white arrowhead). They copied thegene, put it in backwards, and now the gene slows down ripening,makingvine-ripenedtomatoespossibleinwinter.

ReversingAssumptions

Supposeyouwanttostartanewrestaurantandarehavingdifficultycomingupwithideas.Toinitiateideas,trythefollowingreversals:

1.Listallyourassumptionsaboutyoursubject.

Example:SomecommonassumptionsaboutrestaurantsareA.Restaurantshavemenus,eitherwritten,verbalorimplied.B.Restaurantschargemoneyforfood.C.Restaurantsservefood.

2.Reverseeachassumption.Whatisitsopposite?

Example:TheassumptionsreversedwouldbeA.Restaurantshavenomenusofanykind.B.Restaurantsgivefoodawayforfree.C.Restaurantsdonotservefoodofanykind.

3.Askyourselfhowtoaccomplisheachreversal.Howcanwestartarestaurantthathasnomenu

ofanykindandstillhaveaviablebusiness?Example:A.Arestaurantwithnomenu.Idea:Thechefinformseachcustomerwhatheboughtthatdayat

themeatmarket,vegetablemarket,andfishmarket.Heasksthecustomerstoselectitemsthatappealandhewillcreateadishwiththoseitems,specificallyforeachcustomer.B.Arestaurantthatgivesawayfood.Idea:Anoutdoorcafethatchargesfortimeinsteadoffood.

Useatimestampandchargesomuchfortime(minutes)spent.Selectedfooditemsandbeveragesarefreeorsoldatcost.C.A restaurant that does not serve food. Idea:Create a restaurantwith a unique decor in an

exoticenvironmentandrent the location.Peoplebring theirown foodandbeverages(picnicbaskets,etc.)andpayaservicechargeforthelocation.

4.Selectonesolutionandbuilditintoarealisticidea.Inourexample,wedecidetoworkwiththe“restaurantwithnomenu”reversal.We’llcalltherestaurant“TheCreativeChef.”Thechefwillcreatethedishoutoftheselectedingredientsandnamethedishafterthecustomer.Eachcustomerwillreceiveacomputerprintoutoftherecipethechefnamedafterthecustomer.

Reversals destabilize your conventional thinking patterns and freeinformationtocometogetherinprovocativenewways.Forexample:

•Supposeyouhaveaglassofmint julep.Reversethistomint julephasyou.Howcanweaccomplishthis?Imagineyourselffallingintoaglassofmintjulep.Thistriggersthethoughtofinventingashowerattachmentwithdifferentscentsandperfumes.•Drivers control theparking timeof their cars.Reverse this to cars controlparking time.Thistriggerstheideaofparkinganywhereaslongasyouleaveyourlightson.Thismightbeagoodideaformunicipalitiesthathaveproblemswithpeoplewhoparktheircarsonmainstreetsforlongperiodsoftime.•Dentists havedental tools.Reverse this to dentists donot havedental tools.How can adentistdodentalworkwithouttools?Thisprovokesthe ideaofpatientsbuyingtheirowntools,which are storedbydentists in sterile compartments, to help prevent the spread ofdisease.•Achairhasheight.Reversethistoachairisflat.Thisinspirestheideaofapieceofthickpaddingmaterialthatyoucouldlayoversomethingelsetomakeitachair—likealargerockordownedtree.Ineffect,youcouldplacethepadoveranythinginnaturetomakeitachair.

Suppose two boys of different ages and skill levels are playingbadminton.Theolderboyismuchbetterthantheyoungeroneandwinseverygame.Theyoungerboyisdiscouragedandrefusestoplay.Since

this spoiled the fun for theolder boy, it posed theproblemofhow tokeep the younger boy playing. A conventional thinker would suggestofferingtheyoungerboyahandicaporexhortinghimtobeagoodloser.A thinkerwho toleratesambivalencemight see that competition is thecrux of the problem and would look for ideas that cooperation, theoppositeofcompetition,wouldarouse.Oneideaistochangethegameintoacooperativegame,withthegoalofseeinghowlongthetwoboystogethercouldkeepthebirdgoingbackandforth.

Groups

Whenworkingwithasmallgroup,askeachparticipanttowritehisorherassumptionsaboutthesubjectinanumberedlist.Youcanthen

• Call out an arbitrary number, say, number three. Each person must then reverse thatassumptiononhisorherlistandfigureouthowtomakethereversalintoaviableidea.•Askeachpersontoselectoneassumptionandreverseit.•Askeachpersontoreversealltheirassumptions.•Cutupthelistsintoslipsofassumptionsandputthemintoapaperbag.Drawoneoftheslips and work together as a group to reverse it into something new. Keep drawing andreversinguntilyougettheideasyouwant.

Reversalsgeneratealotofprovocativeideasinashortperiodoftime.In one example, a manager for a major copier company reversed hercompany’s attitude toward the competition from noncooperation tocooperation.Theconventional thinking in thecopierbusiness isnot tocooperatewithyourcompetitorinanyway.Consequently,hercompanyrefused to service the competitors’ machines. She reversed this to apolicythatpubliclystatedthatthecompanywouldnotonlyservicethecompetition’s machines, but would honor their service warranties aswell.Thepolicywastremendouslysuccessful.Itallowedthecompanytoestablish relationshipswith the competitor’s customers that eventuallyledtonewsales.Reversals give you two different ways of looking at something.

Perhapstheclearestexampleofthebenefittobederivedfromlookingat

thingsintwodifferentwaysistobefoundinmathematics.Anyequationis nomore than the putting down of two differentways of describingsomething, yet the usefulness of describing a number in two waysinstead of one is so great that it is one of the cornerstones ofmathematics.Havingthetwodifferentwaysoflookingatsomethingoneithersideoftheequalssignmakesitpossibletomanipulatethewholethingintoananswer.

ReversingPerspective

Consider theclassic teaserof themirror:Whydoesamirrorseemtoinvertleftandrightbutnottopandbottom?Thatis,whyarethelettersofabookbackwardwhenviewedinamirror,butnotupsidedown,andwhyisyourlefthandthedouble’srightandyourrightthedouble’sleft?Whenwelookintoamirror,weimagineourselvesturnedlefttoright,as if we walked around a pane of glass to look the other way. Thisconventional perspective iswhywe cannot explainwhat is happeningwith a mirror. To understand a mirror’s image, you have topsychologicallyreversethewayyouperceiveyourimage.Imagineyournoseandthebackofyourheadreversed:Ifyournosepointsnorth,yourdouble’snosepointssouth.Theproblemisontheaxisrunningthroughthemirror.Standinfrontofthemirrorwithonehandpointingeastandthe other west.Wave the east hand. Themirror image waves its easthand. Its west hand lies to the west. Its head is up, and the feet aredown. Once you look at a mirror with this perspective, you gain anunderstandingabouttheaxisofthemirror.Psychologically reversing the way we perceive our image helps usunderstandamirror.Inthesameway,reversingyourperspectiveaboutproblemssometimeswill leadtoadifferent insightoraquicker,easiersolution to a problem. Add up the numbers 1 to 100. The task is notdifficult,butittakestime.Eventuallywearriveat5,050astheanswer.Now imagine the numbers 1 to 100 written in a row. Reverse thenumbersandwritethembeneaththefirstrowasfollows:

12345.............959697989910010099989796.............654321

Writing1 to100,youalways increasebyone.Reversing this to listing100to1,youalwaysdecreasebyone.Addingupeachpairofnumbersalwaysgivesyou101.Sothetotalis100×101=10,100.We’veusedtwo sets of numbers, so divide by 2 to give 5,050. Reversing thenumbersallowsyoutovisualizetherowsofnumbersandtounderstandthesequence.Youcanthenmultiplyanddivideinyourheadandarriveat the answer quickly, with little chance of error compared to theconventionalmethodofaddition.Inrecentyears,scientistshavestartedlookingthroughtheotherendof the telescope to findadifferentperspectiveabout theoriginof life.Insteadofattemptingtoexplainhowtheuniversegaverisetolife,theyreversedthisthinking,andnow,startwithlifeasagivenandworktheotherway.Giventhatwearehere,theinitialconditionsmusthavebeenacertainway.Reversingyourproblemhelpsyoufocusinadifferentwayontheproblem.Ifsomeonehasbeenpromotedaheadofyou,youmightdefine itas“Thishappenedbecause thebossdislikesme.”Reversed, itbecomes “It happened because I dislike the boss.” Does this way oflookingattheproblemchangeyourperspective?Reversals can also help you find the real causes of a problem thatshouldbeaddressed.Forexample,supposeyoursalesaredownandyouwanttoincreasethem.Hereishowtoreversetheproblemandidentifytherealcausesfordecreasedsales:

1.Stateyourchallenge.“InwhatwaysmightIincreasesales?”

2.Reverseit.“InwhatwaysmightIdecreasesales?”

3.Listallthewaysyoucanthinkoftomakethereversalwork.Example: Make fewer sales calls, be rude to customers, no follow-up, poor product

knowledge,providepoorservice,andsoon.4.Evaluate.Assignanumericalratingfromonetotenforeverythingonyourlistwithtenbeingthemostsignificant.5.Focusonthehighestrateditems.Thesearethemostprobablecausesofyourproblems.

Example:“Makefewersalescalls”isthehighestrated.6.Reversebacktogetanewperspective.Example:“InwhatwaysmightIincreasesalesbymakingmoresalescalls?”

Reversingtheproblemledustotherealizationthatthemosteffectivewaytoincreaseoursalesistomakemoresalescalls.Ourrealproblembecomestofigureouthowtomakemoresalescalls.

ReverseBrainstorming

Whenbrainstorming,agroupof individualsgeneratesasmany ideasas possible without judgment or criticism of any kind. The idea is toprovide an environment that encourages positive feedback. In science,“positive feedback” is not always a good thing. It will actually pushsystemstoexplodeorspiraloutofcontrol.PointingaTVcameraatitsownmonitor gives the visual equivalent of the positive-feedback loopscreechthatcomesfromamicrophoneplacedtoonearitsspeaker.This is why scientists discriminate between two different types of

feedback.Inscience“negativefeedback”isthetypethatkeepsthingsincheck: The valve on Thomas Watt’s steam engine created a negative-feedback loop because it openedwhen the enginewas running fast inordertoreleasesteamsothemachinerywouldn’texplodeorspiraloutof control. In nature, negative feedback in evolution keeps mutationchangesfromspiralingoutofcontrolbywipingoutmanymutationstokeepthedesignofspeciesstableforlongperiodsoftime.Reversebrainstormingisthecriticalevaluationorjudgmentofideas,

encouragingnegativefeedback.It’saparticularlyusefultechniquewhena group is interested in overcoming all possible weaknesses of aparticularidea.Thegoalistoidentifyweaknessesbysettingupteamstoopposetheplan,andthentobrainstormpossiblesolutions.Suppose,forexample,your companyhasdevelopedanew five-yearmarketingplanfor their cordless telephone. To begin the process of reversebrainstorming

1. Organize the group into teams. Each team is charged with acting as a particularcompetitor(oryouasktheteamstoconstructamythicalsupercompetitor).Tell themthat

yourcompany’snewmarketingplanhasbeen leaked.Torespond to thisnewthreat, they(thecompetitors)areinstructedtocomeupwitheffectivecountermeasurestotheplan.2.Eachgroupbrainstormsforcountermeasurestotheplan.3.Thenthegroupisreassembled,andthecompetitor’scountermeasuresarediscussed.Thegroupisaskedtorespondtoeachcountermeasure.Forcingpeopletoreversetheirthinkingcreatesnewthinkingpatternsthatleadtoideasthatwouldnotnormallybeconsidered.

Reversal techniques create ambivalence,which is a fundamental butgenerally unrecognized aspect of creative thought. Geniuses tolerateambivalence: for instance, the polarity in Einstein’s thinking. Onemomenthewouldfavorcontinuityandthenextmomenthewouldfavordiscontinuity.Hecouldseetherelationshipbetweenthetwobecausehewouldtoleratetheopposite.Anycontinuoussystemcanbethoughtofasmade up of a large number of discontinuous elements. Anydiscontinuous element is formed from a continuous background. Thisability to tolerateambivalencegivesgeniuses insight intonuances thatareusuallyobscuredbyconventionalpatternsofthought.

SeeingAllSides

Dr.AlbertRothenberg,anotedresearcheronthecreativeprocess,hasextensively studied the use of opposites in the creative process. Heidentifiedaprocessheterms“Janusianthinking,”aprocessnamedafterJanus, a Roman god with two faces, each looking in the oppositedirection. Janusian thinking is the ability to imagine two opposite orcontradictory ideas, concepts, or images existing simultaneously.Imagine, if you will, your mother existing as a young baby and oldwomansimultaneouslyoryourpetexistingandnotexistingatthesametime.Rothenberg found that geniuses resorted to this mode of thinking

quite oftenwhen achieving original insights. Einstein,Mozart, Edison,van Gogh, Pasteur, Joseph Conrad, and Picasso all demonstrated thisability.ItwasVincentvanGoghwhoshowed,inBedroomatArles,howone might see two different points of view at the same time. PabloPicassoachievedhiscubistperspectivebymentallytearingobjectsapartandrearrangingtheelementssoastopresentthemfromadozenpointsofviewsimultaneously.Lookingbackathismasterpiece,LesDemoisellesd’ Avignon, it seems to have been the first painting inWestern art todepict its subject from all sides at once. The viewer who wishes toappreciate it has to reconstruct all of the original points of viewsimultaneously.Inotherwords,youhavetotreatthesubjectexactlyasPicassohadtreateditinordertoseethebeautyofthesimultaneity.In physics, Einsteinwas able to imagine an object inmotion and at

restat thesametime.Tobetterunderstandthenatureof thisparadox,heconstructedananalogythatreflectedtheessenceoftheparadox.Anobserver,Einsteinposited,whojumpsoffaroofandreleasesanyobjectatthesametime,willdiscoverthattheobjectwillremain,relativetotheobserver,inastateofrest.Einsteinrealizedthatanobserverwhojumpsoffaroofwillnot,inhis

orherimmediatevicinity,findanyevidenceofagravitationalfield.Thisapparent absence arises even though gravitation causes the observer’sacceleratingplunge.Einsteinsaidthisanalogywasthehappiestthoughtinhislife,becauseitinspiredtheinsightthatledtothelargerprincipleof general relativity. (He was looking for an analogy in nature thatwouldallowhimtobringNewton’stheoryofgravitationintothetheoryofrelativity,thestepmakingitageneraltheory.)LouisPasteurdiscoveredtheprincipleofimmunologybydiscoveringa

paradox.Someinfectedchickenssurvivedacholerabacillus.Whentheyanduninfectedchickenswereinoculatedwithanewvirulentculture,theuninfected chickensdied, but the infected chickens survived. In seeingthe unexpected event of the chickens’ survival as amanifestation of aprinciple, Pasteur needed to formulate the concept that the survivinganimalswerebothdiseasedandnotdiseasedatthesametime.Thispriorundetected infection had therefore kept them free from disease andprotectedthemfromfurtherinfection.Thisparadoxicalideathatdiseasecouldfunctiontopreventdiseasewastheoriginalbasisforthescienceofimmunology.

Rothenberg found another illustration of Janusian thinking in NielsBohr’sthinking.Bohrbelievedthatifyouholdoppositesideastogetherinyourmind,thenyoususpendyourthoughtandyourmindmovestoanew level. The suspension of thought allows an intelligence beyondthoughttoactandcreateanewform.Theswirlingofoppositescreatestheconditions foranewpointofviewtobubble free fromyourmind.This ability tohold twoopposites together led toBohr’s conceptionoftheprincipleofcomplementarity,theclaimthatlightisbothaparticleandawave,whichisapparentlyself-contradictory.Tothinkintermsofsimultaneousopposites,convertyoursubjectinto

aparadoxandthenfindausefulanalogy.Foundriescleanforgedmetalpartsbysandblastingthem.Thesandcleansthepartsbutthesandgetsinto the cavities and is time-consuming and expensive to clean. Theparadoxisthattheparticlesmustbe“hard”inordertocleanthepartsand at the same time “not hard” in order to be removed easily. Ananalogue of particles which are “hard” and “not hard” is ice. Onesolution is tomake theparticlesoutofdry ice.Thehardparticleswillcleanthepartsandlaterturnintogasandevaporate.Supposeyouwantedtomakea lotofmoney.Theoppositeof this is

thatyoumightlackambition.Theparadoxisyouwanttomakemoney,but you’re too lazy to domuch tomake it.Next, you find an analogythatcontains theessenceof theparadox, forexample, Iwant lightbutwithout using electrical energy. The solution to the analogy is usingnaturalenergyfromthesun.Finally,applythisprincipletotheproblemofalazypersonmakingmoney.OnesolutionistogototheSouthSeaislandsandwriteatravelbook.

ThinkingParadoxically

Following are specific guidelines for solving problems by creating aparadox, finding an analogue, and using the unique feature of theanaloguetotriggeroriginalideas.A CEO noted that when his high-tech company was small, people

wouldoftenmeet spontaneouslyand informally.Outof thesemeetings

cametheirbestideas.Withthecompany’srapidgrowth,theseinformalmeetings (and the number of good ideas) declined.He tried the usualways to stimulate creativity (meetings, dinners, parties, roundtables,etc.),but theydidnotgeneratenovel ideas.Hewanted torecreate thespontaneouscreativeenvironment.

1. Paradox. Convert the problem into a paradox.One of the things that distinguishes thevisionofgeniusisitscuriousrelationshiptocontraries.NielsBohrwasfascinatedwiththecontrarydimensionsof reality.Once inaheateddebateoverhowelectronscanappear inoneplaceandtheninanotherwithoutanytravelinginbetween,hedeclaredhowwonderfulitwas that theyhavemetwithaparadox, fornow theycouldmake intellectualprogress.Ask,“Whatistheoppositeorcontradictionoftheproblem?”Thenimaginebothexistingatthesametime.Example: The paradox of the company’s situationwas that unless the gatheringswereunorganizedtheywouldn’tproducenovelideas.

2.Booktitle.Summarizetheparadoxintoabooktitlethatcapturestheessenceandparadoxoftheproblem.Thebooktitleshouldbetwowords,usuallyanadjectiveandanoun.SomeexamplesofbooktitlesareSalestarget—FocusedDesireDifferentlevelemployees—BalancedConfusionSeasonalsalescycles—ConnectedPausesBirthcontrol—DependableIntermittenceNature—RationalImpetuousnessReducingtheparadoxintoabooktitlemakesiteasiertoworkwithandcomprehend.Example:Inourexample,theCEOsummarizedhisparadoxintothebooktitleUnorganizedGatherings.

3.Analogy. Find an analogy that reflects the essence of the paradox. Think of as manyanalogiesasyoucanandselectthemostsuitable.Example:OurCEOfoundasuitableanalogyinnature.Hethoughtofherringgulls,whoareveryunorganizedscavengersbuteffectivesurvivors.

4.Uniquefeature.What is theunique featureoractivityof theanalogue?Creative ideasofteninvolvetakinguniquefeaturesfromonesubjectandapplyingthemtoanother.JohnHopfieldwasaphysicistwhoknewalotaboutspinglass,whicharemagneticsubstancesinwhich the atoms have a spin and interact in either a positive or negativewaywith eachother.Hopfielddiscovered that thebrain iscomposedofneurons thatareeitheronoroff

andeitherexciteorinhibitoneanother.Hetookasetofuniquefeaturesfromspinglassandappliedthemtothebrain,therebycreatinghisfamousneuralnetworktheory.Example: Inourexample, theCEOdetermined that theunique featureofhisanalogy is“scavenging.”Thegullsgatherforaneasymealwhenfishersthrowunwantedfishandfishpartsbackintothesea.

5.Equivalent.Useanequivalentofthe“unique”featuretotriggernewideas.Example:Theequivalentofthisuniquefeaturemightbetohavepeoplecometogetherforconvenientmealsatattractiveprices.

6. Build into a new idea. The company will serve inexpensive gourmet food in thecompany cafeteria. By subsidizing the cost of the gourmet food, the CEO encouragesemployees to gather there (much like the herring gulls drawn to the fishers free food) tomeetinformally,mingle,andexchangeideas.

W.J.J.GordonusedthisstrategytodevelopPringlespotatochips,amatterofdesigninganewpotatochipandpackagethatwouldallowformoreefficientpackagingofchipswithout theneed to fill thebagwithmore air than chips. The paradoxwas a compact chip thatwould notdestruct. The book title that captured the essence of the paradoxwasCompactDestruction.Theanalogy theyworkedwithwasbagging leaves in the fall.Whenyoutrytoshovedryleavesintoaplasticbag,youhaveadifficulttime.But when the leaves are wet (unique feature), they are soft andformable.Awetleafconformstotheshapeofitsneighborwithlittleairbetweenthem.Bywettingandformingdriedpotatoflour,thepackagingproblemwassolvedandPringlesgotitsstart.Inanotherexample,designersdevelopedaflexiblebatterythatcanbefolded like a sheet. They started with the paradox of a “solid batterythat’selastic.”TheirbooktitlewasConcreteElasticity.Theanaloguewas“garbagebags,”withtheuniquefeatureof“bagsareblendedwithhigh-performance plastics.” This analogy triggered the idea of entrapping aliquid electrolyte within an inert polymer sheet. This created anultrathin,flexiblebatterythatyoucanfoldorrolluplikeaplasticbag.Thebatterywillbeusedincamcorders,cellularphones,laptops,pagers,andgames.Youcanevencreate“battery”clothingthatreplaces“batterypacks”forpoweringmedicaldevices.

WorkingBackward

Mostofusareaccustomedtoconvertingaquestion(2+2=?)intoananswer (4) according to a rigid set of rules. If you find a calculatorsomeonehasleftonadeskanditsays4,youhavenowayofknowinghowtheyarrivedatthenumber.Didsomeonepunchin2+2,3+1,1+1+1+1,orperhaps9–5,or1,239,477–1,239,473?Thereareaninfinitenumberofpossiblewaystoreach4.Einsteinisfamousforvisualizinghistheoryofrelativityasagivenandthenworking backward towhatwas known. Francis Crick and JamesWatsonstunnedthesciencecommunityforthewaytheyuncoveredthestructureDNA.Whileothersstruggledupthestraightandnarrowpathof strict construction from theevidence (2+2=),CrickandWatsonmadeafewdaringassumptions(startedwith4),thenworkedbackward,withgratifyingresults. In the following illustration, see ifyoucan linkup the nine dots with one straight line without lifting your writinginstrumentfromthepaper.

This problem is seemingly impossible for most people. Many of uswork with the problem as given and try to solve it without success.However, if you imagine the solution and work back to the problem,you’llfindthatit’seasilysolved.Belowisoneimaginedsolution.

Nowworkbackwardtotheproblemandlookforwaystoachievethesolution.Onesolutionistocutthedotsout,tapetheminastraightline,and then link up all ninewith one straight line. Youmight also haveimaginedone thick linecrossing throughall thedotsatonce.Workingbackwardfromthissolution,oneneedonlyswipethroughthedotswithawidepaintbrush.Thesekindsofcreativesolutionsprobablywouldnothave occurred to us if we worked in the conventional way with theproblem.Imaginingthatyourproblemissolvedenablesyoutoapproachfromthe other side and work in an opposite direction. Working backward

enablesyoutothinkaboutyourproblemmoreflexiblybychangingtheproblemcomponents.Followingareguidelinesforworkingbackward:

1.Closeyoureyes,relax,andimaginethebestpossiblesolutiontoyourproblem.Feelfreetofantasizeanysolutionyoucanimagine.2.Writetheimaginedsolutiononasheetofpaper.Includeabriefdescriptionofhowyouprofitfromthesolution,howyoufeel,andwhatyousetinmotion.3.Listthepeople,situations,oreventsthatmadetheimaginarysolutionpossible.4.Foreachperson,situation,orevent,listspecificallyhoweachcontributedtotheoutcome.5.Askyourselfhowthesespecificsweregeneratedtosolvetheproblem.Canyougenerateotheralternatives?6.Listthecharacteristicsandpropertiesofthespecifics.Doyouseeanydeficiencies?Ifso,howcanyouovercomeandimprovethem?7.Whatarethegapsthathavetobecompletedtorealizethesolution?Whatdoyouneedtodotocompletethem?Whatelsedoyouneedtoknow?8. Keep asking what should precede each step and continue until you work back to theproblemstatement.

With conventional thinking, you move forward one step at a time.Eachsteparisesdirectlyfromtheprecedingstepinastraightline.Withthinking “backward,” the steps are not sequential. You jump ahead tothe conclusion and fill in the gaps afterwards. In the diagram below,conventional thinkingproceedsmethodically fromA toB toC toD tothesolutionE.With“backward”thinking,youimagineanidealsolution,G, that you probably could not arrive at thinking conventionally andthenworkbackwardtoAtofigureouthowtogetthere.WhenworkingbackwardfromG,onefindsapathwayfromGtoCtoDtoHtoA.Thepathway is not sequential and includes steps (H) that you probablywouldnothavediscoveredthinkingconventionally.

NikolaTesla,thegeniuswhousheredintheageofelectricity,would

often thinkof somethingasgivenandworkbackward to thequestion.For example, in his work on turbines, he imagined a turbine alreadybuilt and ran it “in thought” for one month. To Tesla, there was nodifference whatsoever whether he “ran” something in thought orphysically tested it in his shop. Onemonth later, he disassembled themachineinhismindandnotedinprecisedetailthewearandtearonthepiecesinhisimaginarymachine.Later,arealturbinemodeledafterhisimaginary one was built, run, and dissembled after one month.Remarkably,Tesla’sdescriptionofwherethewearandtearwouldoccurmatchedtherealmachineineverydetail.His ability to imagine the future enabled him to create astonishing,world-transforming devices that were without theoretical precedent.Tesla’s discovery of rotatingmagnetic fields is the basis of alternatingcurrent,whichhasmade thewidespreaddistributionof electric powerpossible. Tesla introduced us to the fundamentals of robotics andcomputerandmissilescience,andhelpedpavethewayforsuchspace-age technologies as satellites,microwaves,beamweapons, andnuclearpower. Some experts even suggest that Ronald Reagan’s StrategicDefense Initiative was the result of secret research based on Tesla’sdiscoveriesahalfcenturybefore.By imagining a future full of glittering lights powered by electricalgenerators, of robots revolutionizing industry, and of globalcommunicationsbasedoninvisiblewavesofmagnetism,Teslawasabletoworkbackwardfromthefutureideas“running”inhisimaginationtohispresent.Thisbackwardthinkingopeneduphisthinkingtoaninfinitenumber of different ways of making the ideas “running” in hisimaginationintopracticalrealities.Imagineworkingonyourproblemasyouwould in the future.Thentransferthesolutionbacktothepresentandlookforwaystomakeyourideaapresent-daypossibility.Theguidelinesare

1.Selectatargetdateinthefuture(2050)andimagineyouarethere.Writesomesamplefutureheadlinesthatdealwithgovernments,privatelives,technology,yourcompany,andthecompetition.Writeashortstoryaboutadayinthelifeofanindividualintheyear2050.

2.Generatealistofthemostimportantthingsyouwouldliketohappentoyoursubjectbytheyear2050.Imagineatleastfivefuturepossibilities.Askthefollowing:Whatisimpossiblenowbutwillbepossibleintheyear2050thatinvolvesmyproblem?

WhatwouldIhavethatIdonothavenow?WhatinformationandresourceswouldIhavethatIdonothavenow?

3.Using thesepossibilities, imagine thebest possible solution to yourproblem.Write thesolutioninasmuchdetailaspossible.Thenlistthepeople,situations,oreventsthatmadetheimaginarysolutionpossible,andspecifically,howeachcontributedtotheoutcome.

4. Ask how these specificswere generated to solve the problem. Can you generate otheralternatives? List the characteristics and properties of the specifics. Transporting yoursubjectintothefutureputsitintoadifferentcontextandcreatesnewrelationshipsamongtheproblemcomponents.Understandingthesenewrelationshipsiswhatismeantbyinsight.

5.Lookforanydeficiencies.Ifyoufindsome,howcanyouovercomethem?Whatarethegapsthathavetobecompletedtorealizethesolution?

6. Keep asking what should precede each step and continue until you work back to theproblemstatement.Byworkingbackwardfromthefuture,wecandiscoverwhatconditionswouldhavetoprevail justpriortothedesiredgoalinorderforustoachievethatgoalbymeansofspecificactions.Forexample,supposewewantedtogobytrainfromMilwaukeetoBoston.Thebeststrategyisn’tnecessarilytoinvestigatetrainconnectionsfromMilwaukeetoChicago,fromChicagotoBuffalo,fromBuffalotoNewYork,andfromNewYorktoBoston.WecaninsteadfindoutwhattrainscomeintoBostonfromthewestduringtheperiodwhenwewouldliketoarrive.Wecanthenfindoutwhenthesetrainsleave,say,BuffaloorNewYork,andinthisway,planourwaybacktoChicago.

Groups

Agroupexercisetogetparticipantstoconsiderdesirablefuturesistodividethegroupintoteams(threeorfour)andhaveeachgroupdevelopan imagined future solution. The solutions are put into separateenvelopes.Eachteamgetsanenvelopewithoneofthefuturesolutionsinit.Theteamwritesanimmediateactionthatcanbetakentoachievethis solution and puts it into the envelope. The envelopes are passedfromgrouptogroup.Eachgeneratesanactionwithoutlookingatwhattheothershavewritten.Whenallgroupshaveaddressedall the futuresolutions,thegroupleaderreadstheactionsforachievingeachsolution,

andthegroupdiscussesandranksthem.

ThePerfectCupofCoffee

Anotherwaytoworkbackwardfromasolutionistoimagineaperfectsolution,listthesignificantfactorsthatwouldmakeitapossibility,andthenmakeagraphto findoutwhereyouareatpresentandwhatyouneed in order tomake your solution a reality. For example, suppose Iwantedtobrewthe“perfect”cupofcoffee.FirstIwoulddefinewhatIthink is a “perfect cup of coffee.” In this case, it’s what I think the“significant”factorsarefora“perfect”cupofcoffee,whichtomeisthebesttasting.Inordertobrewthisperfectcup,Iwouldneed

•Theworld’sbestcoffeemaker•Thechoicestblendsfromthebestcoffeegrowers•Comprehensiveknowledgeofhowtobrewcoffee•Thepurestspringwater•Thepurestsugar•Thefreshestandrichestcream

Next,Ilisttheoppositeforeachsignificantfactor,inordertocreateacontinuum,andgraphitasfollows:“ThePerfectCupofCoffee” “TheWorstCupofCoffee”

I place anX on the continuum (the vertical line represents halfwaybetweenthetwoextremes)torepresentwhereIamatthispointintime.Forexample, theX for a coffeemaker indicates thatmycoffeemaker isslightly above average, I use slightly above-average coffee blends,probablyknow less than theaveragepersonaboutbrewingcoffee,useaveragewaterandsugar,andmilkinsteadofcream.ThegraphillustrateswhatIhavetodotocomeclosetothe“perfect”

cup of coffee. I’ll have to purchase a world-class coffeemaker, thechoicestblendofcoffee,thepurestsugar,thefreshestcream,usespringwater,andresearchhowtobetterbrewcoffeeorhireamasterbrewertoteachmehowtodoit.Icanchoosetomoveall,some,ornoneoftheXstowardthe“perfect”cup.Thisinspiredanentrepreneurtoinventtheperfectcupofcoffeemaker.

Itmakesacupofcoffeethatrivals thebest fromanycoffeehouse.Hesuggests the best beans to buy with his coffeemaker and the makergrinds thebeans,metersout just the rightamountofwater, filters thewaterofimpurities,andbrewsitattherighttemperature.Theappliancehas such handy features as an airtight lid for the carafe, to keep outoxygen(andbitterness);aself-cleaningmechanism;andatimer.Look at the illustration of a girl standing in the rain. Now try to

imaginethegirlentirelywithinthesmallcircle.Youwillprobablyfind

that the image becomes very dense and only contains a few visiblefeatures.Now,formyourimagewithinthelargercircle.Nowtheimagebecomesmoreclearandyoucanseemanymoredetailsinyourimageofthegirlintherain.

Expandingyourvisual imageenabledyoutovisualizemorefeatures.In a similar way, when you imagine a perfect or ideal solution to aproblem,youdramaticallyexpandyourperceptionoftheproblem.Thisis because mental perception seems to share many of the sameinformation-processingmechanismswiththehumanvisualsystem.Yourinitialperceptionofaproblemisnarrowandsmall,liketheimageinthesmallcircle.Expandingyourperceptionoftheproblembyimagininganidealsolutionenablesyoutovisualizethefeaturesandcomponentsthatarenecessarytorealizetheperfectsolution,liketheimageinthelargercircle.

STRATEGYSEVEN:LOOKINGINOTHERWORLDS

Genius is often marked by the ability to imagine comparisons andsimilarities and even similar differences between parallel facts andeventsindifferentfieldsor“otherworlds.”WhyisXlikeY?IfXworksinacertainway,whycan’tYworkinasimilarway?AlexanderGrahamBellobservedthesimilaritiesbetweentheinnerworkingsoftheearandthe ability of a stoutpieceofmembrane tomove steel, and conceivedthe telephone. Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, in one day,afterdevelopingananalogybetweenatoyfunnelandthemotionsofapapermanandsoundvibrations.Moreover,thewaybuzzardskepttheirbalanceinflightservedasananalogyfortheWrightbrotherswhentheyweredevelopinghowtomaneuverandstabilizeanairplane.Likeasparkthatjumpsacrossagap,anideafromoneworldisusedto

create a new idea or creative solution to a problem in anotherworld.The idea that the solar system is continually restored came to Pierre-SimonLaplace,thebrilliantFrenchastronomer,whenheconsideredthebody’s self-healing system. Many years after Laplace’s insight, Bellengineers developed a technology designed to be a self-healingcommunicationsystem,basedonasimilaranalogywithahumanbeing’scirculatory system.When important telephone arteries aredamagedorcut,thesystemwillpumpphoneservicethroughnewchannels,keepingcommunicationsalive.Theself-healingnetworklinkseachcentralofficewithopticalfibercableinaloop.Next,thecentralofficesareequippedwithaspecialswitch,aspecialdevicethatduplicatessignalsandsendsthem in opposite directions on the ring, ensuring that at least onearrives,evenifthereisaproblem.Ifthereisaproblem,likethehumanbeing’scirculatorysystem,thesystemisdesignedtogoaroundit.Yourmindislyinginwaitforsomecueorsuggestionthatwillinitiate

thinkingaboutyourprobleminadifferentway.Whenyouuseanalogiesbetweenyoursubjectandasubjectinanotherworld,youproducecues

and hints that will make novel combinations and connections morelikely.PhiloFarnsworth’sinterestinfarminggavehimthecuethatledtotelevision.Oneday,whilesittingonahillsideinIdaho,heobservedthe neat rows in a nearby farm. The neat rows inspired the idea ofcreatingapictureona cathode-ray tubeoutof rowsof lightanddarkdots.Hewas fourteenat the time, and thenext yearhepresented theconcept at a high-school science fair. He also demonstrated the firstworkingmodelofatelevisionsetwhenhewastwenty-one.In the following illustration, thereare two setsofparallel lines.Thelines appear to have a clearly defined contour border between them.Eitherofthelinescanbeseenascoveringtheother.Yet,inreality,thereis no border between the sets. There is nothing there. The illusion iscreatedbecauseourmindstrytomakethegapsbetweenthelines intosomethingmeaningful.

In the same way, when you imagine comparisons and similaritiesbetween dissimilar subjects and events in different worlds, yourmindwillstruggleto lookforcuesandsuggestionstomakethecomparisonsmeaningful. For example, suppose I want to improve the commonflashlight and decide to look in anotherworld for ideas. I look in theworldof “automobiles”andchoose the specificactof “replacinga flattire.” Next I draw an analogy between “improving a flashlight” and“replacinganautomobile tire.”Whatcuescanwe find in theworldof“replacingatire”tohelpusimprovetheflashlight?First, describe what’s involved in replacing a damaged tire. ForExample:

1.Readtheautomobilemanualonhowtoreplacethetire.2.Thereisnoexternalpowersource,soyouhavetomanuallycrankthejack.3.Thejackiscollapsible.

4.Thetiretreadindicatesusageanddamage.5.Mosttiresareguaranteedforacertainnumberofmiles.6.Thesparetireisatemporarydonuttire.

Thedescriptions—“noexternalpowersource,”“manuallycrank,”and“collapsible”—are all cues that inspired the invention of the eternalflashlight (a flashlight that doesn’t require an external power source).The light has a collapsible crank that you unfold and rotate. Thecrankingcreatesanelectricalcharge,which is sent toaminigenerator.Cranking the flashlight for thirty secondswill create fifteenminutesoflight.Otherideasinspiredbytheanalogybetweenflashlightsandreplacingtiresare

1.Placefirst-aidpamphletsinflashlights(fromautomobilemanual).2.Designaflashlightwithastorageareaforsparebatteries(fromsparetire).3.Incorporateacolorstripintheflashlightthatchangescolorasthebatteriesdischargeovertime,toindicatewhentoreplacethem(fromtiretreadindicatesusage).

Youcansiphonwaterfromabucketbysuckingthewaterupwardinatube.This is anunconventionaldirection forwater to travel.Once thewaterreachesacertainpoint,thenthesiphonformsandthewaterwillflownaturallyoutofthebucketuntil thebucket isempty.Inthesameway, creating ideas for improving the flashlightbymakingananalogywith replacing an automobile tire is an unconventional way to thinkabout the problem. Once your thinking reaches a certain point, thenyourideasbegintoflowfreelylikewaterbeingsiphonedfromabucket.

Geniuses have a remarkable eye for resemblances and cues betweentwo subjects in different worlds. The Harvard biologist E. O. Wilson,whoshook theworldwithhis theory thatgenescontrol culture,basedhisseminaltheoryof“sociobiology”onhisobservationsofantbehavior

inthe insectworld.WhenGregorMendelhumblypresentedtheresultsof his experiments with plants to the Brun Society for the study ofnaturaldiseases,therewasnointerestatallinthematter.Thegeniusofthissimpleworkandthefactthatthetremendouslyimportantscienceofgenetics had been born meant nothing to the audience, who thoughtthey were listening to yet another careful gardener with his petgardening theories. It was many years before the report wasrediscovered and given its full importance. Some of the insights intogeniuscome,paradoxically,fromstudiesofmentallyretardedpeople.Itseems that mentally challenged people are unable to recognizesimilaritiesandcuesandmakeappropriateconnectionsfromoneworldtoanother.Geniuses also demonstrate the ability to discover similar differences

betweensubjectsindifferentworlds.AstrikingexamplewouldbeHelenKeller’s legendary flash of insight, when she suddenly recognized theessential similarityofdifferent experiencesofwater.Differentkindsofrelationshipscouldbedefinedbyconsidering,forexample,thesimilaritybetween a young bird and a young fish, which is different from thesimilaritybetweenanagingbirdandanagingfish.Thisnotionofsimilardifferences defines a new order that cuts across various categories ofexperience.Newton’slegendarytaleabouttheappleandthemoonwasessentiallyaperceptionofthesimilardifferencesbetweenthemotionofan apple and themotion of themoon. He perceived a unity of orderbetween two seemingly unrelated worlds—a falling apple and anorbitingmoon.Followingarewaysofhowtolookintootherworldsforanalogiesand

cuesthatyoucanusetogenerateoriginalandnewideas.

ParallelWorlds

This is a structured technique that helps you imagine comparisons,similarities, and even similar differences between subjects in “otherworlds.”Theguidelinesare

1.Stateyourchallenge.Example:Alumberyardownerstated,“InwhatwaysmightIsellmorelumber?”

2.Choosekeywordsoraphraseinthechallenge.Example:“Sell.”

3. Choose a parallelworld or distant field. The greater the distance between the parallelworldandyourchallenge,thegreaterthechancesofproducingnewthoughtsandideas.Abusiness analogy to a business challenge is too close-analogies from television or cookingmightbemorelikelytostimulatecreativethought.Example:Thefieldselectedforthechallengeofsellingmorelumberwas“computers.”

4. List the images and thoughts that youassociatewithyour chosenparallelworld.Thenchooseoneormoreoftheparticularlyrichones.Listingimageswillallowyoutodescribetheanalogyinasmuchdetailaspossible.Example:Amongtheimagesevokedbythecomputerfieldarescience,multipleuses,user-

friendly, hardware, software, add-ons, computer-aided design, computer schools, businessuses,andrecreationaluses.

5. Draw analogies between the images and your subject. Look for similarities andconnections.Generateasmanyassociationsasyoucan.Example:Thelumberyardownerlookedatanumberofconnectionsbetweentheimages

and his challenge of selling more lumber, ultimately discarding most of them. The finalimages he focused on were computer-aided design (CAD), computer add-ons, andrecreationaluses.He combined and connected these three conceptswith his challenge of selling lumber,

stirringan idea.Thecombinationofall threewithhischallengestirredan idea.The idea:UseCADtodesignbackyarddecks.Provideacomputerizedsysteminthelumberyardwheresalespeople can design decks to customer’s specifications. The owner would have a user-friendlykioskwithalargevideoscreenandeasy-to-usecontrolsthatthesalespersonwouldmanipulate.Thecustomerexplainsthedeck’ssizeandthenumberofstairwaysneeded,andselects railings and spindles. The system could then design it from the ground up andcalculatethecost.Ifthecostistoohigh,thecustomercanchangethedimensions.Oncetheprice is right, the computer could print out the diagrams and full instructions. This freeservice would encourage more building of decks, and the lumberyard would sell morelumber.

The parallel world should be something you know about, and youshould use a specific object, situation, event, or example from thatworld. For instance: “TheNFL football team, the San Francisco 49ers”willmakeamuchmorefruitfulanalogythan“football.”Aspecificdance

movementismuchmorefruitfulthan“ballet.”Themoredetailsyoucanrecord,thebetter.Ifyouchoose“restaurants,”chooseaspecific,familiarrestaurant.Usethislistofparallelworldstogetstarted,butdodevelopyourown

uniquelistthatbestsuitsyourparticularknowledge.Youmightwanttofocus on particular disciplines or activities that are of special interestand that are not related to your challenge. When choosing a parallelworld, examine four or five possible worlds and then select the oneworldthatbestsuitsthegeneralprinciplesofyourchallenge.

ParallelWorldsList

Accounting Acupuncture AnimalKingdomArchitectureArtAstrologyAstronomy Ballet Baseball Basketball Biography Biology Birds BlackPower Movement Bowling Calculus Cancer Cardiology CaribbeanCartoons Chemistry China Chiropractic Civil War Comics ComposersComputers Dance Dentistry Desert Economics Education EnglandEntertainment Evolution Farming Fast-Food Industry Finance FineCooking Fishing Flying Football Funeral Homes Garbage CollectingGeography Geology Germany Golf Government Great Books GreatDepressionGrocery StoresHawaii HistoryHuntingHypnosis India IRSInsects Interior Decorating Inventions Japan Journalism Jungle KoreaLaw Law Enforcement Literature Mafia Manufacturing Math MedicineMeteorology Military Mining Monasteries Monuments Moon MoviesMusic Mythology Nuclear Power Physics Nutrition Ocean Old WestOlympics Pharmacology Philosophy Photography Physical FitnessPhysical Therapy Physics Planets Plumbing Political Science PoliticsPornographyPrintingPsychiatryPsychologyPublishingReligionResortsRestaurants Revolutionary War Russia Sailing Sculpture SeminarsShakespeareSkiingSoapOperasSociologySouthAmericaSpaceSpecialEducation Stars Taverns Television TV News Steel Industry Sun TalkRadio Tennis TerrorismTheater Transportation Travel IndustryUnionsVaticanVietnamWallStreetWholesalersWineWorldWarIWorldWarIIYukon

One of the advantages of looking for analogies in parallelworlds isthatifoneimagedoesn’twork,youcanchooseanotherimageoranotherworld and still another until you get the inspiration you need. Peoplesometimes make the elementary mistake of thinking that one’s firsteffortatananalogymustberight.Butconsiderthefollowingproblemoflongdivision.Does thedivisorgo into thedividendsix, sevenoreighttimes?

326,574÷47

Whocares?Youdon’thavetoknow,ifyouhaveanyjudgmenttodolong division. You can choose a number, at random if you like, andcheckouttheresult. If thenumberistoosmall, increaseitbyoneandtryagain;iftoolarge,decreaseit.Thegoodthingaboutlongdivisionisthatitalwaysworkseventually,evenifyoumakeapoorfirstchoice,inwhich case it just takes a little longer. This is the magic of thistechnique. You simply generate images from a parallelworld and testthemout.Ifyoudon’tgettheinspirationyouneed,youtryagain.

Groups

Following are “Parallel World” guidelines for small groups. Forexample,supposeagroupwantedwaystoshowclientsthebottom-linebenefits of investing in training and personnel development in their RandDdepartment.

1.Askthegrouptorephrasetheproblemasawish.Example:Wewishwecouldgetclientstovisualizethemselvesusingthenewproductsand

skillsthatwouldcomeoutoftraininginthisdepartment.

2.Havethegroupsingleoutthekeywordsinthewish.Example:“Newproducts”and“skills.”

3.Presentthegroupwithalistoftenorsoparallelworldsandaskthegrouptochoosetwoworldsunrelatedtotheproblem.Example:“Mining”and“weather.”

4.Havethegroupapplythekeywordstotheseworldstohelpgenerateseeminglyirrelevantimagesandassociations.Example: Have the group brainstorm new products and skills in mining and weather.

Some possible mining subjects might be “focus-blasting,” “new technology to restore theenvironment,”“lightsonhats,”andsoon.

5.Ask thegroup to improvise connectionsbetween their images andassociations and theproblem.Example: Focus-blasting inspires one to think about putting a lot of resources into one

areaoftraining.Youmightsetupapilotprogramsmallenoughsothatyoucouldhavealltheresourcesyouneedtodoitright-toreallygetresults.Thenyouwouldusetheseresultstoshowclientsthepaybackofinvestingintraininganddevelopment.

WorldofEssences

Anenlighteningexperimentwasdonebygestaltpsychologistswithagroup of dogs. The dogs were trained to approach something whenshownawhitesquareandavoiditwhenshownagraysquare.Whenthedogslearnedthis,theexperimentersswitchedtousingagraysquareandablacksquare.Thedogsimmediatelyshiftedtoapproachingtheobjectin response to the gray square (which had previously triggeredavoidance)andavoidingtheobjectwhenshowntheblacksquare(whichhadnotbeenconditionedtoanything).Presumably,ratherthanperceivethegrayasanabsolutestimulus,thedogswererespondingtothedeeperessenceof“lighterversusdarker”asopposedtogray,white,orblackasbeingthings.Ashumans,manyofushavelostthesensitivitytodeeperrelationshipsandessencesbecausewe’vebecomeeducatedtofocusontheparticularsof experience as opposed to the universals. For example, suppose wewere asked to design a new can opener. Most of our ideas would bedrivenbyourexperienceandassociationwiththeparticularsofexistingcan openers, and we would likely design something that is onlymarginally different from existing can openers. If, however, wedetermined the essence of a can opener to be “opening things” andlookedforanalogiesandcuesinotherworlds,weincreaseourchancesof discovering a novel idea.One example of “opening things” are peapods. Ripening weakens the seams on a pea pod and it opens. This

inspires the ideaof openinga canbypulling aweak seam (like apeapod).Insteadofanideatoimprovethecanopener,weproducedanideaforanewcandesign.One of the early design problems in the space program was theproblem of reentering the earth’s atmosphere without burning up.Scientistswerebaffleduntiltheydeterminedtheessenceoftheproblem.The essence of the problem was to survive frictional heating. Theybrainstormedandlistedeveryconceivablepossibilitytheycouldimaginethatcontainedthatessenceandsettledonameteor.Theystudiedhowmeteors survived frictionalheating.Theydiscovered that the frictionalheatgeneratedduringentry intotheearth’satmospherewasdissipatedinto the heat of vaporization of the meteor surface. Consequently, ananalogy between the space capsule and a meteor led to the use of asacrificial material on the capsule surface that vaporized and thusdissipatedthefrictionalheating.Workingwithprinciplesandessenceswillbreakyououtofthehabitof associatingqualitieswith things andwill expandyour thinking. Forexample,theprincipleof“resonance”liesattheheartofmuchofNikolaTesla’swork.Resonancedescribes theway inwhich largequantitiesofenergy can be exchanged between such systemswhen their vibrationscoincide.Anexampleof“resonance”isa littlegirlpushingherbrotherhigherandhigheronaswingbytimingherpushestocoincidewiththenatural oscillationof the swing. If thepushes are in “resonance,” theneachimpulseaddsprogressively.Teslasawthisprincipleatworkinallsystems in nature, for example, in the swing of the pendulum in agrandfather clock, the notes of a violin, oscillations of an electriccurrent,thewavesofalake,etc.,andusedthisprincipleasthebasisofmany of his inventions, including the Tesla coil, a device that turnsordinaryhouseholdelectriccurrentintocurrentataveryhighvoltage.Toworkwiththe“WorldofEssences,”firstdecidethemajorprinciplerepresentedbyyourproblem.Whatistheessenceofit?Forexample,theessenceofanewmarketingstrategymightbe“attraction,”namely,howare things and people attracted. Once you determine its essence, thengenerate a list of things from other worlds that represent the majorprinciple.Examplesof“attracting”are

•Beesattractedtohoney

•Magnetsattractingmetal•Politiciansattractingvoters•PeopleattractedtoaWebsiteontheInternet•Collegesattractingpremierathletes

Selectoneexampleanddescribeit inasmuchdetailaspossible.Forexample,“politiciansattractingvoters”suggestsmanythings, includingthethemeof“values,”“canvassingvotersdoortodoor,”and“debates.”Usethedescriptionstosuggestanalogiesandlookforcuestostimulateideas. For example, both major political parties campaigned on the“values” theme differently in the last presidential election. TheRepublicans used adjectives—“honesty,” “honor,” and “reliability”—whereas the Democrats used verbs and specific accomplishments. Thecampaign using verbs was the more successful with voters whoidentifieditasproactiveandaction-oriented.Thistriggersthethoughtofan action-oriented marketing strategy using action verbs and specificcustomerbenefits.Sometimes thedescriptor itselfwillprovide thecue foran ideaas it

didforagroupofengineerswhowantedtoimprovethetelephone.Theydetermined that the essence of a telephone was “a way ofcommunicating.”Theylistedseveral“differentwaysofcommunicating,”including

•Withsignlanguage•Withnonverballanguage•Withhugsandembraces•Cats,communicationbyrubbing•Policecodesusedtocommunicatewitheachother

Thedescriptor“hugsandembraces”wasthecuethatinspiredthemtoinvent a telephone that could actually reach out and touch you. Thetelephone incorporates video, audio, and touch.Whenyoupressdownonapadofpins(forcetransducers),thepinscomeupattheotherendofthe line.Whereveryou touch,orhoweveryoumoveyour fingers, thatexactsamepressureanddesignwillbetransmittedtotheotherpad.ThomasEdisonhadaparticulartalentforidentifyingtheessenceofa

problemand then findinganappropriateanalogy.Forexample,oneofhis discoveries was how to send four simultaneous messages along a

telegraphwire,twoineachdirection.Thiswasimportantatthetime—itwouldquadruplethepowerofthetelegraphwithouttheneedofhavingtobuildfourtimesthenumberofwires.Theessenceofhisproblemwas“flow of current,” and he looked to the world of water. He built an“analog”oftheelectricwire,withpipesandvalvesandassortedgadgetsforaffectingtheflowofwaterinthepipe.Usinggadgetstoforcewaterback and forth in the pattern of wires, he tinkered and ended upseparating the separable features of the flow of current, sending onemessagecontrolledbyonewireandanothercontrolledbyanotherwire.

WorldsofSpecialInterest

Most of us possess expert knowledge in some hobby, discipline, orspecial activity.You can createnew ideasby transferring relationshipsand concepts from your area of special interest to your problem. Formanyyears,physiologistscouldnotunderstandthepurposeofthelongloops in the kidneys: It was assumed that the loops had no specialfunctionandwerearelicofthewaythekidneyhadevolved.Thenoneday,aphysiologistwitha special interest inengineering lookedat theloops and recognized that they could be part of a countercurrentmultiplier, a well-known engineering device for increasing theconcentration of solutions. His interest in engineering provided theanswer to something that had been amedical puzzle for a long time.When you identify an idea in one area, you can then generate othercomplementary ideas with similar dynamics in other areas. Theguidelinesare

1.Listseveralconceptsfromyourdisciplineorareaofspecialinterest.Forexample,ifyourinterest is football, youmight list such items as the Super Bowl, player free agency, TVcontracts,MondayNightFootballpromotions,expansionfranchises,andsoon.

2. Select one concept and describe it in as much detail as you can. List the images andthoughts that it inspires.Thenuseeachdescriptiontogenerate ideas.Lookforsimilaritiesandconnectionsbetweeneachdescriptionandyourproblemanddrawanalogies.

Groups

Whenbrainstorming in a small group, ask eachparticipant to selectonedisciplineoractivityofspecialinterest.Eachparticipantthenselectsaconceptfromhisorherselecteddisciplineandthefacilitatorlistsitona board or flip chart. After all the concepts are recorded, the groupselects one, and the person responsible for it provides a detaileddescription.Forexample,supposeapersonselectedballetasanareaofspecialinterest.Heorshewouldselectaparticulardancemovementashisorherconcept.Next,sheorhewoulddescribethedancemovementindetail,andperhaps,evendemonstratethemovement.Now,thegroupwouldlistdescriptionsanddrawanalogiesbetweenthedancemovementand their problemanduse the analogies as stimuli fornew ideas.Thegroup would continue to select additional concepts and repeat theprocessuntiltheyaresatisfiedwiththeideastheygenerated.A heart surgeon became a fan of Edward Deming, the noted

management consultant, and studied his industrial managementtechniques and attended his seminars. He convinced a group of heartsurgeons to apply Deming’s techniques to their practice. By applyingindustrialmanagementtechniquestoheartsurgery,theylearnedhowtoshareinformationabouthowtheypracticedandstoppedfunctioningasindividual craftspeople. They reduced the death rate among theirpatientsbyone-fourth.

TheWorldofNature

Lookattheworldofnatureforanalogieswithyourproblem.Artificialintelligenceresearcherswentoffonadead-endtrackforyearsbytryingtodesignaroundasingleprocessinglevelinneuralnetworks.Eventuallyit was found that multilayer processing eliminated this fundamentalbarrier. The AI researchers might have avoided this wasted time andeffortbycheckingfirstwithnature.Byaskinganybiologist,theywouldhave quickly and easily learned that the image-processing cells in theeyeexistinthreedistinctlayers.Consider the story ofGeorge deMestral, a Swiss inventor,whowas

hunting one day in the late 1940s when he and his dog accidentally

brushedupagainstabushthatleftthembothcoveredwithburrs.Whende Mestral tried to remove the burrs, they clung stubbornly to hisclothes.Thiswouldbeaminorannoyancetomostofus,butdeMestralwascuriousaboutwhytheburrsweresohardtoremove.Afterhegothome, he studied them under a microscope and discovered thathundredsoftinyhooksoneachburrhadsnaggedonthethreadsofhispants. Thinking analogically, de Mestral imagined comparisons andsimilarities between the world of “wild burrs” and the world of“fasteners.”Therefollowedseveralyearsofwork,asdeMestraltriedtofigureout

how to attach tiny hooks to a piece of tape in such a way that theywouldstay linedup.Healsostruggledtofindawayofproducingtinyloopsforthehookstoattachto.Aftertestingmanymethods,hefinallysucceeded.The result:Velcro fasteners,nowusedonmillionsof items,frombloodpressurecuffstotennisshoes.In the illustrationbelow, thehexagonon the left is contained in the

figureon the right,yet it isnotperceivedas such. Itspresencecanbeverifiedbytracingitsoutlinewithapencil.Nopartofitsperimeterhasbeenremovedoraltered.

Thepatternontherightismadeupoflinesthat,takentogether,makethe hexagon invisible, unless you deliberately search for it. Similarly,many of the similarities and similar differences between your subjectandobjectsoreventsinnaturethatcanhelpyoudiscoverananalogicalconnection with your subject are well disguised. You have todeliberatelysearchfortheappropriatesubjectsandeventsinnature.Takeanaturewalk (realor imagined)and lookaround.Underwater

constructionwasmadepossiblebyobservinghowshipwormstunnelintotimberbyfirstconstructingtubes.Thequestiontoaskis“Whatobjects,events,orpatternsinnaturecanIusetodevelopmyidea?”Supposeyouwantedtofindanewwaytohandlehometrash.Examples:

•Whathappenstoleavesinthewoods?•Howdoanimalshandletheirwaste?•Howdoinsectshandlewaste?Birds?Reptiles?•Howdoesnaturehandlevolcanicash?

Then,:

1. Select one example and make an analogy between it and your problem. Describe theanalogyinasmuchdetailaspossible.Listallthesimilaritiesandconnectionsthatyoucan.Listsimilardifferences.Example:RCA/Whirlpoolengineerswantedtofindanewwaytohandlehometrash.Theyaskedwhatanimalhandlesitsownwastemostefficiently?Cowswereinefficient,butgoatswereveryefficient.Theirwastecomesoutinadry,well-containedsolidform,muchlikeanencapsulatedpellet.

2. Try to force a connection between all the items on your list and the problem. Allowyourselftofreeassociatefromtheitemstootherideasaswell.Example:Theideaof“encapsulatingwaste”ledtothedevelopmentoftheTrashMasher,thefirstofalineoftrashcompactors.

TheWorldofImagination

Ourusual thinking is logicalandgoal-oriented.Creativity isdifficultwith this kind of thinking because the conclusion is implicit in thepremises. We could think of this kind of thinking as crystalline. It isnicely structured, but the probability of two remotely associatedthoughtsorconceptsbumpingintoeachotheriszero.Creativethinkingisanalogical,fantastical,andassociative.Wecouldcomparemovementtoward creative thinking as analogous to heating the crystal. Whenheatedthrough,itturnsintoafluid.Inthefluidstate,theprobabilityoftworemotelyassociatedthoughtsorconceptscollidingandcombiningistremendously increased. If we had a flawed or imperfect crystal(imperfectideaorsolution),thisis,infact,justwhatwewoulddo:heatitsothatitturnedintoafluid(movetowardcreativethinking)andthengradually lower the temperature (move back toward logical thinking).Theresultwouldbeaflawlesscrystal.Onewaytomovetowardcreativethinking(heatingthecrystal)when

your thinking has crystallized is to forget your problem and take animaginary excursion. You visualize an imaginary excursion into orthroughsomelocationortimeinhistorythathasnothingtodowiththeproblemandlookforwaystomakeanalogiesbetweenwhatyouimagineandyourproblem.For example, a group of Department of Defenseweapons specialistswere faced with the challenge of modifying missiles. They werestonewalled. Finally, one of the participants suggested that the grouptake an imaginary excursion into the desert. For ten minutes, theyimaginedwalking throughadesertand listedeverything they sawandexperienced.Oneof theparticipants imaginedseeinga“sidewinder,”apoisonous snake. Someone else remarked that a sidewinder locates itspreybysensingbodyheat.Thisinspiredtheideaofanair-to-airmissilethat homes in on enemy jets by detecting the planes’ heat emissions.Naturally,itwasnamedtheSidewindermissile.There are three major steps in the excursion process: the excursionitself, thedrawingofanalogiesbetweentheproblemand theevents intheexcursion,andtheanalysisoftheseanalogiestoseewhatnewideasorsolutionscanbecreated.Theguidelinesare

1. Excursion. Visualize an imaginary excursion into or through some location that hasnothing to dowith the problemat hand.Close your eyes and imagine a journey throughsomeexotic location, for example, a journey ina submarine to thebottomof thedeepestpartoftheocean,avisittoagoldminer’scampin1850,orasafariinAfrica.Letgoandletyourimaginationroam.Writedowndetaileddescriptionsofeverythingyouseeandfeelonyourimaginaryjourney.It’s interesting to note that the major nineteenth-century English poet Samuel TaylorColeridgeusedimaginaryexcursionstoinspiretheexoticimageryinhispoeticmasterpieces—“TheRimeoftheAncientMariner”and“KublaKhan.”Bylettinghimselfgoandimagininghimself insomeremote locationorperiodof time,hewasable tosee images thathewasabletoincorporatedintohispoetry.

2.Analogies. Draw analogies between what you saw and the problem. Coleridge oncereported that thoughmostpeopleperceive thedifferences in things, thekey tohisgeniuswashiseternalpursuitofwhatiscommonbetweenthings.Inadditiontoanalogies,expressthe connections and relationships between your images and the problem in anyway thatcaptureswhatyou see.Try to forceaconnectionbetweeneverydescriptionof thingsyousaworexperiencedonyourimaginaryjourneyandthesubject.

3.Analysis.Lookforwaystousetheanalogiesandrelationshipstosolvetheproblem.Trytofigureoutwhattherelationshipsmeanintermsofthesubject,thatis,howunderstandingtheserelationshipscanbeusedtosolvetheproblem.This is thereallychallengingpartoftheprocess.It’simportanttounderstandthatthemoreyouworkatfiguringoutwhattheseconnectionsandrelationshipsare,thegreateryourchancesforacreativebreakthrough.

When you relate and make connections between your subject andeventsorobjectsfromyourimaginaryexcursion,youactivatemoreanddifferent thought patterns. Let us say you make a weak connectionbetweentwothoughts.You’reunclearastowhytheyarerelatedorwhatthesignificanceis.Youthinkaboutsomethingelseandactivateathirdthought, which is weakly associated to the first two. Since they arealreadypartiallyactivated,alltheconnectionsarestrengthened.Iftheyarestrengthenedsufficiently,insightforanewideaorthoughtoccurs.Suppose you were asked to develop a satisfactory fastener for afirefighter’s protective suit. You need something that’s protective andsomething that the firefighter can get in and out of fast. You take animaginaryexcursion toanotherplanet in thesolar systemand imaginefindingyourselfinathickjungle.Thefirstthoughtis“fastener”andthesecondthoughtis“thickjungle.”Younextimaginetheplanetlifetobeoverlapping and interlaced like a giant, thick, interlaced wall. It’sliterally impossible to get through. In this example, the connectionsbetween the three thoughts might suggest the overlapping andinterlacingclutchingofaVelcro-likefastenerforfirefighter’sprotectivesuits.

Groups

Whenusingtheexcursiontechniqueinagroup,thefacilitatorcreatesthe imaginary excursion (we’re at the North Pole and trapped in ablizzard, we are scuba diving in the Florida Keys, or we are at theSmithsonian Institute, and so on) and directs the group members tovisualizeandwritedowneverythingtheyseefortenminutes.Encouragetheparticipantstoletgoandlettheirimaginationsroam.Then,taketenor fifteenminutes tohave theparticipantsdrawanalogies andexpressrelationships between their visual images and the problem. Eachparticipantshoulddothissilently.Allowthemtoexpressrelationshipsinany way they wish. Lastly, the participants share their analogies andotherthoughtsanddeterminehowtheanalogiesandthoughtscanhelpsolvetheproblem.Onegroupofinteriordesignerswantedtosendvideosoftheirworktopotentialclientsbutdiscoveredthatitwastooexpensive.TheywentonaWildWest excursion and imagined awatering holewhere cowboys,frontier people, horses, cattle, and Indians all gathered to drink. Thisinspiredtheideatogetfabricmanufacturersandotherwholesalersandretailers to share the production and distribution costs by paying forminicommercials.

TheWorldofEinstein

Rather than use logic and mathematics to explore possibilities,Einsteinwould sometimes explore fundamental and abstract principlesthrough his impressions and images by constructing imaginarymetaphorical scenarios. He would interact with imaginary beings inimaginary worlds, not with disassociated numbers and facts. Forexample, hewould visualize himself walking alone down a street and“fallinginlove.”Twoweekslater,hewouldimaginemeetingthewomanhe fell in love with for the first time. He would then question andexaminethemetaphorfor ideasandconjecturesthathecouldapplytohis real-worldproblem.Howcanyou fall in lovewith someonebeforeyoumeetthem?Thisparticularimaginaryscenariohelpedhimtothinkaboutcausality.

On other occasions, Einstein imagined himself as a two-dimensionalbeing living in a two-dimensional world, with a flat measuring rodconductingexperimentsoninfinity;asamaninanelevatorbeingpulledthroughspacebysomeimaginarycreature;orasablindbeetlecirclingaperfectsphereendlessly.Oneofhisimaginarymetaphorswasridingona beam of light, holding a perfectmirror, trying to see his reflection.Accordingtoclassicalphysics,youcouldnot,becauselightleavingyourfacewouldhavetotravelfasterthanlightinordertoreachthemirror.Einsteinplayedwith thesementalpicturesandmadeupdifferentrulesfor the universe. It was this kind of thinking that led to his famoustheoryofrelativity.Following are guidelines on how to construct and use imaginarymetaphoricalscenariostogetideasandsolveproblems:

1.Closeyoureyes,relax,andpictureyoursubjectorprobleminyourmind.Example:Supposeyouareadoctorfacedwithapatientwhohasamalignanttumorinhisstomach.Itisimpossibletooperate,butunlessthetumorisdestroyed,thepatientwilldie.Thereisaraythatcanbeusedtodestroythetumor.Iftheraysreachthetumorallatonceatsufficientlyhighintensity,thetumorwillbedestroyed.Unfortunately,atthisintensitythehealthytissuethattherayspassthroughonthewaytothetumorwillalsobedestroyed.Atlowerintensities,theraysareharmlesstohealthytissue,buttheywillnotaffectthetumoreither.Whattypeofproceduremightbeusedtodestroythetumorwiththeraysandatthesametimeavoiddestroyingthehealthytissue?

2. Identify the “essence” or the principle of the problem. Think of the essence as thefundamentaldefinitionandperceptionoftheproblem.Example:Theessenceofourexampleproblemmightbe“howtoconcentrateaforceonatargetwithoutdestroyinganythingbutthetarget.”

3.Forgettheproblemandconcentrateonthe“essence”or“principle.”Createanimaginaryscenario that captures the “essence” of the problem. Use your imagination and write ametaphoricalstoryorfairytalethatpresentsasimilarprobleminasmuchdetailaspossible.Thestorymustbemetaphorical.For instance, inourexample,we take theessenceofour“medical”problemandwriteanimaginarymetaphorical“military”scenarioasfollows:Anevildictatorruledfromastrongfortress.Thefortresswassituatedinthemiddleofthecountry,surroundedbyfarmsandvillages.Manyroadsradiatedoutwardfromthefortresslikespokesonawheel.Agoodgeneralwantedtodestroythefortressandfreethecountry.The general believed that if his entire army could attack the fortress at once, it could be

destroyed.However,thegeneralhadreasontobelievethatthedictatorhadplantedminesoneachoftheroads.Theminesweresetsothatsmallbodiesofmencouldpassoverthemsafely, since the dictator needed to be able tomove troops andworkers to and from thefortress.However,anylargeforcewoulddetonatethemines.Notonlywouldthisblowuptheroadandrenderitimpassable,buttheexplosionswoulddestroyneighboringpropertyaswell.Afull-scaledirectattackonthefortress,therefore,appearedimpossible.

4.Solvetheproblemasexpressedintheimaginaryscenario.Example:One ideawouldbe todivide thearmy into smallgroups.Eachgroupchargeddownadifferentroad inasynchronizedfashion.Allof thesmallgroupswouldbeable topassovertheminesandthenmeetsimultaneouslyatthefortandattackitinfullstrength.

5.Transferthissolutiontosolveyouroriginalproblem.Example: Insteadofusingasinglehigh-intensityray(figureA), thedoctor(thegeneral)could administer several low-intensity rays at once from different directions (divide thearmyintosmallgroups).Inthatway,eachraywouldbeatalowintensityalongitspathandhenceharmlesstothehealthytissue(figureB),buttheeffectsoftherayswouldcombinetoachieve the effect of a high-intensity ray at their focal point (attacked the fortress in fullstrength),thesiteofthetumor(thefortress).

Thinkofa river thathascutdeep into the land.Wateralways flowsintothemostprobableplaces,sowhenitrains,thewaterisdrainedintothe deep-cut river. It’s drained off so fast it leaves no opportunity forotherlakesorotherriverstoform.Inthesameway,yourusualwayofthinkingaboutasubjectdeterminesyourfocusanddirectsyourthinkinginto one channel, leaving no opportunity for other approaches ordifferentwaysofthinkingtoform.Yourinitialfocuscanbeanobstacletocreativethinking.Animaginaryscenariohelpsustoachievean“out-of-focus” look at the subject or some aspect of it. This out-of-focusexperiencecantriggernewandunexpectedideasandapproaches.Supposewe are in sales andwant to convince a hostile prospect to

giveanhonestlookatourproduct.Iconstructthefollowingimaginaryscenario:AMartianspaceshipmalfunctionsandlandsnearourbuilding.TheMartians understand our language somewhat but do not trust us.They are highly suspicious because they have been tricked by thepeoples of other planets. We believe we can repair their engine byinstalling different parts. How can we convince them to let us repairtheirengine?One idea would be to introduce the Martians to aliens from other

planetsthatwehavehelpedinthepasttodemonstrateourtrustfulness.IfweweretosolveoursalesprobleminthesamewaywearesolvingtheproblemwiththeMartians,howwouldwedoit?Thistriggerstheideaofputtingourprospectintouchwithoursatisfiedcustomerswhospeaktheir language and are familiarwith their concerns. Give the satisfiedcustomersadiscountongoodsandservicesinreturnfortheirtimespenttalkingtoprospects.

SampleScenarios

Following are some sample scenarios to use for some commonbusinessproblems:

Challenge:Howcanwereorganizeourbusiness?Scenario: A comet hits the earth and permanently wipes out everyone’s long-termmemory,exceptthepeopleinthisroom.Howdowehandlethisglobalsituation?

Challenge:Howdoweimprovecorporatecommunications?Scenario:AstronautstraveltoMars.WhiletheyarevisitingMars,theperceptionofeventsbecomesdifferentforeachastronaut,dependingonhisorherpriorhistory.Theyperceiveeverything differently. A sequence of events can be anything: quick or slow, orderly orrandom,causalorwithoutcause,saltyorsweet,andsoon.Howcantheyworktogetherinordertoreturntoearth?

Challenge:Howcanwecreateanewmarketingpromotion?Scenario:Wediscoveragroupofprimitivecavedwellerswholiveinthemountainsanddonotunderstandanylanguage.Howdoweadvancetheirlives?

Challenge:Howcanwegetuppermanagementtoapproveouridea?Scenario:TheLaterfamilyisimmortal.Fromthebeginningoftime,nofamilymemberhasever died. Eachmember is alive, andmost havemarried ad infinitum. Joe, the youngestmember, desires to marry and wants confirmation of his decision. How does he get hisfamily’sapproval?

WorldofImages

Wordstendtoimposestrong,subtlepressuresonustoseetheworldasfixed,fragmented,andstatic.Yeteverythinginlifeisinastateoffluxand change. Even the paper onwhich this book is printed appears tohaveastableexistence,butweknowthatitis,atthismoment,changingandevolvingtowarddust.This isonereasonwhyEinsteinpreferredtousementalimagesandsymbols, insteadofwords,whenhethought.Infact,Einsteinrarely thought inwordsatallwhentrying toworkoutatheory.Did Thomas Jefferson have a beard? Most people have to mentally

formanimageofJeffersontoanswerthequestion.Thisiswhyimageryisusefulforrecallingdetailsthatmaynothavebeeninitiallyimportantandmay not have been encoded by our brain. Thismay explainwhycreative insights sometimes result when a person forms an image andthen notices certain features thatwere previously overlooked. Perhapsthis is why Einstein preferred to work with images instead of withmathematical calculations orwords.Hewas also able to represent theeffects,consequences,andpossibilitiesofhissubjectbyvisualizingit.Trytorepresentthekeyelementsofyourchallengeinmentalimages

that symbolically represent your subject. Disassociate yourself fromlabels andwords and justmakemental pictures of the problem.Closeyoureyesandpictureyourchallengeorprobleminyourmind.Blockoutverbalthoughts.(Thiscanbedonebyrepeatingasimplewordsuchas“aum”or“om”overandover.)Trytoimagineimagesthatsymbolicallyrepresent your subject or some aspect of it. Write down or draw theimages and associations that you conjure up. Draw analogies betweenthesethoughtsandyoursubject.Lookforrelationshipsandconnections.Inthefollowingillustration,thechallengeistorearrangethematches

tomake“nothing.”Nomatchsticksmaybebent,broken,orplacedover

eachother.First,trytosolveitusingyourusualwayofthinking.Mostpeoplecannotsolvethisproblem.Next,closeyoureyesandimaginetheconceptof“nothing.”What symbolically represents it?Writedowntheimages and associations that you conjure up. See if you canmake theconnectionbetweenyourimagesandthechallengetosolveit.

Some60percentofpeoplewhousethistechniquesolvetheproblem.Somesymbolicallyrepresent“nothing”asazero,andothersrepresentitas “nil” (see following page).Once theymake amental picture of theconcept, theyworkback to theproblemand rearrange thematches tocorrespondtotheirmentalpicture.If you are adept at visualizing, the ideaswill emerge spontaneously

andeffortlessly.Ifachainofimagesemerges,oftenthefirstonesarethemost significant. If you have trouble conjuring up symbolic images,imagine you meet a Martian who does not understand any earthlylanguage and who communicates with abstract symbols. You want tocommunicateyourproblem to theMartian,becauseyou feel itwill beable to help you. Write out your problem and then translate it intoabstractsymbols.Achemist,whohadthetaskofimprovingseedcorn,imaginedimages

ofseedswearingheavyclothinginthewinterandshortsinthesummer.Theimagessymbolicallyrepresentedhisproblem—howtoprotectseedsfrom the elements. The image of clothing inspired him to think ofsynthetics,includingpolymers.Thisledtohisideaofintelligentpolymerseedcoatings,whichshiftpropertiesasconditionschange.Theseedscanbe planted in anyweather or season. They lie protected and dormantwhen it’s coldoutside and sprout as soonas the soil reaches the rightgrowingtemperature.A group of engineers used imagery to invent a compact, flexible

jackingmechanismthatextendssomethreefeetandsupportsuptofivetons.Amongthesymbolicmentalimagesthegroupproducedwere

•Amagicianwhohadtocreateanillusioninwhichtherope,atfirst,iscoiledandsoft,then

becomeshardasitextendsoutintotheaudience•Thehydraulicprincipleoftheerectionofthepenis•Asteeltapemeasure• A bicycle chain with flexible links that stiffen as they are driven out of the jackingmechanism

These images combined to provide a concept onwhich the compactjackwasultimatelybased.One of the most famous examples of this technique was Friedrich

Kekule’sdiscoverythatbenzeneandotherorganicmoleculesareclosedchains or rings—a result of an image in which he visualized a snakebiting its own tail. Thinking analogically, he hypothesized that thecarbonatomsinbenzenearearrangedinaring.

The image of the snake inspired Kekule’s analogy that led to hisbreakthrough discovery. Similarly, Picassowas so intent on seeing theworld as pure image that, as a boy, he saw numbers as patterns, notsymbolsofquantities:2becamea foldedpigeonwingand0aneye. Itwasthisinterestinseeingtheworldaspureimageandpatternsthatwasakeytothewayhesawtheworld.

PatternLanguage

ThenotedphysicistNielsBohr found language simply inadequate todescribe what goes on inside the atom. He worked out his complexatomicmodels,notwithclassicalmechanicalnotation,butbyvisualizingabstractsymbolsandputtingthemintodifferentrelationships.Later,hetranslated the visual to the verbal. Even when working with verycomplexprocesses,geniusestendtousegraphic,abstractmodelsasthebasisfortheirthinking.Thesemodelsareoftensimplificationsofreality,focusing only on certain essential elements. Instead of mathematicalequations, Einstein often thought in terms of simple pictures of basicshapes(spheres,disks,triangles)andtheirrelationshipstoeachother.Patternlanguageisalanguageofabstractsymbolsthatyoucreateto

substituteforwords.It’sastructuredwaytotranslateyourproblemintosymbolsandthenarrangethesymbolsintopatterns.Itwasfirstinventedby architects Alexander, Ishikawa, and Silverstein to help create newbuildingdesigns.Theguidelinesare

1.Determineandlistthemajorcomponentsofyourproblem.Forinstance,inmarketingaproductyoumighthave four components:packaging,distribution,promotion,and selling.Undereachcomponent,listasmanyvariationsandpossibilitiesasyoucan(differentwaystopackage,distribute,promote,andsell).

2.Describeeachvariationbydrawinganabstractgraphicsymbol.Eachdrawingshouldbeonaseparateindexcardandrepresentaspecificvariation.Onthebackofthecard,writethe variation. Draw the graphics on different-colored cards or use colored pencils todifferentiatethevariouscomponents.Youcoulddrawtheappropriategraphicsonredcardsforpackaging,yellowfordistribution,blueformarketing,andwhiteforselling.

3.Placeallthecardsonatablewiththegraphicsymbolsfacingup.Groupandregroupthesymbols randomly into various relationships. Try letting the cards arrange themselveswithoutconsciousdirection,asif theyweretellingyouwheretheywantedtobe.Mixand

match the symbols to provoke different sets of interesting relationships,without thinkingaboutwhatthesymbolsmean.

4.Whenyoucreateaninterestingarrangement,turnthecardsovertoseewhatthewrittenelementsare,andthen,trytobuildanewideafromtheseelements.

5.Whenstumped,addothercomponentsandpossibilitiesorevenstartanentirelynewset.

SandTray

RonaldHoffmannofCornellUniversitysharedthe1981NobelPrizeinchemistry for a significant breakthrough in theoretical organicchemistry:awaytopredictfromfirstprincipleswhetherareactionwilloccur.Heisalsoapoet.Hispoetryhelpedsethisimaginationinmotionusing metaphors between chemistry and his poems. Metaphoricalthinkingshiftsyourperspective,notgradually,butwithavengeance.Thesandtraytechniqueisaninterestingwaytothinkmetaphorically

bysubstitutingphysicalobjectsformentalimages.Youneedalargesandtray.Atthestartofanencounterwiththesandtray,thesurfaceisrakedsmoothandclean.Surroundingitareliterallyhundredsofbrightobjects:tiny dolls, colored marbles, shells, feathers, bits of wood, plastic toysoldiers, a miniature bride and groom, fake dinosaurs, rubber snakes,meansharks,toypistols,andsoon.Then,

1.Emptyyourmindofalldistractionsandconcentrateonyoursubject.2. Choosing whatever objects you fancy, build a scene in the sand that metaphoricallyrepresentsyoursubjectorsomeaspectofyoursubject.3.Arrange theobjects inanyway thatyou feel is interesting.Keepaddingandarranginguntilthescene“feelsright”symbolically.4. Interpret the scene.Thepatternsof the sceneandeachobject conveymeaning.Asyouinterpreteachobject,freeassociatefromit.Wheninterpretingthescene,beonthelookoutforpartsthatpuzzleyou,seemtobemissing,orthatshowupwhenyouchangeyourfocus.Askquestionssuchas“Whatisthis?”“Whatcouldthismean?”“Whatdoesthefrequencyofthisobjectmean?”

“Whodoesthisrepresent?”“Whatobjectcomesclosesttotheessenceofmysubject?”“Whatdoesthisremindmeof?”

Amongthesequestions,onemaystandoutasthekeytoresolvingtheproblem.

5.Write out your interpretations. Search for clues, new ideas, insights, and new lines ofspeculation.Combinetheinterpretationsintooneall-inclusivenarrative.Trywritingastoryexplaininghowyoursand-trayscenerelatestoyoursubject.

The gift of the imagination is more important than a talent forabsorbing knowledge. Consider Benoit Mandelbrot, the Euclid of thetwentiethcentury,whoinventedfractalgeometry,whichappliestosuchcomplicatedobjectsastrees,seacoasts,snowflakes,andcrashingwaves.Mandelbrot revealed that these objects in nature possess “self-similarity”: a twig has the shape of the branch it sprouts from, thebranchtheshapeofthetree.Incredibly,Mandlebrotclaimsnottoknowthealphabetorhow tousea telephonebook.He isuntrained inbasicmathematicsandisunabletodosolutionsthe“straight”way.When Mandelbrot took the entrance exams at France’s prestigious

Ecole Polytechnique, he was unable to do algebra but succeeded ingettingthetopgradebytranslatingthequestionsmentallyintopictures.Bythinkingvisually,hecouldseethingsotherscouldnot.Forexample,he couldn’t program a computer but developed the skill to debugprograms that he could not read, by analyzing the wrong “pictures”these programs produce. He imagined a different way of looking atthingsandinventedanewformofmathematics.Thesand-traytechniqueactivatesyourimaginationandallowsittofloatfreely,unrestrainedbystraightthinkinginhibitions.

Groups

Inagroup,discussthesubjectandthenaskoneparticipanttobuildascenethatrepresentsthesubjectinthesandtray.Thegroupstudiesthesceneandgeneratesasmanyinterpretationsaspossible.Thesearelistedonachalkboardandrelatedtothesubjectoneatatime.Inthisformof

expression, undertaken in a protected environment, the answers thatemerge often surprise the maker and may reflect everything from aninsightaboutanunarticulatedexperiencetoaprofoundstatementaboutthesubject.

CreativeCollages

A technique similar in nature to the sand-tray technique is themetaphoricalcollage.Acollageisanassemblyofvariouspictures,eitheraswholes or fragmentsput together, in such away that each elementlosesitsseparateidentityasitbecomespartofthewhole.Thecollageisgreaterthan,andoftendifferentfrom,thesumofitparts.Max Ernst, one of the leading surrealist artists in the twentieth

century,discoveredthatthechanceencountersoftwoormoredissimilarsubjectsinacollagestimulatedhisimaginationandencouragedhimtothinkmetaphorically.Whentwoormoredissimilarsubjectscollideinacollage,theimaginationtransformsthemintoanaltogethernewrealitytranscendentovertheseparateelements.Forexample,apictureofsealsperforminginamarineshownexttoapictureofabuildingmaybecomea metaphor for salespeople performing for customers, a user-friendlycomputer program, a job interview, and so on. The imaginationtransformsthepictureintoasymbolformanydifferentthings.Often,theuseofmetaphorsallowsonetofocusonthemoreimportant

deeper structures of the subject. Leonardo daVinci, for instance, usedtheanalogybetweentheearthandthehumanbodyasawaytoorganizehisanatomy;Mozartcomparedhismusic tocreatingameal toexplainhis process of composing. Disney’s business was that of creatingmetaphors, and Freud, of course, concentrated heavily on themetaphoricalsignificanceofsymbolsanddreamsasawaytounderstandpsychology.Ametaphoricpictureallowsyoutoactivateyourrightbrainandgives

youaviewoftheproblemthatmightotherwiseremaininvisible.Yearsback,ateamofIsraeliAirForcedoctorsbelievedtheycouldimprovethebandage.Whentheyprotectedwoundsfromgermswithbandages,they

discovered that thebandagesalsocutoff thebody’s circulation,whichsloweddownthehealingprocess.Apictureofanelectriclampwithcordandapictureofmenrepairingabridgewerethestimuliforanewidea.Theywereinspiredtothinkaboutrepairingabrokencordbysplicingit.Youhave to be careful to splice in such away that the current is notinterrupted.Oneoftheelementsthatconductselectricityismagnesium.This led to the idea of a magnesium-coated bandage that does notinterruptthebody’scirculation.Metaphoric imageshelp stimulateyour thinking.Whenyoucompareyoursubjectwithsomethingelseanddiscover the relatednessbetweenthem, then yourmind can generate other ideaswith similar relations.Themetaphorsyoucreatemayprovidethecluetosomeaspectofyoursubject that otherwise might remain invisible. The guidelines forconstructingacreativecollageare

1.Cutoutseveralpicturesorpartsofpicturesfrommagazines,newspapers,catalogs,flyers,andsoon.2. Mix and match the pictures by moving them around into different patterns andassociations. Playwith the pictures until you get a feeling for possibleways to use thesepatterns.Formpatternsandassociationswithoutforcingthem.Continueuntilyourcollagefeelscomplete.Makeonelargemetaphoricalpicturebyassigningawordorphrasetoeachpictureandthencompletingthesentence“Mysubjectisalotlike(insertawordorphrasefromthemontage)becauseit…”

Think metaphorically and analogically. The R and D staff for afurniturecompanylookedforwaystodevelopapaintthatdoesnotfade,chip,or scratch.Theymadeacollage that includedpicturesofvarioustrees and plants. The collage triggered a discussion of how trees andplants get their color. Their subsequent research inspired the idea of“everlasting” color. They created the idea of injecting trees with dyeadditivesthatwouldimpregnatetheplantcellswithcolor,spreadingitthroughoutthetree.Thetreeispaintedbeforeitiscutdown.Another interesting way to collage your subject is to create twoseparate colllages to represent two separate aspects of your subject.Suppose you want to improve corporate communications. You couldcreateone collage to representuppermanagement andanotherone torepresentemployees.Withthetwosetsofvisuals,comparethecommon

points and identify the gaps between upper management and theemployees.

Groups

This is a fun exercise to do with a small group. Participants enjoycreating collagesbecause they canuse themorevisual, feelingpart oftheirbrainsandfindanentirelydifferentwayoflookingattheproblem.Theguidelinesforasmallgroupare

1.Passoutoldmagazinesandscissors.2. Ask each participant to cut out images and pictures from various magazines thatmetaphoricallyrepresentyoursubjectorsomeaspectofit.3.Haveeachpersonmakeacollage.Pastetheimagesandpicturesinanarrangementthat’saestheticallypleasing.4.Assignawordorphrasetoeachpictureonthemontage.5. Each person then transforms the subject into one large metaphorical word picture bycompletingthesentence“Oursubjectisalotlike(insertawordfromthemontage)becauseit…”6.Hangthecollagesonawallanddirectthegrouptocomparethem,lookingforcommonpoints,andtrytoidentifyanygaps.

Metaphoric images are often the key to genius. Aristotlewrote thatwhoeveristhemasterofmetaphoristhemasterofthought.InDarwin’scase,hismostfecundmetaphorwasthebranchingtreeofevolution,onwhichhecouldtracetheriseandfallofvariousspecies.WilliamJames,the American philosopher and psychologist, had a penchant formetaphorically comparing thinking processes to creeks, streams, andrivers; whereas, John Locke, one of the pioneers in modern thinking,would focus on his falconer, whose release of a bird symbolized thequestforhumanknowledge.

MetaphorWalk

Take a walk around your home or workplace and the surroundinggrounds. Look for objects, situations, or events that you can comparewithyoursubject.Forexample,supposeyourproblemishowtoimprovecommunicationsinyourcompany.Youtakeawalkandnoticepotholesin the road. How are “potholes” like your corporate communicationproblem?Foronething,ifpotholesarenotrepaired,theygetbiggerandmoredangerous.Usuallyroadcrewsareassignedtorepairthepotholes.Similarly, unless something is done to improve corporatecommunication, it’s likely to deteriorate even further. An idea with asimilarrelationto“roadcrews”istoassignsomeoneintheorganizationto fill the role of “communications coach.” The role would entaileducating, encouraging, and supporting communication skills in allemployees. And just as road crews are rotated, you can rotate theassignmenteverysixmonths.

Theguidelinesfortakingametaphorwalkare

1.Take a ten-to fifteen-minutewalk and look for objects, events, or situations thatmightmakeinterestingmetaphorswithyoursubject.Makealist.2. When you return, make as many metaphors as you can between your list and yoursubject.Lookforsimilaritiesandsimilarcircumstances.3.Look forways to transferprinciplesand similarcircumstances fromwhatyouobservedandyoursubject.Trytobuildatleastoneideaorsolutionfromeachmetaphor.Askyourselfwhatnewinsightsthemetaphorsprovideastohowtosolvetheproblem.

Metaphoric thinkinghelpsyou lookataproblem inadifferentway.Youmaybeabletosolveitorgetadifferentinsightbycomparingittosomethingelseandlookingforsimilaritiesorsimilarcircumstancesthatyou can transfer from one subject to the other. For example, if youwanted new ideas or insights for a new product campaign, youmightcomparetheevolutionofanewproductcampaignwiththeevolutionatree.

PhotoWalk

AnotherwaytotakeametaphoricwalkistakeaPolaroidcameraand

takeatleastfivepicturesofvisualmetaphorsofthesubjectorproblem.Thenwritedescriptionsofthemetaphors.Then,foreachmetaphor,lookfornewinsightsorsolutions.Forexample,supposeyouareinchargeofimprovingthenewemployeetrainingprogram,andyoutakeaphotoofabuildingunderconstruction.Youwouldfirstdescribewhatisinvolvedin constructing a building and then transfer similarities or similarcircumstancestoyourtrainingprogram.If you’reworkingwitha small group, ask eachparticipant to takeawalkandcomebackwithatleastfivephotographsofvisualmetaphors.Thenaskeachparticipanttowriteadescriptionofeachmetaphor.Postthe pictures with the written description of their metaphor postedbeneathonacard.Askthegrouptotourthephotogalleryandthentobuildideasorsolutionsfromthevisualmetaphors.

STRATEGYEIGHT:FINDINGWHATYOU’RENOTLOOKINGFOR

Whenever we attempt to do something and fail, we end up doingsomethingelse.As simplisticas this statementmayseem, it is the firstprincipleofthecreativeaccidentor“serendipity.”Wemayaskourselveswhywehavefailedtodowhatweintended,andthisisthereasonable,expected thing to do. But the creative accident provokes a differentquestion: What have we done? Answering that question in a novel,unexpectedway is theessential creativeact. It isnot luckbutcreativeinsightofthehighestorder.Thediscoveryoftheelectromagneticlawswasacreativeaccident.The

relationship between electricity and magnetism was first observed in1820byHansØerstedinapubliclectureatwhichhewasdemonstratingthe “well-known fact” that electricity andmagnetismwere completelyindependent phenomena. This time the experiment failed—an electriccurrent produced amagnetic effect. Øersted was observant enough tonotice this effect, honest enough to admit it, and diligent enough tofollow up and publish. Maxwell used these experiments to extendNewton’s methods of modeling and mathematical analysis in themechanical and visible world to the invisible world of electricity andmagnetismandderivedMaxwell’sLaws,whichopenedthedoorstoourmodernageofelectricityandelectronics.Evenwhenpeoplesetouttodosomethingpurposefullyandrationally,

theywindupdoing things theydidnot intend.JohnWesleyHyatt,anAlbany printer and mechanic, worked long and hard trying to find asubstitute for billiard-ball ivory, then coming into short supply. Heinvented,instead,celluloid—thefirstcommerciallysuccessfulplastic.B. F. Skinner advised people that when they were working on

somethingandfoundsomethinginteresting,theyshoulddropeverythingelse and study it. In fact, he emphasized this as a first principle of

scientific methodology. This is what William Shockley and amultidisciplineBelllabsteamdid.TheywereformedtoinventtheMOStransistorandendedupinsteadwiththejunctiontransistorandthenewscienceofsemiconductorphysics.Thesedevelopmentseventuallyledtothe MOS transistor and then to the integrated circuit and to newbreakthroughsinelectronicsandcomputers.WilliamShockleydescribeditasaprocessof“creativefailuremethodology.”Richard Feynman had an interesting practical test that he appliedwhenreachinga judgmentaboutanew idea:Did itexplain somethingunrelatedtotheoriginalproblem?That is,“Whatcanyouexplainthatyou didn’t set out to explain?” and “What did you discover that youdidn’tsetouttodiscover?”In1938,twenty-seven-year-oldRoyPlunkettsetout to inventanewrefrigerant. Instead,hecreatedaglobofwhitewaxy material that conducted heat and did not stick to surfaces.Fascinatedbythisunexpectedmaterial,heabandonedhisoriginallineofresearch and experimented with this interesting material, whicheventuallybecameknownbyitstradename,“Teflon.”In principle, the unexpected event that gives rise to a creativeinvention is not all that different from the unexpected automobilebreakdownthatforcesustospendanightinanewandinterestingtown,thebooksent tous inerror thatexcitesour imagination,or theclosedrestaurantthatforcesustoexploreadifferentcuisine.Butwhenlookingfor ideas or creative solutions,manyof us ignore theunexpected, andconsequently, lose the opportunity to turn chance into a creativeopportunity.Youhavetogiveyourselfthefreedomtoseewhatyouarenot looking for. In 1839 Charles Goodyear was looking for a way tomake rubber easier to work and accidentally spilled a mixture thathardened but was still usable. By allowing himself to go in anunanticipated direction, he invented a practical vulcanization process.By focusing on the “interesting” aspects of the idea, he discovered itspotential. Alexander Flemingwas not the first physician to notice themoldformedonanexposedculturewhilestudyingdeadlybacteria.Lessgifted physicianswould routinely trash this seemingly irrelevant eventbutFlemingnoted it as “interesting”andwondered if ithadpotential.Thisinterestingobservationledtopenicillin,whichhassavedmillionsoflives.ThomasEdison,whileponderinghowtomakeacarbonfilament,wasmindlesslytoyingwithapieceofputty,turningandtwistinginhis

fingers, when he looked down at his hands and the answer hit himbetweentheeyes:twistthecarbonlikearope.What makes it possible to turn the unlooked-for event into novelfortune?Wehavetoprepareourmindsforchance.Thisisdifficulttodowhenwearelookingatasubject,becauseofourexistingemotionsandprejudices.Considerthefollowingsituation:Susanistwenty-eightyearsold, single, outspoken and very bright. She majored in sociology andminored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned withissuesofracialdiscriminationandsocialjusticeandalsoparticipatedinantinucleardemonstrations.Whichstatementisthemostprobable?

A.Susanisanofficemanager.B.Susanisanofficemanagerandisactiveinthefeministmovement.

On any rational account, it ismore probable that Susan is an officemanagerthanSusanisbothaofficemanagerandactiveinthefeministmovement. The probability of x, after all, is always greater than theprobabilityof independenteventx and independenteventy. Yetmorethan 80 percent of subjects, including those who are sophisticated instatistics, assentmore readily to the statement that Susan is an officemanagerand isactive in the feministmovement than to the statementthatSusanisanofficemanager.Askedtheabstractquestion“Whichismoreprobable,xaloneorxandy?” subjects readily consent that x alone is more probable.Moreover,whenconfrontedwiththeapparentcontradictionbetweenthisabstractresponseandtheSusanquestion,theyreadilyadmitthattheyhavemadean error. This seems to reflect a deep-seated bias in human judgment.GiveninformationthatSusanisacertainkindofperson,subjectsreadilyfit in other events that have, in the past, been representative of suchpersons, and in the process, intellectually ignore what they otherwiseknow about probability. People are emotionally prejudiced to thelikelihood that someone with certain characteristics will also exhibitotherones(totheextentthatsomeoneisasocialactivist,sheislikelytobeafeminist).Generally, we use our intelligence to support and rationalize ouremotionsandprejudicesaboutaparticularsubjectoridea.Suppose,forexample, that you are about to buy a sweater for $125 and a desk

organizer for $15. The desk organizer salesman tells you that theorganizer youwant to buy is on sale at theother branchof the store,twentyminutesaway, for$10.Wouldyoumake the trip?Mostpeoplesay theywill.Anothergroup isaskeda similarquestion.This time thecostofthesweaterischangedto$15,andthecostofthedeskorganizerisdiscountedfrom$125to$120atthebranch.Ofrespondentspresentedwiththisversion,themajoritysaidthattheywouldnotmaketheextratrip.Notethatinbothcasesthetotalpurchasesarethesame:thechoiceis alwayswhether to drive twentyminutes to save $5. But apparentlyrespondentsevaluatethesavingof$5inrelationtothepriceofthedeskorganizers.Inrelativeterms,areductionfrom$15to$10(33percent)isemotionallylessresistiblethanareductionfrom$125to$120(lessthan5percent).Instead of using our intelligence to support our emotions and

prejudices,weneedtouseourintellecttoexploreoursubjectbeforeweapplyourexistingemotionsandprejudices.Iftheaboverespondentshaddonethat,theywouldhaveinstantlyrealizedthatthechoiceisthesame—whethertodrivetwentyminutestosave$5.Toexploreasubjectwithourintellect,weneedtowillourselvestodoso.

Exploring

Mostpeopledescribetheunusualillustrationbelowasagroupoftencircles forminga triangle,andthethreestarsasaseparategroup.Fewpeople spontaneously would describe the illustration as a six-pointedStarofDavid,whichitrepresentsaswell.ToseetheStarofDavid,youneedtoconsciouslyfocusonitinadifferentway.

Similarly, to explore a subject with our intellect, we need to “will”ourselves todirectourattention inadifferentway.A tool tohelpyouachieve this is the PMI (Plus, Minus, Interesting). The PMI is anattention-directingtoolthatwasfirstintroducedbyEdwarddeBono,aninternationalauthorityonthinking. It isdesignedtodeliberatelydirectyourattentiontoallthepositive,negative,andinterestingaspectsaboutyour subject. Carrying out a PMI is simple. What is not simple is todeliberately concentrate your attention in one direction after anotherwhen your emotions and prejudices have already decided how youshould feel aboutyour subject. In thediagrambelow,whenan idea isemotionallyrejected,allcreativeexplorationstops.

You need to will yourself to look in different directions. Once youhavethewilltodoaPMI,thenthenaturalchallengetoyourintelligenceistofindasmanypositive,negative,andinterestingpointsasyoucan.Instead of using intelligence to support your emotions and prejudices,youarenowusingittoexplorethesubjectmatter.

TheguidelinesfordoingaPMIare

1. Make three columns on a sheet of paper. Title the columns “Plus,” “Minus,” and“Interesting.”2.Underthe“Plus”column,listallthepositiveaspectsaboutthesubjectthatyoucan.3.Underthe“Minus”column,listallthenegativeaspectsthatyoucan.4.Underthe“Interesting”column,listallthosethingsthatareworthnotingbutdonotfitundereither“Plus”or“Minus.”The“Interesting”itemshelpsustoreacttotheinterestinanideaandnotjusttojudgmentfeelingsandemotionsabouttheidea.“Idonotliketheideabutthereareinterestingaspectstoit.…”

WiththePMI,youuseyourintelligencetoexplorethesubjectmatter.Attheendoftheexploration,emotionsandfeelingscanbeusedtomakeadecisionaboutthematter.Thedifferenceisthattheemotionsarenowapplied after the exploration instead of being applied before and sopreventingexploration.WithaPMI,oneofthreethingscanhappen:

•Youmaychangeyourmindabouttheideaanddecidethatitisaviablealternative.•Youmaystillrejecttheideaasunsound.•Youmaymovefromtheideatoanotheridea.Byexploringthe“positive”and“interesting”aspectsofanidea,youmaybeabletorecycleitintosomethingelse.

WhenyouputdowntheP,M,andIpoints,youreacttowhatyouputdownandyourfeelingschange.Onceapointhasbeenthoughtandputdownunderanyoftheheadings,thatpointcannotbe“unthought,”anditwillinfluencethefinaldecision.Awhileback,agroupofdesignersbrainstormed foranewumbrella

design.Oneof theparticipants suggestedacombinationumbrellawithholster. The holster would be worn on a person’s belt. A triggermechanism in the umbrella handle would release the spring-loadedumbrellawhenunholstered.Thegroup thought thiswas a terrible idea, because everyonewould

lookedarmedanddangerous.TheydecidedtodoaPMIontheidea,andoneoftheinterestingaspectstheyfocusedonwastheideaofusingtheumbrella forprotection.This triggeredthe ideaof incorporatingastungunintotheumbrella.Ifattacked,onetouchestheattackerwiththetipoftheumbrella,pullsatrigger,andrenderstheattackerhelplesswithanonlethalshock.By focusing on the “interesting” aspects of the umbrella idea, they

providedthemselveswithmaterialtolookatwhattheymightnothavelooked for. Just as a carefully designed experiment is an attempt tohurryalongthepathoflogicalinvestigation,sofocusingon“interesting”aspectsofsubjectsisanattempttoencouragethechanceappearanceofideas thatwouldnothavebeensoughtout.Yearsback,3Minventedanewadhesiveforindustry.Noindustrywasinterested,andmanagement

orderedanengineertoburnthesamples.Theengineer,instead,thoughttheadhesivehad“interesting”aspectsandtooksomesampleshome.Heobservedhis teenagedaughters setting theirhairwith itandusing theadhesiveinvariousotherways.Hewenttomanagementandconvincedthemthatwhattheyhadwasaconsumerproduct,notanindustrialone,whichwasmanufacturedandmarketeditasScotchtape.When thinking of creativity, one usually associates it with the

generationandevaluationofnew,fresh,andoriginalideas,butthereismoretoitthanthat.Youcanuseyourintellecttoprofoundlychangethewayyouperceiveanysubjectorideathroughprolongedinspection,thusfurthering thecreativeprocess.Thestudiesof theGestaltpsychologistsconcluded that prolonged study of any subject will bring aboutspontaneous perceptual changes in the subject. The mind, throughprolonged inspection of a subject, becomes bored with it and willexplorealternativewaysofperceivingitbydecomposingthewholeintoparts and looking for the interesting parts. In the early steps of thisprocess, the effects of these changes remain below the level ofawareness.Afterawhile,theypenetrateconsciousnessasnewideasandinsights. Some great artists, such as Cézanne andRodin, often spent alongtimelookingattheirsubjectsbeforetheypaintedorsculptedthem.Theywerecreativelyprofiting fromthedisintegrationofasubject intosomethingdifferent,broughtaboutbyprolongedinspection.

Groups

Aninterestingexercise is todeliberatelypresentavaluelessordumbideatoasmallgroup.Asktheparticipantstowriteaparagraphopinion(yesornoandwhy)oftheideaonasheetofpaper.DiscusstheopinionsandthenaskeachparticipanttodoaPMIontheidea.Finally,combinethePMIsintoonemasterPMI.Thisforcesthegrouptosubjecttheideato a prolonged inspection. You’ll discover that sometimes participantswill change their opinion or will discover that an “interesting” aspectwill leadtosomeother idea.Thisprocess isnotpassivebutessentiallyactive because the changes are the result of the mind’s manipulative

operations when exploring the interesting aspects of a subject. Thisintellectualexplorationsometimesmakes itpossibletoturnavaluelessideaorsomeaspectofitintoanovelidea.

LatentPotential

Latent potential exists in every subject. We now throw out a largerange of objects—from watches to automobile tires—and buy newthings, rather than fix them.We rarely rebuildmaterials for radicallydifferent uses. Third World countries, out of necessity, must be morecreative and often find a strikingly different purpose for material toowornouttoperformitsoriginalrole.InNairobi,theyrecycleworntiresandmanufacture sandals.Durability for sandals isa latentpotentialofautotires,andtheproductionofsandalsdefinesafunctionalshift.TheNairobi recycling market is an example of the principle of Darwiniancontinuousadaptation that led toaquirky shiftof functionandanewidea.Evolution works like the Nairobi sandal makers, not like thethrowawaysocietywelivein.Speciescanevolvefurtheronlybyusingwhat they have in a new and interesting way. Organisms have noequivalent to currency for acquiring something new; they canreconstruct only from their own innards. If organisms could not reuseoldmaterial instrikinglynewways,howcouldevolutioneverproduceanythingnovel?Similarly, every new subject or idea produces a host of creativebyproducts, initially seen as irrelevant, but available for fashioning innovelnewdirections.Muchofcreativegeniushingesonthewillingnessto creatively observe the seemingly irrelevant and find the latentpotential.There are six irregular shapes in the illustration below that can beinitially seen as irrelevant.However, you can use your imagination tofashion these irrelevant shapes into meaningful ones. The V-shapedfigurescanbefashionedbyyourimaginationtoformonelargetriangle,orclosedoppositetheapextoformthreeseparatewhitetriangleswithan apex in each circle, or you can form one large upside-downwhitetriangle. You can also form a six-pointed star by combining the large

whiteupside-down triangle and theone formedby theVs.Usingyourimagination,youcreatedavarietyofdifferent-sized trianglesandstarsoutofsomeirrelevantshapes.

Inthesameway,youcantakeaseeminglyirrelevantsubjectanduseyour imagination to find its latent potential and refashion it intosomething else. Consider the Walkman radio. Sony engineers tried todesignasmall,portablestereotaperecorder.Theyfailed.Theyendedupwithasmallstereotapeplayerthatcouldn’trecord.Theygaveupontheproject and shelved it. One day Masaru Ibuka, honorary chairman ofSony,discoveredthisfailedproductanddecidedtolookforitspotential.HerememberedanentirelydifferentprojectatSonywhereanengineerwasworkingtodeveloplightweightportableheadphones.“Whatifyoucombinetheheadphoneswiththetapeplayerandleaveouttherecorderfunctionaltogether?”Ibukawasmixingupfunctions.Theideathattapeplayersalsorecordwas sowell established that no one had considered reversing it. EvenafterIbukamadehiscreativeassociation,nooneatSonybelievedtheycouldmarketit.Ibukawasnotdiscouragedandplowedaheadwithwhathecalledanewconceptinentertainment.Ibukatookafailedideaandbycombining,eliminating,andreversingfoundthelatentpotentialandcreatedabrandnewproduct.TheWalkman radiobecameSony’sbest-selling electronic product of all time and introduced all of us to“headphoneculture.”Ibuka took what existed (a failed product) and recycled it intosomething new. Similarly, Michelangelo’s masterpiece, David, was theresultofanothersculptor’sfailedattempt.Backin1463,theauthoritiesofthecathedralofFlorenceacquiredasixteen-foot-highchunkofwhitemarbletobecarvedintoasculpture.Twowell-knownsculptorsworkedon the piece and gave up, and the badly mangled block was put instorage. Other sculptors were brought in and asked to carve a statue.

They refused to work with the mangled block and demanded a newblock.Theysaidtheycouldn’tpossiblyproduceartoutof themangledblock.Theirdemandswerenoteconomicallyfeasible,sotheprojectwasscrapped by the cathedral. Forty years later, Michelangelo took themangledblockofmarble fromstorageandcarved it into theyouthful,courageousDavid within eighteen months. He took what existed andsculpteditintooneoftheworld’sgreateststatues.

Recycling

Youcanrecycleanysubjectorideaintosomethingelsebyaddingtoormodifying it in some fashion.DuringWorldWar II, scientistsat theradiation laboratory (the “Rad Lab”) at the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnologyworkedtoimproveradar.Intheearlydaysof1944,RadLabscientistswereusinganewtypeofradartodetectatoweratadistanceofsixmiles,butbyspringwhenhumidityincreased,thesystemdidnotwork.Totheirfrustration,scientistsdiscoveredthattheyhadsomehowdeveloped a radar that was tuned to the natural frequency of watervapor.Ratherthantrashingtheirwork,theylookedforwaystomodifyorusethisannoyanceforsomeotherpurpose.Theirworkdevelopedthetechnologythateventuallyledtothemicrowaveoven.Examineyoursubjectorideaforlatentpotentialtobecomesomething

different by applying the SCAMPER checklist of questions that wereintroducedonthispage.Throughouthistory,geniuseshavedemonstratedtheabilitytorecycle

anideaandtransformitintosomethingelse.Forexample,FrancisBacontransformedAristotle’sinductivethinkingmethodintoanewframeworkimportant inscientificanalysis,andHenryDavidThoreauincorporatedHinduandBuddhistideasintohisAmericantranscendentalphilosophy.The famousarchitect FrankLloydWright tookJapanese templedesignprinciplesandmodifiedthemtocreatehisspacious,airyPrairieHome.Fortunes have been made in business by people finding the latent

potentialinasubjectandrecyclingitintosomethingelse.Researchersat3Mdevelopeda temporaryglue thatwas tobeusedon fixed surfaces,

likebulletinboards(youcouldmovethebulletinboardfromonesurfaceto another). It was not well received on themarket, andmost of theresearcherslostinterestinit.ArthurFrye,a3Mchemist,keptlookingforwaystorecycleitintosomethingelse.Oneday,whilehewassinginginthechoiroftheNorthPresbyterianChurchinSt.Paul,Minnesota,ithithim.Theadhesivewouldbejustthetickettokeepabookmarkinplace.Theprimaryuseispapertopaper,andthus,thePost-itnotewasborn.Thinkofyoursubjectasaliving,dynamicorganismthatisconstantly

evolving into something different. In the illustration, the pattern inFigure1evolves intosomethingthat looks likea flower inFigure2. IfyoulookhardenoughatthispatterninFigure2,youmaysuddenlyseethatitcouldberegardedasapileofthreecubeswiththetopsurfaceofthe topcubemarkedA. If youcontinue to lookat it, youmight see itchange to a pile of three cubes with the top surface of the top cubemarked B. The thing suddenly re-restructures itself into a completelydifferentpatternwithoutanythingbeingaddedtoit.

Inmuchthesameway,thelatentpotentialinasubjectmaysuddenlycome about through a flash of insight, in a eureka moment. Withoutinformation, thewhole thingmay suddenly restructure itself to give acompletelydifferentpattern.Theinterestingthingisnotonlythatanewpattern emerges quite suddenly, but that it at once becomes obvious.This is a peculiar phenomenon. For example, in 1956 the Jacuzzibrothers invented a whirlpool bath as a treatment for people witharthritis.Theysoldafew,butessentiallydidlittlewiththeirinvention.Fifteen years later, Roy Jacuzzi looked for the latent potential in theinvention,modifiedthedesign,andrecycleditintoaluxurybath.Whiletheworld saw thebathas anarthriticdevice (patternA),RoyJacuzziconsciouslylookedforthelatentpotentialandsuddenlyrealizeditwasworth millions as a luxury bath (pattern B), without any newinformation.

Youcanfindlatentpotentialinanysubjectifyoulookhardenough.Acompany thatmakesbabywipeschanged theirpackage intoaproductall its own. Once the wipes are gone, the package is recycled into acolorful, Lego-like toy. Containers come in four colors and haveinterlocking pegs that make them easy to stack. Parents can also usethemasstackablestoragecontainers.

Don’tThinkaboutIt

Take a moment and imagine all the things that the figure mightrepresent.IfIaskedyoutolistallthedifferentthingsthatyouimagined,Ihavenodoubtthatyouwouldcomeupwithseveralfascinatingideas.However,ifIdescribedthefigureastherearviewofahousecleaneronhandsandkneeswashingafloor,andthenaskedyoutolistalternativeexplanations,yourlistwouldbeminimalandmuchlesscreative.

Once the figures are given names and meanings, it is almostimpossible to look at them and have the same perception that existedbeforeyouknewwhatitwas.Thenamesandmeaningsfixateyoualongacertainlineofthought.Expertiseinanareacanhindercreativitybymakingusfixatedalonga

certain lineof thought.For instance, thecapacity todrawinanexpertfashion may even be disturbed or undermined by knowledge of theidentityofwhatwearedrawing.BettyEdwards,inherbookDrawingontheRight Side of theBrain, indicates that an individualmay be able todrawanobjectaccuratelyifitisheldupsidedownandtheartistcannotrecognize what he or she is drawing. At times, we act like homicidedetectives hovering around a flattened corpse, discussing our pettheorieswhileignoringtheelephantstandinginthesameroom.Ifyouwanttoproducesomethingcreative—sayacreativedesignfora

new automobile—don’t think of an automobile—at least not at first.

Muchevidencesuggeststhatamoreabstractdefinitionofaproblemcanlead to greater creativity and innovation than the more typicaldefinitions.This is thecreative strategyof someof theworld’s leadingcreative designers, including KentonWiens, architect Arthur Erickson,and Martin Skalski, director of the transportation design sequence atPratt Institute. Skalski, for example, doesn’t tell students to design anautomobileorstudyvariousautomobiledesignsonthemarket. Insteadhe begins the design process by having them create abstractcompositions.Thenbyprogressivelymakingtheprocesslessabstract,heeventually has them working on the real problem, tying in theconnectionsbetweentheabstractworkandthefinalmodel.Restructuring your problem by making it more abstract helps

eliminatebarriersthatresultfrompreconceivednotionsofwhatanideaor solution should be. It forces you to test assumptions and explorepossibilities.Supposeyouwanttoimprovethedesignoftheumbrella.Ifyouworkwith themoreabstractdefinition“protection fromtherain,”youaremorelikelytoexploremorepossibilities,includingraincoatsorevenanewtypeoftowndesignwheretherearearcadeseverywhereandumbrellasarenolongerrequired.Orconsiderthebookstoreowner,forexample,whoviewedhimselfasasellerofbooks,averyspecific idea.Thetrendtowardtheelectronicmediaputhimoutofbusiness.Ontheotherhand, ifhehadviewedhimselfasaproviderof informationandentertainment,amoreabstractcharacterization,aswitchinthemediumwould not have been threatening and would have opened up newopportunities.Themindmakes ruts very quickly, and evenmore sowhen it stalls

andspinsitswheels.Makingyourproblemmoreabstractmaysuddenlycreateaspacebetweenthoughtssunkinthedetailsofsomeperception.Instead of getting mired down classifying the mite or fungus, Darwinasked the grand question “What is life?” The guidelines for using theprincipleofabstractionare

1.Describe an abstract definition of your problem.What is the principle of the problem?Whatisitsessence?Example: Our problem is how to protect rural designer mailboxes from theft andvandalism.Theprincipleisprotection.

2.Brainstormforseveralideasonprotection.Thinkofwaystoprotectthings.

•Placeinabank.•Rustproofit.•Providegoodmaintenance.•Getaninsurancepolicy.•Hideit.

3. After you’ve generated a number of different ideas, restate the problem so that it isslightlylessabstract.Again,generateasmanysolutionsasyoucan.Example:Thinkofwaystoprotectthingsthatareoutsideandvulnerable.

•Hireaguard.•Watchitconstantly.•Drapeitwithcamouflage.•Putafencearoundit.•Keepitwelllighted.

4. Finally, consider the real problem.Review the ideas and solutions to the twopreviousabstractionsandusetheseasstimulitogeneratesolutions.Example:Therealproblem ishowtoprotect ruralmailboxes fromtheftandvandalism.Theideatriggeredfrom“getaninsurancepolicy”istoofferaninsurancepolicytoownersofrural mailboxes: $5 a year or $10 for three years to cover the mailbox from theft ordestruction.

Alexander Graham Bell was inspired to start development of thetelephonewhenhe read an account,written inGerman, describing aninvention that he thought had the function of a telephone. Afterdemonstratinghisworking telephone,Bell learned that,becauseof thelanguage barrier, he had misunderstood the report, and the Germaninvention had an entirely different function. TheGerman accountwasthe stimuli that broke his preconceived notion of a telephone andinspiredhimtothinkinadifferentdirection.Inthesameway,ideasandsolutions to abstract definitions will provide you the stimuli to breakyourpreconceptions.

Groups

ArthurErickson, architect anddesigner,uses anabstraction thinkingstrategy with his students to help them avoid visual and functionalpreconceptionsandunlockcreativity.Forexample,ifheislookingforanew chair design, he will first ask his students to draw a figure inmotion.Thenhewillask themtobuildamodel (wood,plastic,metal,paper)ofastructurethatsupportsthatfigureinmotion.Finally,hewillhavethemusethemodelasastimulusforanewchairdesign.Following are guidelines for using this thinking strategy in a groupsituationtoreducetheirpreconceptionsaboutanyproblem:

1. Describe an abstract definition of the problem. Ask the group to generate and listsolutionsandideas.Example:Thinkofwaystostorethings.2.Describeaslightlylessabstractdefinition.Again,askthegrouptogeneratesolutionsandideas.Example:Thinkofwaystostackthings.3.Describeanevenslightlylessabstractdefinition.Again,askthegroupforsolutionsandideas.Example:Thinkofwaystoorganizelargeobjects.4.Introducetherealproblem.Askthegrouptoreviewallpreviousideasandsolutionsandtousethemasstimulitogenerateideasandsolutionsfortherealproblem.Example:Nowusetheseideasasstimulitoimprovingaparkinggarage.

Another way to benefit from abstractions is to start with a specificsolutionor ideaandprogressivelymake itmoreabstractbyasking theprovocativequestion“Whatreallymatters?”whereupontheproblemisreconsidered at a higher level of abstraction and reformulated. Repeatthiskindofquestioning(“Whatreallymatters?”) twoor three times inordertoseetheproblemfromdifferentangles.Forexample,youcomeup with the idea of shredding packing material as a better way ofdisposing of it. Asking “What really matters?” you decide that whatreallymattersistoreducetheamountofpackingmaterial.Theideayoucome upwith is to use thinner packingmaterial. Asking “What reallymatters?” again, you decide that what really matters is to reduce thenumber of packages. This level of abstraction leads you to think ofalternativestopackagessuchasrefillable,self-serviceabledispensersandstandardizedcontainerstoberefilledatthepointofsaleandsoon.

AreYourIdeasCrazyEnough?

Whenpeopleusetheirimaginationstodevelopnewideas,thoseideasare heavily structured in predictable ways by existing categories andconcepts. This is true for scientists, artists, inventors, politicians, andbusinesspeople.Considerthefollowingaccident,whichwasreportedinTheAmericanRailroadJournalin1835:

AsatrainwasapproachingthedepotatPaterson,anaxleoftheleadingcargaveway,whichoverturned that and the following two cars.None of the passengerswere injured, thoughtheyfelttheshockbytheconcussion.Mr.Speer,theconductor,averyindustriousandsoberman,wasseatedonthecaratthebreak,andunfortunatelywascrushedtodeathundertheload.

Mr. Speer was the only casualty. What factors contributed to hisuntimelydeath?Certainly therewas the immediate cause-thebreakingoftheaxleandtheoverturningofthecars—butthereisasubtlercauseaswell.Note thatMr. Speerwas ridingon the car, not in it, and thatnoneofthepassengers,whowereinside,werehurt.Whywashenotinthecar?Whatintheworldwashedoingontopofthecar?Speer’sdeathwas theresultofadesign flawthatrequiredconductors torideon theoutsideofcars.Thisflawisanexampleofthephenomenonofstructuredimagination.Earlydesignsforrailwaycarswereheavilyinfluencedbythepropertiesofthestagecoach,themostcommonvehicleoftheday.Thefirstrailwaycarswerelittlemorethanstagecoacheswithtracks,withnocentralaisleanddesignedsothatconductorshadtorideoutsideonrunningboards.The idea of a central aisle was considered odd and even unsanitary,basedonthenotionthatitwouldbecomeonelongspittoon.Finally,aswas true of stagecoaches, the brakeswere located on the outside andwereoperatedbytheconductor,whowasseatedonthetopfrontofthecar.We would not consider the developers of the railroads to beunimaginativepeople.On thecontrary, theywerevisionarieswho sawtherailroadasthetransportationofthefuturelongbeforeotherpeopletooktheideaseriously.Yet,evenafteranumberofconductorshadbeenkilled, there was strong resistance to designing the railway cars soconductors could ride safely inside. As late as 1866, according to the

Railroad and Engineering Journal (1887), seventy-two trainmen werekilledinfallsfromcarsinMassachusetts,NewYork,andMichiganalone.What this suggests is that even highly creative individuals and theideas they develop are susceptible to the constraining influences ofstructured imagination. The design for a railway car was heavilyinfluencedbywhattheyknew,understood,andweremostfamiliarwith—the stagecoach. Even Thomas Edison’s idea for an electric lightingdistribution system is an example of an idea that was the result ofstructured imagination. His reliance on the existing gas distributionsystem at the time led to his stubborn reliance on the problematicprocedure of running wires underground, just as gas mains ranunderground. More recently, the fact that many modern computerterminals display exactly eighty columns of text is a direct outgrowthfromtheerawhenweliterallyfeddataintocomputersbywayofeighty-columnpunchcards.The playful openness of creative geniuses is what allows them toexplore“interesting”chanceevents.OnceWolfgangPauli,thediscovererof electron spin, was presenting a new theory of elementary particlesbefore a professional audience.An extended discussion followed.NielsBohrs summarized to Pauli that everyone agreed that his theory wascrazy.Thequestionthatdividedthemwaswhetheritwascrazyenoughtohaveachanceofbeingcorrect.Bohrssaidhisownfeelingwasthatitwasnotcrazyenough.A logic hides in Bohrs’ illogic. In genius, there is a tolerance forunpredictableavenuesof thought.The result ofunpredictable thinkingmaybejustwhatisneededtoshiftthecontextenoughtoleadtoanewperspective. Paul Cézanne, the father of modern painting, coined awonderfulphrasethatcapturesthewholeparadoxicalprocessofmixingunpredictable thinking and intentional tactics. He called the creator’screativeactivity“makingafind.”You can actively seek the accidental discovery by deliberatelyexploring the odd and unusual. It is this freedom from design orcommitment that allows you to juxtapose things that would nototherwise have been arranged in thisway, to construct a sequence ofeventsthat-wouldnototherwisehavebeenconstructed.Atechniquetohelpyoudeliberatelyseektheoddandunusualisthefollowing:

1.Listseveralabsurdorcrazyideasaboutyourproblem.Trytomakeeachonemorebizarrethanthelast.Problem:Agreetingcardcompanywantsnewproductsandnewmarkets.AbsurdIdeas:

•Sendgreetingcardstodeadpeople.•Sendheavystonesasgreetingcards.•SendcardsCOD.•Sendthepersonmoneywiththemessageto“gooutandbuyyourowngreetingcard.”•Sendaspider.

2.Selectoneoftheabsurdideas.AbsurdIdea:Sendgreetingcardstodeadpeople.

3.Extracttheprinciple.Whatistheprincipleoftheabsurdidea?Principle:Communicatingwiththedeparted.

4.Listthefeaturesandaspectsoftheabsurdidea.Features,Aspects:

•Peoplecommunicatewiththedeadthroughséances.•Peopleleaveflowersatcemeteries.•Peopleleavepoems,letters,andotherartifacts.•Peoplepublishpersonalpoems,messages,etc.,innewspaperstothedeparted.•Peopleprayforthedeparted.•PeoplecommunicatewithOuijaboards,etc.

5.Imagineering.Extracttheprincipleoroneofthefeaturesandaspectsandbuilditintoapracticalidea.Example:“Leavingitemsatthecemetery.”ImagineeredIdea:Theideathegreetingcardcompanycreatedwastopublishmemoriamcardsonstickssotheycanbeinsertedinthegroundatthegravesite.The“cards-on-sticks”aresoldinfloristshopsthatarelocatednearcemeteries.

Whatisespeciallyremarkableaboutahologramisthatifalaserlightisshinedonjustasmallpartofit,theentireimagestillappears.Thus,asmall portion of the hologram contains information about the entireimage. In a similar sense, when you focus on one small “interesting”aspect of a bizarre idea, that one small aspect contains enough

informationtocreateanewidea. Inourexample, theaspectofpeople“leavingitemsatthecemetery”containedenoughinformationtocreateawholenewproductline.Moreoftenthedangerisnotoneofoverawarenessofanidea,butof

neglectofwaysoflookingatthingsthatareblottedoutbyadominantidea. The story of the jumping spider illustrates this in a macabrefashion. The schoolboy had an interesting theory: Hemaintained thatspiderscouldhearwiththeirlegsandhesaidthathecouldprovethis.Heplacedthespiderinthemiddleofthetableandsaid,“Jump!”The

spiderjumped.Theboyrepeatedthedemonstration.Thenhecutoffthespider’s legsandput itback in themiddleof the table.Againhe said,“Jump!” But this time the spider remained quite still. “See,” said theboy,“youcutoffaspider’slegs,anditgoesstonedeaf.”Many of us can remember instances fromour own experiencewhen

wewerecompletelyoblivioustootherwaysoflookingatourresults,sodominated were we by our own theory. It happens all the time inmedicinewhenonedoctor,tooclosetothepatient’sillness,trieshardtofitthingsintoacertaindiagnosis,andthenanotherdoctorcomesalong,andwithafreshlookatalltheinformation,offersabetteranddifferentdiagnosis.One of the most important early issues facing the scientists in Los

Alamos was to find a method to explode the atomic bomb so that itwouldreachthecriticalmassnecessaryforanuclearchainreaction.Theballisticsexpertscameupwithconventionalideasonhowtoexplodethebomb. One of the physicists, Seth Neddermeyer, theorized that anexplosionwould not drive together the parts of the criticalmass in afissionbomb.Hefeltanexplosionwouldpropelthepartsapart.Hisideawastodrivetogether,toimplode.Forexample,squeezeanorangeveryevenlyandveryhardand it implodes,orwhenyoufirebulletsagainsteachother,thebulletsliquefyonimpact.Hewasridiculedforthiscrazyideawhenhepresentedittohismoreexperiencedcolleagues.AlthoughOppenheimerwasalsodubiousaboutNeddermeyer’sidea,hegavehimthefreedomtoexplorethisunusualtheory,whichledtothesuccessfultriggeringofthebomb.

Groups

Touse this thinking strategy ina largegroup, firstdivide thegroupinto four teams. Ifyouhaveasmallgroup,especially ifyouhaveonlyfourmembers,youcanmodifythistechniqueeasily.Justhaveonegroupmemberwritean idea ineachof thecells. Ifyouhavemore than fourpeople,havethemdoubleuptofillintheboxes.

1.Eachgroupgetsasheetthatisdividedintofourboxes:AthroughD.

2.EachteamfillsincellAwithanabsurd,crazy,orfantasticalidea.Encouragethegrouptocomeupwiththecraziest ideapossible.WheneachteamhascompletedcellA, thesheetsarecirculatedtoaneighboringgroup.

3.ThegroupsexaminesthefirstideaincellAandengineerstheideaintosomethingthat’smorerealisticandfeasible.ThegroupwritesthatideaincellBandpassestheworksheettoanothergroup.

4.ThenextgroupworkswiththeinformationinbothcellsAandBandtriestodevelopanidea that’s evenmore realistic and feasible. The groupwrites the idea in cellC and thenpassestheworksheettothefinalgroup.

5.Afterthreepasses,thesheetsstopwiththefinalteam,whichhastousetheinformationinallthecellstodevelopafinalideatobewrittenincellD.Thefinalideasarethenpresentedtothewholegroup.Example:Agroupof salespeoplebrainstormedonhow to sellmorecars.The first teamwrote“Marryeverypotentialcustomer”incellA.Thenextteamwrote“Sendspecialeventcards suchasbirthday,Christmas, andanniversary cards” in cellB.The third teamwrote

“Senda flowerwitha specialdiscount tomarriedcoupleson theiranniversary” incellC.Theideathatwasfinallypresentedwastofillthetrunkofanewlysoldcarwithflowersandtopersonallydeliverit.Whentheownerchecksoutthecarandopensthetrunk,theownerisoverwhelmedandtellshisorherfriendsandrelativesaboutthedealership.

UnrelatedIdeasGame

Scientists have discovered that when they presented people withconflictingorincongruousinformation,thesubjects’alertnessincreased.They concluded that this kind of conflict can be a source of creativedrive. The following is a game designed to increase your group’salertnessbyusingunrelatedideas.Theguidelinesare

1.Thefacilitatorformstwosmallgroups.2.Theproblemstatementiswrittendownforallparticipantstoseeandisreadaloudbythefacilitator.Example:Howdoweincreasecorporateproductivity?3. The game begins by having a member from the first group suggest an idea that is“unrelated”totheproblem.Example: A member might suggest that the company should give each employee onemilliondollars.4. The second group is told that it has three minutes to turn the unrelated idea into apracticalsolutiontotheoriginalproblem.Example:A lotterymodeledaftermillion-dollar lotteries.Getarollofnumberedtickets.Each time an employee provides a specific suggestion on how to increase productivity,reward him or herwith one ticket. At the end of onemonth, read the ideas and draw anumberfromabowl.Thewinningticketgetsaprize.Ifthereisnowinner,doubletheprizefornextmonth.5.Thefacilitatorjudgestheidea.Thesecondgroupisawardedonepointifthesolutionisjudgedpracticalandsuccessfulbythefacilitator;ifthesolutionisjudgedunsuccessful,thefirstgroupgetsthepoint.6.Thefacilitatorwritesdownallthesolutionsastheyareproposed.7.Thegroupsreverseroles,andthesecondgroupproposesanunrelatedideathatthefirstgroupdevelopsintoanidea.Thesolutionsarejudged.Thegroupscontinuetoreverserolesuntilthegameends.

8.After thirty to forty-fiveminutes, the game is terminated and the groupwith themostpointsisdeclaredthewinner.9.Finally,thefacilitatorhasthegroupdiscussandelaborateonalltheproposedsolutionstoseewhichoneshavethemostvalue.

Wehavethehabitofconcentratingonaproblemtotheexclusionofall other matters. This habit of thinking effectively prevents theformation of new ideas. All outside influences, including chanceinfluences,whichcouldleadtonewwaysofthinkingabouttheproblem,aredeliberatelyexcluded.Concentrationontheproblemonlyserves toreinforcetherigidwayitisbeingconsideredatthemoment.Bringinginunrelated ideas as an outside influence breaks this concentration andgivesyoufreshwaysofthinkingabouttheproblem.

Fantasy

Anotherwaytobringinanoutsideinfluenceistofantasizeaboutyoursubject.Thedynamicprincipleoffantasyisplay,whichbelongsalsotothe child and appears to be inconsistent with the principle of seriouswork. Yet, the psychologist Carl Jung noted that without this playingwith fantasy, no creative work has ever yet come to birth. It is nocoincidence that geniuses take a childlike delight in painting, orcomposing, or searching for a grand unified theory of the universe.Creative geniuses tend to return to the conceptualworld of childhoodandareable towed themostadvancedunderstandingsof a fieldwiththesensibilitiesofawonder-filledchild.BecauseEinsteincouldfantasizeaboutspaceandtime,hewasabletojoinhischildlikewonderwithhisscientific expertise in his search for new theories and new ways tounderstand the universe.While his colleagues kept busyworkingwithwhat was known, he would wonder why empty space doesn’t weighanything.ACEOwasdisappointedinhisfood-serviceproductline.Playfully,he

asked his engineers and chemists to fantasize about products that areimpossibletocreatetoday,butiftheywerepossible,wouldchangethenatureofthefoodindustryforever.One“impossible”ideatheyimaginedwastheideaofafoodmachine,amachineinwhichyoupouruniversalingredients(wheat,soy,flour,etc.)andthemachinewouldprovideyou

withanyimaginablemeal.Yousimplydial“eggsandbacon”or“turkeydinnerwithall the trimmings for ten,”orwhateveryouwish, and themachinepreparesandservesit.Hethenaskedthemtolookforpracticalideasandwaystocomeasclosetothat“impossibility”aspossible.Thechemists realized there were certain foods, such as breads and pasta,that could be created by machines today. This insight led to thedevelopmentofthehomebread-bakingappliance.

FantasyEnvelopes

Following is a game that allows a group to fantasize aboutimpossibilities,resources,andsuperpowers.Theguidelinesare

1. Divide the group into three teams. Each team gets an envelope with one of thefollowing questions. Team A gets Question 1, team B gets Question 2, and team C getsQuestion3.

Question1: “What is impossible to do today, but if it were possible, would change thenatureoftheproblemforever?”Question2:“WhatwouldIdoifIhadalltheresources(money,people,time,facilities,etc.)intheworldtosolvethisproblem?”Question3:“IfIwereasuperherowithsupernaturalpowersandcouldaccomplishanythingIwish,howwouldIhandlethisproblem?”

2.Eachteamwritesanideaoranswerontheoutsideofanenvelope.Theenvelopesarethenpassed to another team.Their teamwrites an immediate, specific action that canbetakentodaytoworktowardtheideaoranswerthat’swrittenontheoutsideoftheenvelope.The ideaor suggestion iswrittenona cardandput into the envelope.Theenvelopes arepassedfromteamtoteamuntileachteamhashadanopportunitytoincludetheirideasandsuggestions.Eachteamgeneratesaspecificactionforeachenvelopewithoutlookingatwhatothershavewritten.Discussandevaluatealltheideasandsuggestionsattheend.

There is a great value in fantasizing about subjects that do not yetexist. The fantasies take us out of the normal perceptual patterns andplaceourmindsinanunstableposition,fromwhichwecan“move”toanewidea.Wecanalsofantasizeaboutsubjectsthatcould“never”exist

inexperience.

CrossbreedingSubjects

Onewaytocreatesubjectsthatcouldneverexististocrossbreedtwosubjects from two different worlds. By actively merging two separatesubjects into the same space, you articulate a new identity. This newidentitywill encourage you to think of connecting links and plausiblecircumstancestoexpressthem.Theguidelinesare

1.Takeyoursubjectorsomeaspectofitandcrossbreeditwithasubjectfromsomeotherworldtocreateanewcreature.WhathappenswhenyoucrossbreedXwithY?Whathappenswhenyoucrossbreedyourbosswithanorange?Oryour restaurantwithawaterbuffalo?Supposeyouwantedtoimprovetheemployeetrainingprogram.Thinkaboutwhathappenswhenyoucrossbreed:•Thetraineewithapickle•Thetraineewithadoor•Thetraineewithacowboy•Thetraineewithawatermelon•Thetraineewithahorse•Thetraineewithacommuter

2.Drawapictureofyourcreature.Considerthefollowing:•Howdoesitrelatetoitsenvironment?•Whoisimportantinitslife?•Whatisimportantinitslife?•Whatisthecreature’sbiggestchallenge?•Atwhatdoesitexcel?•Ifitcouldhaveoneproblem,whatwoulditbe?•Howdoesiffeelaboutyou?

3.Writeatwo-orthree-paragraphstoryaboutyourcreature.Ifyouprefer,justoutlineit.

4.Whatarethreeofitsuniquestrengths?

5.Whatarethreeofitsuniqueweaknesses?

6.Createideasfromthesecrossbreedstrengths?

7. Think about the weaknesses. Think about something that can reduce one of theweaknesses.Applythatthoughttotheproblemtocreateanewidea.

8.Recallyourproblem.

9.Rereadyourstory.

10.Someimagesorthoughtsfromyourstorywillleadtonewideasaboutyourproblem.

AnownerofaChineserestaurantcrossbred“arestaurantwithacat.”One of the strengths of this creature was its ability to go to thecustomers. This led to the idea of sending his staff to the commuterrailroad station, where they passed out menus in the morning tocommuters. Eachmenu had an 800 number and the commuters wereadvised toplace their orders byphonebefore they left the city.Whenthe commuters arrived back at the station, theirmealswere ready forpickup.

ChanceFavorsthePreparedMind

Alexander Fleming was studying deadly bacteria in 1928 when heremovedthecoverof thecultureplateandnoticed that ithadbecomeaccidentally contaminated. A mold formed on the exposed culture.Flemingnoticedthatintheareasurroundingthemold,thebacteriahaddisappeared. This was the clue that a lowly mold was a powerfulmicrobe killer that did not harm human tissue. He worked with thismoldandtesteditonlaboratoryanimals.Hisworkledtothediscoveryof penicillin, which has saved millions of lives. He attributed hisdiscoverytothe“greatest”chance.However,itwashisyearsofdiligentresearchandobservationthatpreparedhimtonoticethechanceevent.A less-prepared scientist would have thrown the accidentallycontaminatedcultureaway.Inonesense,thecreativeprocessstartswithall thepriorknowledge

andexperiencesthattheindividualhashadthatcouldaffecthisorherattitude toward creativity and innovation, as well as his or herreceptivity to ideas that involve the creative solution. In another

example, Ray Kroc, aman in his fifties, spent his adult life preparinghimselffortherightbusinessopportunity.Heconstantlylookedforitinreal estate and sales. He was selling milkshake mixers when heaccidentallystumbledintoalittlehamburgerstandownedbyDickandMaurice McDonald. The McDonalds had simplified, economized, andminimizedthehamburgerstandandhaddevelopedastunningbusiness.KrocrealizedimmediatelythattheMcDonaldshadunwittinglyhitupontheconceptoffastfood—homogenized,predictableitemsthatarequickandeasytoprepare.Krocformedapartnershiptofranchisetheconcept,and within a few years, became one of the richest men in America.Consider the thousands of entrepreneurs who had pulled into thehamburgerstandandwerenotpreparedtoseethestaggeringpotentialoftheMcDonaldbrothers’fast-foodconcept.Louis Pasteur, the French chemist who founded microbiology and

inventedtheprocessofpasteurization,oncewarnedthatchance favorsonlythepreparedmind.AlexanderFlemingwasintellectuallypreparedtonoticethecluethatledtopenicillin,andRayKrocwasexperientiallyprepared to recognize the business concept that would change foodservice in America. The chance events that inspired their discoverieswere seen hundreds of times by others. Fleming was not the firstscientisttoseeapetridishspoiledbymold,andKrocwasnotthefirsttostumble into theMcDonalds’hamburger stand.Yet, because theywereprepared, Fleming saw the far-reaching implications of the mold, andKroc saw the incredible potential for a new food industry. Theirpreparationmadetheirserendipitousdiscoverieshighlyprobable.Sometimeschanceisdramaticandsometimeschancearrivesasafaint

clue.Themoreinformationanddatayouhave,thegreateryourchanceof discovering and exploiting the chance event that may lead to abreakthroughidea.Followingaresometechniquesdesignedtohelpyoufindthosecluesinsomedemographic,social,technological,oreconomicfactortrendthatmayleadtoanewidea:

OpportunityHeadlines

Brainstormforasmanyinterestingdemographic,social,technological,oreconomicfactsortrendsthatyoucanimagine.Printthemoncards—one fact or trend per card. Then string sets of cards together to formheadlines that tell a story about something thatwill, could, or shouldhappeninyourownsituation.Forexample, fourtrends—increaseduseofcreditcards,growingvalueofbrandequity,risingnumberofInternetusers,andabilitytousetechnologytodospecificmarketsegmentation—are used to develop the following headline: “It’s possible to bypassretailerstosellbrandnamemerchandiseontheWeb.”Afterdevelopinga set of ten or so headlines, try to figure out the implications of eachlikely development and take a disciplined look at the capabilities andassetsyourcompanyhasormustgetifit’stoexploittheopportunities.

ChanceArrangements

Igor Stravinsky, one of the giants in twentieth-century musicalcomposition,inthecourseofhislabors,woulddeliberatelytrytodrawinspiration from some accidental arrangement.Hemadeprofitable useout of accidental arrangements of notes. To contrive an accidentalarrangementof facts and trends is to, again,write facts and trendsoncards—one fact or trend per card. Create as many cards as you can.Shuffle them and draw three or four at random and place them facedown. Turn them over, face up, and build a new idea out of thearrangement.Ifnecessary,fillinthegapsorrearrangethecardsuntilaparticulararrangementseemssignificantorinspiring.

Groups

Giveeachparticipantsixblankcardsandaskhimorher toprintaninterestingfact,trend,orfuturepossibilityaboutyoursubject(company,market,newmarkets,etc.)oneachcard,onepercard.Afterfiveminutesorso,collectthecardsandshufflethem.Then,

1.Randomlydistributethreecardstoeachparticipant.Makesurenoonegetshisorherowncards.Askeveryonetostudythecardsandarrangetheminorderofpersonalinterest.Whileparticipantsdothis,spreadtheleftovercardsonalargetable.2.Askparticipantstoexchangethecardstheydon’tlikewiththoseonthetable.Allowafewminutesforthisactivity.3.Askparticipantstoexchangecardswitheachother.Everyparticipantmustexchangeatleastonecardandmayexchangeanynumber.4.Ask participants to discuss their cardswith each other and to form teams. There is nolimittothenumberofparticipantswhomayjointhesameteam,butnoteamcankeepmorethanthreecards.5.Instructeachteamtobuildanideafromthethreecardsthatyourcompanycanexploit.

STRATEGYNINE:AWAKENINGTHE

COLLABORATIVESPIRIT

The physicist, David Bohm, while researching the lives of Einstein,Heisenberg, Pauli, and Bohr, made a remarkable observation. Bohmnoticed that their incredible breakthroughs took place through simple,open,andhonestconversation.Heobserved, for instance, thatEinsteinandhiscolleaguesspentyearsfreelymeetingandconversingwitheachother.Duringtheseinteractions,theyexchangedideasandtalkedaboutideas that later became the foundations of modern physics. Theydiscussedideaswithouttryingtochangetheothers’mindsandwithoutbitterargument.Theyfeltfreetoproposewhateverwasontheirminds.They always paid attention to each others’ views and established anextraordinary professional fellowship. This freedom to discuss withoutriskledtothebreakthroughsthatphysiciststodaytakeforgranted.Otherscientistsofthetime,incontrast,wastedtheircareersbickering

over petty nuances of opinion and promoting their own ideas at theexpense of others. They mistrusted their colleagues, covered upweaknesses, and were reluctant to openly share their work. Manyrefused to discuss their honest thoughts about physics because of thefear of being labeled controversial by their colleagues. Others wereafraid of being called ignorant. The majority of scientists of the timelived in an atmosphere of fear and politics. They produced nothing ofsignificance.

TheSpiritofKoinonia

Einstein and his friends illustrate the staggering potential ofcollaborative thinking. The notion that open and honest collaborationallowsthinkingtogrowasacollectivephenomenoncanbetracedbacktoSocratesandotherthinkersinancientGreece.Socratesandhisfriends

soreveredtheconceptofgroupdialoguethattheyboundthemselvesbyprinciples of discussion that they established to maintain a sense ofcollegiality. These principleswere known as “Koinonia,”whichmeans“spiritoffellowship.”Theprinciplestheyestablishedwere

•EstablishDialogue. InGreek, theword “dialogue”means a “talkingthrough.”TheGreeksbelievedthatthekeytoestablishingdialogueistoexchangeideaswithouttryingtochangetheotherperson’smind.Thisisnotthesameasdiscussion,whichfromitsLatinrootmeansto“dashtopieces.”Thebasic rulesofdialogue for theGreekswere“Don’targue,”“Don’tinterrupt,”and“Listencarefully.”

•ClarifyYourThinking.Toclarifyyourthinking,youmustsuspendalluntestedassumptions.Beingawareofyourassumptionsandsuspendingthem allows thought to flow freely. Free thought is blocked ifwe areunawareofourassumptionsorunawarethatourthoughtsandopinionsare based on assumptions. For instance, if you believe that certainpeople are not creative, you’re not likely to give their ideas fairconsideration. Check your assumptions about everything and try tomaintainanunbiasedview.

• Be Honest. Say what you think, even if your thoughts arecontroversial.

TheancientGreeksbelievedtheseprinciplesallowedthinkingtogrowasa collective phenomenon. Koinonia allowed a group to access a largerpoolof common thoughts that cannotbe accessed individually.Anewkindofmindbeginstocomeintobeingthatisbasedonthedevelopmentofcommonthoughts.Peopleareno longer inopposition.Theybecomeparticipants inapoolof common ideas,whichare capableof constantdevelopmentandchange.Thenotionthatthecollectiveintelligenceofagroupislargerthantheintelligenceofanindividualcanbetracedbacktoprimitivetimeswhenhunter-gatherbandswouldmeettodiscussandsolvecommonproblems.

Itiscommonlyunderstoodandacceptedpractice.What’sdifficultisthewillingnessofagrouptodisciplineitselftobrainstormforideasopenlyandproductively.AlexOsborn,anadvertisingexecutiveinBuffalo,NewYork, recognized this and formalized brainstorming in 1941 as asystematiceffortanddisciplinedpracticetoproduceideasinagroup.Osborn’s ideawas to create anuninhibiting environment thatwouldencourageimaginativeideasandthoughts.Theusualmethodistohaveasmallgroupdiscussaproblem.Ideasareofferedbyparticipantsoneata time. Onemember records ideas and suggestions on a flip chart orchalkboard.Allwithholdjudgment.Afterthebrainstormingsession,thevariousideasandsuggestionsarereviewedandevaluated,andthegroupagreesonafinalresolution.Therearemanyproblemswithtraditionalbrainstorming.Sessionscanbeundercut by groupuniformity pressures andperceived threats frommanagersandbosses.Othersessionsfailbecausepeoplefinditdifficultto avoid judging and evaluating ideas as they are offered. Personalitydifferences also come into play: Some people are naturally willing totalk;whileotherstendtobesilent.Illustrated are two circles of equal size. Circle A symbolicallyrepresents the creative forces (the black arrows) of a groupbrainstorming in an uninhibiting environment. Whereas, Circle Brepresents the creative forces in an inhibiting environment.CircleA isexpanding and liberating creative thought, whereas Circle B iscontractingandrestrictingcreativethought.TherestrictivenatureoftheforcesinCircleBevenmakethecircleappearsmallerthanitis(theyareidenticalinsize).Whichbrainstorminggroupwouldyouprefertojoin?

All of us had a taste of good group brainstorming sessions at sometimeinourlivesthatprovidedideasandthoughtswecouldneverhave

imaginedinadvance.Buttheseexperiencescomerarelyandareusuallythe product of certain conditions. Following are suggested conditionsthat help overcome these attitudes by enhancing “Koinonia” in yourbrainstormingsessions:

Participants

JonasSalk,developerof thevaccinethateradicatedpolio,made itastandard practice to assemble men and women from very differentdomains to interact during his group sessions. He felt this practicehelped him bring out new ideas that could not arise in the minds ofindividualswhowerefromthesamedomain.Considertheweavingtogetherofpeoplefromdifferentdisciplinesthat

led to the discovery of DNA’s structure. The successful collaborationincluded James Watson (microbiologist), Maurice Wilkins (X-raycrystallographer),FrancisCrick(physicist),andLinusPauling(chemist).Theirdifferentstylesofworkwereakeyaspecttothediscovery.The ideal brainstorming group should be diverse, including experts,

nonexperts,andpeoplefromdifferentdomainswithintheorganization.Forexample,amarketinggroupbrainstormingfornewmarketingideascouldinviteacustomer,someonefrommanufacturing,anengineer,andareceptionisttothemeeting.

Collegiality

Allparticipantsmustregardoneanotherasequalcolleagues,even ifthey have nothing in common. When you look at the dots in theillustration,yourattentionisdrawntothelonedotthatstandsseparateandapartfromthegroupofdots.

Inthesameway, ifaparticipant feels thatheorshe isnotanequalcolleaguewith the rest of a brainstorming group, that participantwillbecomethefocusofthesession,eitherconsciouslyorunconsciously,andinhibitthecreativityofthegroup.Thinkingofeachotherascolleagues is importantbecause thought isparticipative.Just thewillingness toconsciously thinkofeachotherascolleagues contributes toward interacting as colleagues. We talkdifferentlyandmorehonestlywithfriendsthanwedowithpeoplewhoare not friends. Any controlling authority, no matter how carefullypresented,willtendtoinhibitthefreeplayofthought.Ifonepersonisused to having his or her view prevail because he or she is themostsenior person present, then that privilege must be surrendered inadvance.Ifonepersonisusedtowithholdingideasbecauseheorsheismore junior, then the security of “keeping quiet” must also besurrendered.

SuspendingAllAssumptions

Collegialcollaboration isaprocesswemustcometounderstandandwork hard toward. The difficulty of effective collaboration has beendemonstratedbyseveralexperimentsconductedbyHowardGruberandhis associates at the University of Geneva. In one experiment, hedemonstrates a box that allows twopeople to peer into it and see theshadow cast by what is to them an unknown object. Because of theangle,eachviewerseesadifferentshapetotheshadow.Theirtaskistosharetheinformationaboutwhattheyseeinordertoidentifytheobjectcasting the shadow. For instance, if a cone is placed in the box, oneviewerseesacircle,theotheratriangle.

The idea was to encourage the viewers to collaborate like twoastronomers takinga fixon theheavens fromdifferentpositions.Theysee theworld inslightlydifferentways; theytakerespectfuladvantageofthefactthatoneseesitfromhereandtheotherfromthere;andtheyput together a richer, more soundly based idea of what is really outtherethaneitheronecouldreachalone.But theoppositehappened.Eachviewerassumedtheirviewwas the

correctoneandthattheotherpersonwasapparentlyconfused,blind,orcrazy. “How can you see a triangle? I see a circle.” This was true ofhighly intelligent, educated adults. The assumptions made by theviewersmadeitdifficulttocollaborateaboutevenasimpleobject,likeacone.In order to give fair value to ideas, the group collectivelymust free

themselves of all preconceptions and suspend all assumptions.Suspendingassumptionsallowsonetolookatnewideasinanunbiasedway. It is undeniable that by the sheer power of his imagination,Einsteinsuspendedallassumptionsthatotherphysicistsmadeabouttheworld and completely reoriented reality. Once onemakes assumptionsthat this is the way it is, all creative thought stops. The group’sagreementanddisciplineofsuspendingassumptionsiskeytounblockingthecollectiveimagination.

SuspendingJudgment

In an atomic pile, an explosion is prevented by inserting rods ofcadmium that mop up the particles that are shooting around. In thisway,theenergyinthepileiscontrolled.Iftherearetoomanyrods,thechain reaction stops, and the pile can no longer produce any energy.Peoplewhoareunabletoappreciatenewideasareliketherods:Whenagroupgetstoomanyofthem,itbecomesimpossibletogeneratecreativeenergy,andthegroupwillshutdown.Requireeveryonetosuspendallcriticismand judgmentuntilafter the ideagenerationstage.Wheneversomeone says, “Yes, but …,” require the participant to change “Yes,but…”to“Yes,and…”andcontinuewherethelastpersonleftoff.This

simple change from the negative to the positive will help change thepsychologyofthegroup.

Environment

Holdyourmeetings ina risk-freezonewherepeoplecanspeak theirmindswithoutfearofcriticismorridicule.Encouragepeopletosaywhatthey are thinking, even if their thoughts are radical or controversial.Once people realize they can speak freely without being judged orridiculed, they become comfortable and open. As soon as participantsbecome concerned with “who said what” or “not saying somethingstupid,”creativityisretarded.Play classical music when people are thinking. Music can be a

powerful catalyst in the creative process. It puts participants into apeaceful state ofmind,which facilitates reflection. Einstein’s son oncereflectedthatwheneverEinsteincametoadifficultsituationinhiswork,hewouldtakerefugeinthemusicofBeethovenandMozart,andthatthemusicwouldexhilaratehimandhelphimresolvehisdifficulties.Make the environment visually stimulating by posting pictures and

diagramsthatarerelevanttothesubjectaroundtheroom.Forexample,supposeyouwanted todesignacar forupwardlymobile families.Youmight start by putting together awall-sized board of photographs anddrawings.Usepicturestoanswersomequestionssuchas“Whatkindsofhouses do these car buyers live in?” “What kind of watches do theybuy?”“Wheredotheygoonvacation?”“Whatkindofartdotheyhangon their walls?” Mix your own idea sketches in among them. As theswarmofpicturesgrows,anunderstandingofwhoisgoingtobuythiscarandwhatmightappealtothembeginstoemerge.

Playfulness

OneofWaltDisney’sgreatest secretswashisability todrawout the

innerchildinhisbusinessassociatesandcombineitwiththeirbusinessacumen.Becausehemadetheworkplaylike,hisassociatesworkedandplayed togetherwith amissionary zeal.Disneywas a true geniuswhoneededtocollaboratewithotherpeopletoexpresshisconcepts.Disneygot the creative collaboration he needed by consciously creating ahumorousandplayfulenvironment.An environment of playfulness and humor is highly conducive tocreativity. Playfulness relaxes the tension in a group. In a state ofrelaxation, individuals show less fixationandrigidity in their thinking.Consequently,aplayfulgroupwill lose its inhibitionsaboutcombiningdissimilarconceptsandideasandlookingforhiddensimilarities.Theseactions are highly conducive to creative thinking, and consequently, agroupwillgenerateamuchwiderrangeofoptionsthanwouldotherwisebeconsidered.When we play, we become childlike and begin to behave inspontaneouscreativeways.Playandcreativityhavemuch incommon.In particular, play often involves using objects and actions in new orunusualways,similartotheimaginativecombinationsofideasinvolvedincreativethinking.Picassoonceremarkedthathebecameatrueartistwhenhelearnedhowtopaintlikeachild.Einsteinhasbeendescribedastheperennialchildandwasverymuchawareoftheparallelsbetweencreative-thinkingthoughtpatternsandthoseofplayfulchildren.EinsteinsuggestedtoPiaget thathe investigatethewaychildrenthinkofspeedand time, thereby inspiringoneof thepsychologist’smost illuminatinglinesofresearch.

Facilitator

Askilledfacilitatorisessentialtotheprocessofbrainstorming.Intheabsence of a skilled facilitator, habits of thought will pull the grouptowardcritical,judgmentalthinkingandawayfromproductive,creativethinking.The skilled facilitator shouldhave strong interpersonal skills,understandtheprinciplesofprofluentandflexiblethinking,andbeabletoparaphraseandfindanalogiesforsuggestions.Thefacilitatorisoften

agoodcurator,keepingthegroupfocused,eliminatingdistractions,andkeepingcreativethinkingalivebyliberatingthegroupfromtrivialandbureaucraticthinking.The facilitator isnotacreator in thesamesense that theothersare.Rather,thefacilitatoristhesteward,whosejobistoliberatethecreativethinking of the group. Robert Oppenheimer facilitated the ManhattanProject that developed the atomic bomb during World War II.Oppenheimercouldn’tdo the individual thinkingand tasks required tomakethebomb,buthewasabletoconductthegroupofdiversetalentsandconsiderableegos,likeagreatconductor.Hisfacilitationgeneratedtheopennessandfreeexchangeofinformationthatenabledthegrouptonegotiate a solution. Great facilitators may not be able to compose aBeethovensymphony,buttheyhaveanunderstandingandappreciationoftheworkandcancreatetheenvironmentneededtorealizeit.

StatingtheProblem

The facilitator shouldpostacommonproblemstatement. It’sagoodideaat this stage for the facilitator toaskeachparticipant tocomeupwithhisorherownpersonalwayofseeingtheproblemandhisorherdreamorwishfulsolution.Engagingparticipantstolookattheprobleminapersonalwayisimportantforthefollowingreasons:

• Each participant makes the problem his or her own. They can preserve their ownindividualityandneednottobeforcedintoasharedconsensus.•Engagingparticipantstakesadvantageofthediversityofthegroup.•Allowingparticipantstoengageinwishfulthinkingatthispointenablestheparticipanttobroadenhisorherperspective.•Byanalyzingwishesasgiven,theycanbebrokendownintopartsofproblemsthatcanbedealtwithseparately.

IdeaProduction

Quantitybreedsquality.Thegoalistoemptythebox.Geteveryideafrom each participant that he or she is capable of imagining. Whenbrainstormingforideas,suspendalljudgmentandcriticismofideasandstrive for quantity of ideas. Encourage freewheeling andpiggybacking.Twowaystoincreaseideaproductionare

•Whenyou sendoutanagenda forabrainstormingmeeting,askeveryone tobring threenewideasastheticketofadmittancetothemeeting.•Givethegroupanideaquota.Forexample,anideaquotaof200ideasforcesthegrouptoputtheirinternalcriticsonholdandlistallideas,includingtheobviousandweak.Thefirstthirdwillbethesameoldideastheyalwaysget.Thesecondthirdwillbemoreinteresting,andthelastthirdwillshowmoreimaginationandcomplexity.

Elaboration

Picasso’s masterpiece, Guernica, demonstrates quite clearly thatPicassowasstatingacontradictionbutaplainfactwhenhesaidthatapictureremainsintactfromitsfirstinspirationandyetisnotthoughtoutbeforehand.Hewasindicatingthatthecreativeprocessisaholisticone,likethebirthanddevelopmentofalivingthing.Innature,thefinalformofanoaktreeorhumanbeingisgivenfromtheseedattheoutset,andyet the form is also shaped as it grows. In the same way, he had aninspiration for Guernica, but he explored different expressions anddimensions with sixty-five different sketches before it evolved into itsfinalform.Thelongeryouworktoimproveandmodifyideas,themorelikelyitis

thatthesolutionwillbeoriginalandappropriate.BecausePicassokeptchanginghis techniquesashepaintedGuernica,hispaintingdevelopedintoanoriginalmasterpiece.Extendthegroup’sthinkingbyencouragingthemtoelaborateon theexisting ideas in someway.Askwhatcanbesubstituted,combined,adapted,magnified,modified,puttosomeotheruse,eliminated,rearranged,orreversedintheexistingideas?

ClarifyingThinking

SigmundFreudbelievedthatyouclarifythinkingandreasoningnotsomuch by searching for “right” answers, but rather by asking betterquestions.Goodquestionswidenourunderstandingofasubject.Often,through questioning, Freud would end up discovering something hedidn’tsetouttodiscover.A technique that is helpful for problem solvers in a group to clarify

their reasoning is the TQR (Thinker-Questioner-Reflector) technique.AnyspeakerorlistenercancallforaTQRsessionatanytimeduringthesession.ThepersonwiththeideaisdesignatedtheThinker.Onepersonfrom the group is designated the Questioner. All others becomeReflectors. For a specified period of time (five minutes or so), theThinkerthinksoutloud,promptedbyquestionsbytheQuestioner.Thenthe Reflectors offer any reflections, ideas, or extensions from theinterchange.Attheleast,theideagetsafullhearingandquestionersfeeltheyhavehadachancetoclarifyandunderstandtheidea.

Recording

The usualmethod of recording in a brainstorming session is for thefacilitator to list the ideas on a flip chart or chalkboard in a shareddisplay to create a group memory. Shared displays achieve maximalvaluewhen the display ismore structured than a simple listing of allideas. Try using generative graphics, such as wall-mounted scrolls ofpaper. Record the ideas with a cartoon, diagram, or printed phrase,using colored feltmarkers. The idea is to stimulate full and energeticparticipation, and to find colorful, stimulating, and graphic ways toportrayideasandillustratethegroup’sthinking.Tryrecordingbypostingtheideasonawallorchalkboardinclusters

usingPost-itnotes.Post-itnotesmake ideasmovableand facilitate the“clusteringofideas.”Whenideasaregroupedbycommoncharacteristicsor themes, an organization or structure begins to arise from theinformation.More ideasaregeneratedaspeoplebegin to see structureandfillingaps.Asenseofpriorityordominanceisoftenrevealedasone

ormoreoftheclustersclaimtheinterestofthegroup.

Evaluation

At the end of a brainstorming session, make three lists: ideas ofimmediateusefulness,areasforfurtherexploration,andnewapproachestotheproblem.Thefacilitatorcanthencategorizetheideasalone,orheor she can have the group evaluate the ideas by voting on the mostuseful.AcollaborativebrainstormingsessionthatreflectsKoinoniaallowsthe

grouptogrowanewkindofcollectivemindbasedonthedevelopmentofcommonthoughts.Peopleareno longer inopposition.Theybecomeparticipants inapoolof common ideas,whichare capableof constantdevelopmentandchange.

GroupBrainstormingTechniques

Collaborationisoneofthebestkeptsecretsincreativity.Evensomeofthe artists that we think of as solitary geniuses were actuallyentrepreneurial leaders of art teams. Historian William E. Wallacediscovered that thirteen people collaboratedwithMichelangelo on theSistine Chapel and around two hundred people assisted themaster onthe Laurentian Library in Florence, Italy.Michelangelowasnot only agreatartist,hewasaCEOofothertalentthatcollaborativelymadetheart that bore his name. To realize his vision of a full-length animatedfeature film,WaltDisney assembled a great teamof diverse talents tocreatethebreakthroughanimatedfeaturefilmSnowWhiteandtheSevenDwarfs.ItwasDisney’sabilitytotoleratediversity,allowinghisgrouptoretaintheir individualitywhilecombiningtheirtalentsthatcreatedthecooperativesynthesisthatmadehisvisionareality.Group brainstorming, if done in the right spirit, can generate a rich

variety of different perspectives and ideas about any given subject.That’sbecauseindividualsaremagicallydifferentanduniquefromeachother and share few common associations. Fill in quickly the first ten

thoughts thatcomeintoyourmindonthe lines thatemanate fromthecenterwhenyou thinkof theword“idea.”Print single firstwordsandlistthefirstthoughtsthatcometomindnomatterhowabsurdthatmayseem.Ifpossible,askthreeorfourotherpeopletodotheexerciseatthesametimewithoutdiscussingyourassociations.

Your goal is to find those words that are precisely the same.“Thinking,” for example, is not the same as “think,” and “accident” isnot the same as “accidental.” When you have finished, compare thewordsandcheck toseehowmanywordsyouhave incommon. Ifyouaredoingthisexercisealone,compareyourwordswithmine.(Mywordsare “accident,” “fresh,” “work,” “unconventional,” “failure,” “think,”“predictable,”“brainstorm,”“time,”and“quota.”)Mostpeopleassumethattherewillbemanycommonwordsandonly

afewuniquetotheindividual.Whatthisexercisedemonstratesisthatitisararitytofindevenonewordcommontoallmembersinagroupofthree ormore. Themore people there are in a group, the less chancethereisofanyonewordbeingcommontoallmembersofthegroup.Ifyoufindonecommonword,makethisthecenterwordandrepeat

the exercise with the group. You’ll likely experience the same result.Evenwhenwefindsomecommonalitywithothers,thiscommonalityisrootedinourfundamentaldiversity.You’llalsodiscoverthatwhenyoutry this exercise with people who are your closest peers in terms of

educationalandworkexperiences,theresultsareevenmoreuncommon.Mostofusassumethatthemoreyoueducatepeople,themoreclonelikethey become. The opposite is true: Themore you educate people, themore unique and diverse their networks of associations become. Weshare few common assumptions with each other. Each of us has thecapacitytomakeaninfinitenumberofuniquelydifferentassociations.The ways people retain their individuality while combining their

efforts and talents is critical to creative collaboration. Understandingthatisvitaltocreatingacooperativesynthesis.Thefollowingtechniquesare someof the best fromaround theworld that are designed to helpgroupscreateacooperativesynthesis:

Brainwriting

Richard Feynman, while working at Los Alamos on the first atomicbomb,notedthatonlyoneproblemwasfedintothecomputeratatime.Insteadof thinkingofmoreefficientwaysof solvingoneproblematatime, he thought of ways of processing multiple problems in parallel,spontaneoussequences.Heinventedasystemforsendingthreeproblemsthrough the machine simultaneously. To develop it, he had his teamworkwith colored cardswith a different color for each problem. Thecards circled the table in a multicolored sequence, small batchesoccasionallyhavingtopassotherbatcheslikeimpatientgolfersplayingthrough.Thissimpleinnovationdramaticallyincreasedideaproductionandacceleratedtheworkonthebomb.HorstGeschkaandhisassociatesattheBatelleInstituteinFrankfurt,

Germany, developed a variety of group creative-thinking techniquescalled Brainwriting, which, like Feynman’s innovative problem-solvingapproach, are designed to process ideas in parallel, spontaneoussequences.Intraditionalbrainstorminggroups,peoplesuggestideasoneat a time. This is serial processing of information. Brainwriting, incontrast,allowsmultipleideastobesuggestedatthesametime.Thisisparallel processing of information. If a brainwriting group has tenmembers,uptotenideaswillbegeneratedforeveryonegeneratedinatypical brainstorming session of ten members. Brainwriting increasesideaproductiondramatically.

Thebasicguidelinesare

1.First,discusstheproblemtoclarifyit.Writetheprobleminalocationvisibletoallgroupmembers.2.Distributeindexcardstoeachparticipantandinstructthemtosilentlywritetheirideasonthe cards, one idea per card.Whereas group brainstorming involves participants shoutingideasoutloud,brainwritinghaspeoplesilentlywritingdownideas.3.Asparticipantscompletetheircards,theypassthemsilentlytothepersonontheright.4. Tell the group members to read the cards they are passed and to regard them as“stimulation”cards.Writedownanynewideasinspiredbythe“stimulation”cardsonblankcardsandpassthemtothepersonontheirright.Withinafewminutes,severalideacardswillberotatingaroundthetable.5.Aftertwentytothirtyminutes,collectallcardsandhavethegroupmemberstapethemtoawall.Thecardsshouldbearrangedintocolumnsaccordingtodifferentcategoriesofideas,withatitlecardaboveeachcolumn.Eliminatetheduplicates.6.Evaluatetheideasbygivingeachparticipantapacketofself-stickingdotsandhavethemplace thedotson theirpreferred ideas.Theycanallocate thedots inanymannerdesired,placingthemallononeidea,oneeachonfivedifferentideas,oranyothercombination.

Onlyonepersoncanofferanideaatatimeduringbrainstorming,anddespite encouragement to let loose, some people hold back out ofinhibition or for fear of ridicule. Brainwriting ensures that the loudestvoices don’t prevail. Participants feel less pressure frommanagers andbosses,andideascan’tbeshotdownassoonastheyareoffered.Youcandesignyourown“brainwriting”formatbasedontwoprinciples:

1.Ideagenerationissilent.2.Ideasarecreatedspontaneouslyinparallel.

IdeaPool

Ask participants to silently generate ideas on index cards and placetheir cards in the center of the table instead of passing them to theperson on their right. Whenever a participant wants or needs astimulation card, they simply exchange their cards for cards from thepool.

Gallery

This technique reverses the normal process. Instead ofmoving ideasaround for people to examine, the gallery moves people around. Postsheets of flip-chart paper (one per participant) around the room.Participantsstandsilentlyandwritetheirideasonthesheets(onesheetperperson)fortentofifteenminutes.Thentheparticipantsareallowedfifteenminutestowalkaroundthe“gallery”andlookattheotherideasandtakenotes.Now,usingtheotherideastostimulatefurtherthought,participantsreturntotheirsheetsandaddtoorrefinetheirideas.Afterabouttenminutesofadditionalwriting,theparticipantsexaminealltheideasandselectthebestones.Anotheroptionforthegallerytechniqueistoaskparticipantstodrawordiagramtheirideasinsteadoflistingthem.Drawinganddiagrammingisuseful increative thinking torecover information frommemory thatwouldotherwisebeunavailable.Forexample,howmanywindowsarethereinyourhouse?Diagramming your house allows you to inspect and count thewindows. Creative insights sometimes occur as a result of drawing ordiagramming a problem, because they help us notice certain featuresthatmaybeoverlooked.Postsheetsofflip-chartpaperandthenasktheparticipantstodrawasketch or diagram of how the problem might be solved. Then theparticipants are again allowed to walk around the “gallery” and takenotes.Using the notes, they return and refine their own sketches. Thegroupthenexaminesallthesketchesandconstructsafinalsolutionfrompartsofdifferentsketches.

ThreePlus

Each participant silently writes three ideas on the tops of sheets ofpaper,oneideapersheet.Thesheetsarepassedtothepersonontheirright.Thatpersonisaskedtowritedownanideathatimprovesontheone listed at the top of the sheet. If participants have difficultyimprovingon the idea,ask themto listnewones.Do this forall three

ideas.After fiveminutesor so, the idea sheetsareagainpassed to theright. Continue the process until all members receive their originalpapers.

Airplanes

Have each participant construct a paper airplane. Each participantwrites down an idea on the airplane and sends it flying to anotherparticipant.Uponreadingwhat’sbeenwrittenontheairplane,heorshewritesdownamodificationorimprovementofthatidea,oranentirelyfreshpossibility,andthensendsitflyingtosomeoneelse.Continuetheexercisefortwentyminutesandthencollectandcategorizetheideas.

WallofIdeas

EachparticipantsilentlywritesideasonPost-itnotes.Whilethegroupiswritingideas,theleadercollectsandpastesthemonawall.Then,

1.Whenthegroupisfinishedgeneratingideas,theleaderreadsaloudalltheideastomakesureeveryoneunderstandsthem.Ifwrittencommentsarenecessarytoclarifytheidea,theleaderwritesitonthenoteinadifferentcolor.2.Thenextstepistoorganizetheideas.Askthegrouptocomeuptothewallandsorttheideasoutinsomemeaningfulway.Astheideasarereorganized,theleaderwillperiodicallyinterject questions as to what the topic or criterion is for a partially sorted set of ideas.Eventually,theideaswillbesortedintodifferentsetsofideas.3.Theleaderlabelseachsetofideaswithatopiccardandpastesitovertheideaset.Dothisforeachseparatesetofideas.Sometopicscanbedividedintosubtopicsforfurthersortingofideas.4. Participants can elaborate on ideas or express concerns by writing their thoughts onadditionalPost-Itnotesandpastingthemnexttotheideaorideaset.5. Prioritize the ideas by giving each participant ten self-sticking dots. The participantsprioritize the ideasbyplacingadotordotsonthe ideas.Theycanplaceasmanyas theywishonanidea.

6.Thefinalstepistocapturetheendresultofthegroupintoadocumentthatistypedanddistributedtoeachoftheparticipants.

Notebooks

Inart, there isagroupofartistswhocall themselves futurists.Theycollaborate on a work, with each artist working on it separately atdifferent times. When the picture is finished, they cannot tell whopainted what. The result is usually a remarkable product that reflectsseveraldifferentpointsofviewcombinedintosomethingdifferentovertime.Collaborationovertimecreatesadifferentdimensionanddifferentunderstandingofasubjectinart.Similarly,asmallgroupcancollaborateovertimeinproblemsolvingto create a deeper understanding and appreciation of the possibilities.Theguidelinesare

1.Participantsareeachgivenanotebookcontainingprobleminformationandinstructions.Eachparticipantwritesatleastthreeideasperdayinthenotebookforoneweek.2. The participants exchange the notebookswith each other everyweek. Participants canthenusetheideasinthenewnotebookstotrigger,throughassociation,newideas.3.Theexchangeof ideasshouldstopafter fourweeks,evenifallnotebookshaven’tmadethe rounds. The coordinator collects the notebooks, categorizes the ideas, and prepares asummary.Theparticipantsgatherinagrouptodiscusstheideasgenerated.

Two-WeekBrainstorming

Avariationofthenotebooktechniqueistofirstbriefthegroupabouttheproblemorsubjecttobebrainstormedandthentoaskparticipantstowork on the problemalone for aweek and to record their ideas innotebooks.Then,

1.At the endof theweek, the individualsbring theirnotebooks to agroup session.Eachparticipantexpresseshisorherideasverbally(approximatelytenminuteseach).Therestof

thegroupisencouragedtodiscusstheideasandtodevelopnewideasaroundthem.2.Participantsareencouragedtorecordrelevantpointsandideasintheirnotebooks.3.Attheendofthegroupsession,participantsarethenaskedtospendanotherweektodofurther creative thinking. They can now consider the new concepts and ideas they heardfromothersorimprovetheirownideasinlightofwhattheyhavelearnedfromthegroupsession.4.Attheendofthesecondweek,thegroupmeetsagaintoharvesttheideas,whicharethenshared,prioritized,andevaluated.

MixedSessions

Youcouldalsocombineindividualandgroupcreativethinkinginonesession.Thesessionstartswithagroupbrainstormingsessiontodefinethe subject and to develop asmany ideas as possible. Then a specificcreative-thinking technique is suggestedby the facilitator, forexample,forcingaconnectionbetweenthesubjectandrandomwordsasdescribedin “Connecting the Unconnected.” The group breaks up and eachparticipantgoesoff toworkonhisorherowntouse the technique togenerate additional ideas, for ten minutes or so. The group is thenreassembledand thenew ideasarediscussedanddeveloped further. Ifnewideasaredesired,afreshtechniqueisintroducedbythefacilitatorfor further individual working. The key is that all individual work isdirectedbytheuseofspecifictechniques.Theprocessisrepeateduntilthegroupissatisfiedwiththeoutput.

Clustering

Clusteringisatechniquethatcombinesthesilentgenerationofideaswith therandomclusteringofpeopleand ideas. Itwas inspiredby theworkof IgorStravinsky, thegeniusofmodernisminmusic,whoneverlosthiseagernesstotrysomethingnew.TheSoldier’sTalein1918wasalandmarkdeparture from traditionalperformance stylesby introducing

the concept of “clusters” of performers (dancers, narrator, andinstrumentalists) who saw themselves uniquely re-creating thecomposer’s work, each performance being a new experiment. Theguidelinesare

1.Discussandpostageneralchallenge.Example:“Inwhatwaysmightwecreateamoreinnovativecorporation?”2.Eachparticipantwriteseightresponsesorideasoncards,oneideapercard.3.Thefacilitatorcollectsandshufflesthecardsfromtheentiregroup.4. The facilitator randomly distributes three cards to each participant.Make sure that noparticipantreceiveshisorheroriginalcards.Askeveryonetostudythecardsandtoarrangethem inorder of personal preference.The facilitator spreads the leftover cards on a tablefaceup.5.Askparticipants toexchange thecards theydon’t likewith thoseon the table.Allowacoupleofminutesforthisactivity.6.Next,askparticipantstoexchangecardswitheachother.Everyparticipantmustexchangeatleastonecardandmayexchangeanynumber.7.Askparticipantstoformclusters.Thereisnolimittothenumberofparticipantswhomayjointhesamecluster,butnoclustermaykeepmorethanthreecards.8.Instructeachclustertoprepareacreativewaytopresenttheirthreeideastothegroup.They might create a graphic poster, bumper sticker, slogan, logo, T-shirt, televisioncommercial,song,andsoon.

Avariationof“clustering”istofirstaskparticipantstowriteasmanyideas as they can on index cards for fiveminutes, one idea per card.Then,

1. Divide the group into teams of three to sixmembers, depending upon the size of thegroup.2.Theteammemberspooltheircards,whichtheyrankinorderofpreference.3.Asktheteamtoselectthetopfiveideasandtoplacetherestonatablefaceup.Theotherteamsarefreetoreviewthediscardedideasandusethemiftheywish.4.Theteamsdiscusstheideasandarefreetoreplacethemwithnewideas,ifandwhentheyoccur(buttheteamcanonlyretainfiveatanyonetime).Theyareencouragedtorefineorimproveupontheideastheyhaveselected.5.Alltheteams,meetingtogether,sharetheideasverbally.6.Thegroupprioritizestheideasandshortensthelisttothefivemostpromising.7.Thegroupelaboratesontheseideasandthenassessesandevaluatesthem.

OpenMeetings

Open brainstorming meetings give all employees—from janitors toCEOs—theopportunityandthemotivationtosuggestideas.Thepurposebehindtheformlessnessofanopenmeetingistoletideastaketheirownshape, undistorted by status or personal politics. Open meetings aregoverned by a few simple guidelines, a general theme, and very loosetimelimits.There is no agenda for the meeting. Someone reads the meeting’s

generalthemealoudandinviteseveryonetoidentifyarelatedissueforwhichtheyassumeresponsibility.Whensomeonesuggestsanissue,thatpersonwritesitonalargesheetofpaper,readsitaloud,andpostsitonone of thewalls. This process continues until all the issues have beenposted.The next phase is known as the “idea marketplace.” During it,

everyone is invited to sign up on one of the large “issue” sheets todiscuss the issue. Participants can sign up for asmany groups as theywish.Sponsorsofeachissueconvenetheirgroupstosiderooms,discusstheissue,andrecordanyideasorotherinformationsuggested.Ideally,severalsmallerroomsnearthelargermeetingroomshouldbeavailablewherethesmallgroupscanconveneandpursuetheirissue.Eachsmallgroupshouldhonorthe“lawoftwofeet.”Thelawisifanyparticipantbecomes bored or has nothing to contribute to the group, honor thegroupandwalkaway.Anotherwaytoconductanopenmeetingistodoitoveracomputer

network by designing a computer linkup to give everyone in thecompany access to open group discussions. Employees can send andreceive real-time messages and tap into a central database where ageneral theme isposted, for example, “Howcanwe reduceexpenses?”People post issues that relate to the general theme and others get intouch with each other to interact about the issues that interest them.They can call up the results of their discussions, at their convenience,andsendeachothere-mailmessagesuntiltheygeneratetheideastheywant.

KJBrainstorming

A leading creativity researcher, psychologist Howard Gruber of theUniversityofGeneva,indicatesthatinthecreativeprocess,slightshiftsofperspectivegoonall the time,atvarious scales,before thecreativesolution is reached.Theseshiftsoccurwhenone identifiesanuance.Anuance is a shade of meaning or subtlety of perception. Many, manysmall shifts couple together over time, eventually producing a majorshiftofperception.Gruberalsonotedthatcreativegeniusesarekeenlysensitivetonuances,andparticularly,nuanceshavingtodowithcertainthemes.Potentially, a group brainstorming session generates quantities of

ideas, with each idea full of potential nuances. Each idea is saturatedwith shades ofmeaning. Yet, our usual pattern of organizing a groupsessionistotakeareductionistapproachratherthanletideasevolveoutofthedimensionsofnuances,asacreatorwould.Jiro Kawakita, professor at the Tokyo Institute of Technology,

developed a brainstorming technique that allows an idea to shape itscourse according to the neutral facts and nuances of the situation. InJapan it’s known as the kami—kire ho, which means “scrap-papertechnique.” It’s called “scrap paper,” because originally Kawakita hadparticipantswrite thoughts and ideason scrappaper.The technique iscommonlyreferredtointheWestassimplyKJ.The technique synthesizes different individual perspectives and

experiencesintoaproblemdefinitionandsolutionthatisacceptabletothe group. There are two types of activity in KJ: understanding theproblemandsolvingtheproblem.Understandingtheproblemisgettingeachmemberofthegrouptogetasenseoftheessenceoftheproblemdefinition; solving the problem means encouraging all members toparticipateinsuggestingsolutions.For example, a problem might be disposing of cooking-oil waste.

Understanding the problem is to be sensitive to the relevant facts,subtleties,andnuancesofdisposingofitinitsliquidform.Whataretheneutral facts? How is it disposed?What damage does it cause?Whatfactsarerelevant?Whatfactsareverifiable?Once facts are collected, solutions are proposed. One suggested

solution would be some sort of inexpensive vegetable additive, which

contains no chemicals, that youmix into the hot oil so thatwhen themixturecools, itbecomesa solid fordisposalwith regulargarbage.Oranothersuggestionmightbe toaddachemicaladditive to thecookingoilthatcouldtransformtheoilintofertilizerforgardens.Andsoon.

TheproceduresforKJare

1.ProblemDefinition.Thegroupleadercitesageneralareaofconcern(e.g.,sales,costs,distribution,competition).A.Eachpersonwritesfactsonindexcardsthatarerelatedtothisoneconcern,writingonefactpercard,onasmanycardsastheywish.Theideaistogetpeopletothinkofeverythingtheycanthatmaybepertinenttotheproblem.B.Thegroupleadercollectsanddistributesthecardssonopersonreceiveshisorherowncards.C.Thegroupleaderthenreadsonecardaloud.D.Participants findcards intheirstacksthatcontainrelatedfactsandreadthesealoud,buildingaset.Asetisacollectionofcardswithrelatedfacts.E.Thegroupgivesthesetanamethattheyallagreereflects theessenceof thesetandputsitonaname-setcard.Thenamemustmeetthefollowingconditions:

•Itcanbeverifiedbyusingthefactsfromwhichitwasgenerated.•Itshouldnotbetoogeneral.•Itshouldnotbeasimpleaggregationofthesubsetfacts.

Naming the set means boiling down the key facts of a problem and then extracting theessenceoressentialsoftheproblem.

F.Thegroupcontinuesuntilallthefactsareinnamesets,andthenthegroupcombinesthenamesetsuntilthereisoneall-inclusivegroupthattheyname,agreeingthatthenamereflectstheessenceoftheall-inclusiveproblemdefinitionset.Thefinalsetshouldincludeallthefactsandname-essencespreviouslyformulatedinthesubsets.This final all-inclusive name set should end up being the closest approximation of thedefinition and essence of the problem. It should represent a consensus definition andunderstandingoftheproblem.Thepurposeofsortingfacts intosets is tobringaboutnewwaysofthinkingaboutoldcategoriesandfilesoffacts.Kawakitabelieved thatwhenthegrouphasacommonunderstandingof theproblem, itcomesintoalignment.Alignmentmeansthateachpersoninthegroupaffirmstheproblemdefinitionandshares inacommunion,a feelingofpersonal supportwitheachmemberof

thegroup.

2. Problem Solution. Each member writes suggested solutions and ideas on cards, onesolutionpercard.Eachwritesasmanysolutionsasonewishes.Thegoalistoproduce100cardsormore.A.Thegroupleadercollectsthecardsanddistributesthecardssothatnopersonreceiveshisorherowncards.B.Theleaderreadsoneproposedideaoutloud.C.Members select solutions on their cards that relate to the one that was read aloud.Continueuntilallrelatedsolutionsareread.Thisbuildsasolutionset.D.Thesetisnamedandaname-setcardiswrittenforit.Continueuntilallthesolutionsareplacedinsetsanduntilanall-inclusivesolutionsetisobtained.Thefinalsolutionset’sessenceshouldencompassallthepreviouslysuggestedsolutions.Thetitleforthefinalsolutionsetshouldcapturetheessenceofallthesuggestions.Askthegroup, “What is theessenceof thepropertiesandcharacteristics thatare indispensable tothese ideas?” This question should inspire a number of ideas and thoughts. Finally, thefacilitatorshouldaskparticipantsforadditional ideasthatcometomind.Theseideasmayberelatedorunrelatedortheymaybedifferentperspectivesontheproblem.Thefacilitatorshould graphically depict these to make it easier to understand their meaning andrelationshiptooneanother.Theideaistobuildavisualconceptualpicture.

Whenparticipantsproducecards,theproblemdefinitionexpands;andwhen they compress the cards into name-sets, the problem definitioncontracts. The expanding and contracting of sets squeezes theinformation out of its usual categories into its many subtleties andnuances.Itisthegroup’sawarenessofthesubtletiesandnuancesoftheproblem that changes the context in which the problem is seen. Thischangeincontextmayleadtothesuddensolutionorthesuddenidea.

NHKAnother technique designed to squeeze out nuances is NHK, which

wasdevelopedbyHiroshiTakahashiattheJapanBroadcastingCompany(NHK).Thismethodworkslikeaneggbeater,churningideasagainandagaintoproducenewideas.Theguidelinesare

1.Inresponsetoaproblemstatement,participantswritedownfiveideasonseparatecards.2.Participants form into teamsof five.Eachpersonexplainshisorher ideas to theother

members of the team. Othermembers write down any new ideas that come tomind onseparatecards.3.Thecardsarecollectedandsortedintogroupsofrelatedthemes.4.Newteamsoftwoorthreepeopleareformed.Eachgrouptakesoneormoreofthesortedgroupsofcardsandbrainstormsforideasthatarerelatedtothoseonthecards.Thislastsuptohalfanhour.Thenewideasarealsowrittenoncards.5.Attheendofthissession,eachgrouporganizesitscardsbythemeandpresentstheideastotherestofthegroup.Allideasarewrittenonachalkboardorflipchartbythefacilitatorforalltosee.6. Participants are formed into new groups of ten people each, and they brainstormimprovementsregardingtheideasonthechalkboardorflipchart,oneideaatatime.

Storyboarding

Leonardo da Vinci used to pin his ideas up on a wall and examinethemovertime.Thisvisualdisplayofideasenabledhimtoseehowoneidearelatedtoanotherandhowallthepiecescametogether.ApopularAmerican technique of displaying information on a wall is thestoryboard.In1928WaltDisneyandhisartistswereworkingonhisfirsttalking

cartoon Steamboat Willie. Disney wanted full animation. To animateeverythingrequiredthousandsofdrawings.Theywerepiledinstacksallover theplace. Itwashard toknowwhathadbeen finishedandwhatstillneededtobedone.Theyhadtohavemeetingsallthetime,justtofindoutwhatwasgoingon.Walt Disney came up with the idea of having his artists pin their

drawings on thewalls of the studio in sequence so he could see in aglance how far along the projectwas. Each scenewas then used as apointaroundwhichacompletestorycouldbetold.Thestorywastoldon a wall covered with a special kind of board, hence the term“storyboard.”Storyboarding quickly became a routine part of Disney’s planning

procedureforbothanimatedandlive-actionfilms.Hecouldwalkinatanytimeofthedayornightandseeprogressonanygivenprojectataglance.Storyboardskeptbranchingoutintomanyuses.Disneylandand

WaltDisneyWorldwereboth“operationally”plannedusingstoryboards.Mike Vance recognized the problem-solving potential for this

techniqueandwasthefirsttorefineitintoabrainstormingtechnique.Avarietyofrelatedproceduresforgeneratingideashasevolvedsincethen.Although there are some significant differences among the procedures,allofthemsharethecommonfeaturebegunbyWaltDisney:layingoutkeyconceptsthatarelinkedtogethertoformacompletewhole.Storyboardingcanbelikenedtotakingyourthoughtsandthethoughts

ofothersandmakingthemvisible,byspreadingthemonawallasyouwork on your problem. Following are basic guidelines used by manystoryboardingmethods:

1.Topic.Tapeorpinthetopiccardonthewall. Inourexample, thetopic is to“createanewrestaurant.”

2.Purpose.Normally,most people startwith a “purpose” header,whichhelps the groupbrainstorm the purposes for pursuing a particular topic. Each brainstormed purpose iswrittenonacardandpostedbeneaththe“purpose”card.Forexample,amongthepossiblepurposesforstartingannewrestaurantaremakingmoney,fulfillinganeed,andservingthecustomer.

3.Headers.Identifyandlist“headers,”whichareprimarilythemajorissues,attributes,orsolutioncategoriesof theprocess.Eachone iswrittenonacardandposted.Ourexamplehas these headers: “purpose,” “name,” “location,” “theme,” “architecture,” “atmosphere,”“seating,” “menu,” “employees,” “entertainment,” and “miscellaneous.” Arrange andrearrangetheheadersuntilyoucomeupwiththesequencethatbesttellsthestory.

4.Miscellaneous.It’sagoodideatoincludea“miscellaneous”headertocontainallthoseitemsthatdon’tfitwithintheothercategories.Placethoughtsinthiscolumnastherestofthe columns are brainstormed. Someof thesemaybecome separate headers themselves ifenough similar items appear in the miscellaneous column. In our example, supposeparticipants listed several advertising and marketing suggestions and ideas. These ideaswouldcreateadditionalheaders,orifsignificantenough,mightmeritseparatestoryboards.

5.Brainstorm.Groupmembersuseeachcategoryasastimulus forproblemsolutionsandwrite these ideas, solutions, and thoughts on cards. Each card is posted beneath theappropriate header card. For example, all the brainstormednames for the new restaurantwould be posted underneath the “Name” header, all the suggestedmenu itemswould be

listedunderthe“Menu”header,andsoon.Duringastoryboardsession,considerall ideasrelevant,nomatterhowimpractical theyappear.Encouragethegrouptothinkpositivelyanddeferjudgmentuntilalatertime.Oncethe ideas start flowing, those working with the storyboard will become immersed in theproblem and will “hitchhike” onto other ideas to create additional ideas. Encourageparticipants to examine the solutions and try to generate additional ideas from them orcombinesolutionsacrosscategoriesandusethemasstimulifornewideas.

6. Flexibility. Keep the storyboard flexible and dynamic. As ideas and suggestionsaccumulate,youmayfinditnecessarytoaddmoreheaders.Forexample,inourrestaurantexample,“environment”couldbesplitinto“physicalenvironment”and“atmosphere.”Thinkoftheboardasaliving,dynamicthingthatisconstantlyevolvingtowardtheidealsolution.

7.Incubate.Theprocesscontinuesuntilthegroupgeneratesasufficientnumberofideasortimeiscalled.It’susuallyagoodideatobrainstormforideasusingastoryboardoveratimeperiodofafewdaysorweekstoallowtheideastoincubateandcross-fertilize.

8.Materials.Youcanuseawidevarietyofmaterialstocreateyourstoryboard:corkboards,whiteboards, chalkboards, orwalls, anything thatprovides a surfacewhereyou canadd,delete, or move things around. You can use different colors to distinguish headers andcolumns.Dependingonwhichsystemyouuse,you’llneedpushpins,scissors,widemarkingpens, chalk, and a supply of cards, Post-it notes, or Jotz notes. Take a photographof thecompletedboardsoitcanbereconstructedandreworkedinthefuture,ifnecessary.Thebeautyof storyboarding is in its flexibilityandadaptability toyourneeds.Youcanmodifytheguidelinestomeetyourrequirements.It’sagoodideatokeeptheprocesssimpleatfirst.Afteryou’vebecomecomfortablewithit,youcanexpanditatwill.

AFTERWORD

In the introduction, I wrote about my fascination with CharlesDarwin’s theoryofbiologicalevolutionand theattemptsof scholars toapplyDarwinianideastocreativityandgenius.IfirstbecameinterestedinDarwinincollegewhenIreadaboutDarwin’sexperiencewithJohnGould.WhenDarwinreturnedtoEnglandafterhevisitedtheGalapagos,he distributed his finch specimens to professional zoologists to beproperly identified. One of the most distinguished experts was JohnGould.WhatwasthemostrevealingwasnotwhathappenedtoDarwin,butwhathadnothappenedtoGould.Darwin’s notes showGould takinghim through all the birds he had

named. Gould kept flip-flopping back and forth about the number ofdifferent species of finches: The information was there, but he didn’tquiteknowwhattomakeofit.HeassumedthatsinceGodmadeonesetof birds when he created the world, the specimens from differentlocations would be identical. It didn’t occur to him to look fordifferences by location.Gould thought that thebirdswere sodifferentthattheymightbedistinctspecies.What was remarkable to me about the encounter is the completely

differentimpactithadonthetwomen.Gouldthoughtthewayhehadbeen taught to think, like an expert taxonomist, anddidn’t see, in thefinches, the textbook exampleof evolutionunfolding right beforehim.Darwin didn’t even know theywere finches. So the guywho had theintelligence,knowledge,andtheexpertisedidn’tseethedifferences,andtheguywithfarlessknowledgeandexpertisecameupwithanideathatshapedthewaywethinkabouttheworld.Darwincameupwith the ideabecausehewasaproductive thinker.

He generated amultiplicity of perspectives and theories. Gouldwouldcomparenewideasandtheorieswithhisexistingpatternsofexperience.Hethoughtreproductively.Iftheideasdidn’tfitwithwhathehadbeentaught,he rejected themasworthless.On theotherhand,Darwinwaswilling to disregard what past thinkers thought and was willing to

entertaindifferentperspectivesanddifferenttheoriestoseewheretheywouldlead.Mostusareeducated to think likeJohnGould.Wewereallbornasspontaneous,creativethinkers.Yetagreatdealofoureducationmayberegardedastheinculcationofmind-sets.Weweretaughthowtohandleproblems and new phenomena with fixed mental attitudes (based onwhatpastthinkersthought)thatpredetermineourresponsetoproblemsorsituations.Inshort,weweretaught“what”tothinkinsteadof“how”to think. We entered school as a question mark and graduated as aperiod.Consequently,wetendtoprocessinformationthesamewayoverandoveragaininsteadofsearchingforalternatives.Oncewethinkweknowwhat works or can be done, it becomes hard for us to consideralternativeideas.Wetendtodevelopnarrowideasandstickwiththemuntil proven wrong. Let’s say that to advertise our product, we usetelevision commercials during a popular prime-time sitcom. We arefairlyhappywiththeresults,andthetelevisioncampaignseemstowork.Arewe going to check out other ideas that we don’t thinkwill be asgood or better? Arewe likely to explore alternativeways to advertiseourproduct?Probablynot.Evenwhenweactivelyseekinformationtotestourideastoseeifweare right, we usually ignore paths that might lead us to discoveralternatives. Following is an interesting experiment, which wasoriginally conducted by the British psychologist Peter Watson, thatdemonstrates this attitude. Watson would present subjects with thefollowingthreenumbersinsequence.

Hewouldthenasksubjectstoexplainthenumberruleforthesequenceandtogiveotherexamplesoftherule.Thesubjectscouldaskasmanyquestionsastheywishedwithoutpenalty.Hefoundthatalmostinvariablymostpeoplewillinitiallysay,“Four,Six,Eight”orsomesimilarsequence.AndWatsonwouldsay,“Yes,thatisanexampleofanumber rule.”Then theywill say, “twenty, twenty-two,twenty-four”or“fifty,fifty-two,fifty-four”andsoon—allnumbersincreasingbytwo.Afterafewtries,andgettingaffirmativeanswerseach

time,theyareconfident,withoutexploringalternativepossibilities,thattheruleisthatthenumbersincreasebytwo.Actually,theruleWatsonwaslookingforismuchsimpler;it’ssimplythatthenumbersincrease.Theycouldbe1,2,3or10,20,40or400,678, 10,944. And testing such an alternative would be easy. All thesubjects had to say was “one, two, three” toWatson to test it and itwouldbeaffirmed.Orforexample,asubjectcouldthrowoutanyseriesofnumbers—forexample,5,4,3-toseeiftheygotapositiveornegativeanswer.Andthatinformationwouldtellthemalotaboutwhethertheirguessabouttheruleistrue.The profound discoveryWatsonmadewas thatmost people processthe same information over and over until proven wrong, withoutsearching for alternatives, even when there is no penalty for askingquestions that give them a negative answer. In his hundreds ofexperiments, he, incredibly, never had an instance in which someonespontaneously offered an alternative hypotheses to find out if it weretrue.Inshort,hissubjectsdidn’teventrytofindoutifthereisasimpler—orevenanother—rule.Creativegeniusesdon’tthinkthisway.Thecreativegeniuswillalwayslook for alternativeways to think about a subject. Evenwhen the oldwaysarewellestablished,thegeniuseswillinventnewwaysofthinking.If something doesn’twork, they look at it several differentways untilthey find a new line of thought. It is this willingness to entertaindifferentperspectivesandalternativeideasthatbroadenstheirthinkingandopensthemuptonewinformationandthenewpossibilitiesthattherestofusdon’tsee.Insummary,creativegeniusesareproductivethinkers.Tochangethewayyouthinkandbecomeamoreproductivethinker,youneedtolearnhow to think like a genius.When you need original ideas or creativesolutionsforyourbusinessandpersonalproblems,youneedto

• Generate a multiplicity of different perspectives about your subject until you find theperspectiveyouwant.Geniusoftencomesfromfindinganewperspectivethatnooneelsehastaken.•Generate a large quantity of alternatives and conjectures. From this quantity, retain thebestideasforfurtherdevelopmentandelaboration.•Producevariationinyourideasbyincorporatingrandom,chance,orunrelatedfactors.

As Iwrote these finalwords, Iwas reminded of an ancient ChinesestoryaboutarainmakerwhowashiredtobringraintoaparchedpartofChina.Therainmaker,asmall,wizened,oldman,uponarriving,sniffedtheairwithobviousdisgustashegotoutofhiscartandaskedtobeleftalone in a cottage outside the village; even his meals were to be leftoutsidethedoor.Nothingwasheardfromhimforthreedays.Thenitnotonlyrained,

buttherewasalsoabigdownfallofsnow,unknownatthattimeoftheyear.Verymuchimpressed,thevillagerssoughthimoutandaskedhimhow he couldmake it rain and even snow. The rainmaker replied, “Ihavenotmade the rainor the snow; I amnot responsible for it.”Thevillagers insisted that theyhadbeen in themidstof a terribledroughtuntil he came, and then after three days they even had quantities ofsnow.“Oh,Icanexplainthat.Yousee,therainandsnowwerealwayshere.

ButassoonasIgothere,Isawthatyourmindswereoutoforderandthatyouhadforgottenhowtosee.SoIremainedhereuntiloncemoreyoucouldseewhatwasalwaysrightbeforeyoureyes.”It ismyhope that the strategies in this bookwill showyouhow to

lookfordifferentwaystothinkaboutyourproblems.Whenyoudothat,you will rethink the way you see things, and you, like the Chinesevillagers,willseewhatisrightbeforeyoureyes.

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