Cooking · cooking (digesting) continued. Fermentation was a puzzle; it remains so: as Andrew ... where fish is cooked with the acids in lemon or lime juice. Preparing food with heat

COOKING

1

Cooking

Georges M. Halpern, MD, DSc

Notice to the Reader

This essay underwent many, lengthy metamorphoses and incarnations. It was thevictimofbulimia,obesity,stammeringandstuttering,andtoomanyotherdeadlybirthdefects.Iattemptedtofixthem;IamnotsurethatIsucceeded,andyouarewelcometoe-mailmeyourverdictandsuggestions.

COOKING

2

Part 1: Between Heaven and Hearth My Passion for Food and Cooking

AsfarasIcanrememberIwasalwaysfascinatedwithfood.Aren’tweall?Eitherwelackaccess,orwestumblebecauseof infinitechoices,withallthestingsofdesireplantedbythedevilsofadvertising.

Cookingallowedforcomplexthinking,creativefoodpreparations,diversecuisinesbased on resources, but even more on invention. These are found everywhere,including in theEpic of Gilgamesh, the Iliad, theYellowEmperor Inner Canon, theMahabharata.Thecosmoswasenclosedbythearcofheavenwiththerisingofthesun in theEastand itssetting in theWest.Cookingdrovechanges in thecosmos;humansimitatedandimprovedwithagricultureandtheirkitchens.

Besides thePrincipleofHierarchy, theSacrificialBargain, culinaryCosmosstatedthat foodswerepartofanelaboratesystemofages, compassdirections, seasons,colors,tastesandflavors,andmuchmore.(Cooked)Foodsmadeushumans,awareofourcondition,existence,dutiesinoursocietalcommunity,andouruniqueplaceintheworld.Cookingeliminatedtheslag,revealedandmagnifiedthetrueessence,themagicandsanctityoffood.InChina,waterhad/hastobecooked.

ThefieryraysoftheSunandthewateryonesoftheMooncommandedandsustainedtheCosmos,asfireandwaterweretransforming–eventransmogrifying-foodsinthekitchen.Firewasathingthatyousawandcouldtouch,thatburntyou,thatfrolickedwhenfedwithfuel,andeventuallydiedofexhaustion.Alsonewhumanswerecooked(or baked) in thewomb, a steamy caldronwheremale seedsmixedwith femalejuices.

Consumedcookedfoodspassedthroughthehotsteamycaldronofthebellywherecooking(digesting)continued.Fermentationwasapuzzle;itremainsso:asAndrewWaterhouseofUCDavissays:‘Wineismagic’.

Inhistory,therehavebeen–andtheydopersist-threerulesgoverningcookingandeating:youshouldeataccordingtoyourrankinsocietyandplaceinthecosmos;youshouldeatfoodcookedasthoroughlyaspossible;youshouldparticipateinthefeastthatfollowsthesacrificetothemanes,thegod(s),theancestors,thespirits.

COOKING

3

Cooking Cookingorcookeryistheartandtechnologyofpreparingfoodforconsumptionwith the use of heat. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely acrosstheworld,fromgrillingfoodoveranopenfiretousingelectricstoves,tobakinginvarious types of ovens, reflecting unique environmental, economic, and culturaltraditionsandtrends.Thewaysortypesofcookingalsodependontheskillandtypeof training an individual cook has. Cooking is done both by people in their owndwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other foodestablishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without thepresence of heat,most notablywithceviche, a traditional SouthAmerican dishwherefishiscookedwiththeacidsinlemonorlimejuice.

Preparingfoodwithheatorfireisanactivityuniquetohumans.Humanshavebeeneatingcookedfoodsforoveramillionyears.

East African sites, such as Chesowanja (near Lake Baringo), Koobi Fora, andOlorgesailie inKenya, show potential evidence that fire was utilized by earlyhumans.AtChesowanja,archaeologistsfoundfire-hardenedclayfragments,datedto1.42mya(millionyears).Analysisshowedthat,inordertohardenit,theclaymusthavebeenheatedtoabout400°C.AtKoobiFora,twositesshowevidenceofcontroloffirebyHomoerectusatabout1.5mya,withreddeningofsedimentassociatedwithheating the material to 200–400 °C. At a "hearth-like depression" at a site inOlorgesailie, Kenya, some microscopiccharcoalwas found—but that could haveresultedfromnaturalbrushfires.

A site at Bnot Ya'akov Bridge, Israel is reported to evidence thatH. erectusorH.ergastercontrolledfiretherebetween790,000and690,000BCE;todatethisclaimhasbeenwidelyaccepted.Also,thatHomoerectuswascookingtheirfoodasearlyas500,000 years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes fromtheWonderwerkCave,SouthAfrica,hasbeendubbedevidencesupportinghumancontroloffirethereby1mya.

Researchershaverecentlyconfirmedearlierwork,whichshowedthatthedropinmolarsizethatoccurredinHomoerectus,inNeanderthals,andinHomosapiensfaroutstripped what would be expected by comparing it with other evolutionary

COOKING

4

changes going in the body. The team found thatHomo erectus andNeanderthalsspentthesameamountoftimeeachdayeatingasdomodernhumans.ThatlikelymeanscookingarosebeforeHomoerectusevolved,1.9millionyearsago.Hencethereareplentyofgoodreasonswhythepracticehassurvivedtothisday.

Most anthropologists believe that widespread cooking fires began only about250,000yearsago,whenhearthsstartedappearing.

Todaycookingisseenbymanyasaculinaryart.Itiseasytoforgetthatitplayedamajor role inhumandevelopment.Cookinggreatly increased thevarietyof foodsavailable for consumption and decreased the amount of time spent seeking outingestiblerawfoods,orover6hoursadaychewingthem.Asaresult,ourbodiesevolvedtoaccommodatecookedfood,fromtheshapeofourteethandjawstothesizeandfunctionofourdigestiveorgans.Eatingcookedfoodallowsourbodiestodigest and absorb more nutrients than eating raw food. Indeed, there arecertainnutrientsinsomerawfruitsandvegetablesthatarealmostimpossibletodigestorabsorbunlesstheyarecooked.

COOKING

5

Certain foods are associated with disrupted thyroid hormone production. Foodsbelongingtothecruciferousfamilyarecalled“crucifers,”andincludebroccoli,kale,cauliflower,Brusselssprouts,cabbage,mustard,kohlrabi,andturnips.Thesefoodsappear to reduce thyroid function by blocking thyroid peroxidase, and also bydisruptingmessagesinthyroidcells.Cookingthesevegetablesgreatlyreducesthesenegativeeffects.Lycopene isaphytonutrient that ismuchbetterabsorbedby thebody from cooked or processed tomatoes than from raw ones. Anotherphytonutrient that ismorereadilyavailable forabsorptionwhencooked is luteinfound incorn.Similarly,carotenoids found inred,yellow,orangeandmanydark-greenleafyvegetablesareagoodsourceofvitaminA,andtheyaremuchmoreeasilyabsorbedwhencooked.

Thethreebasic foodgroups—carbohydrates,proteinand fats—area loteasier todigestandabsorbcookedthanraw.Imagineeatingriceinitsuncookedstate,orsteakandeggs,forthatmatter!Mealswouldnotbeapleasantexperience.

Cookingfooddramaticallyimprovesitstasteandaroma,too.TheMaillardreaction,which isachemicalprocess thatusesheat to turn foodbrownwithout theuseofenzymes,makesfoodsmellandtastebetter.

Also,eatingfoodrawtakesasignificantamountofenergyforchewinganddigesting.Justcompare theeffort required toeata rawcarrotversusacookedone—eatinguncookedfoodsisnotanefficientdeliverysystemforthefuelanactivebodyneeds.

Apartfromtasteanddigestionfactors,cookingfoodisahealthychoice.Heatingfoodkills dangerous microbes. Cooking kills food-bornebacteria, including strainsassociated with raw meat products such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella,Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, and Listeria. The potential energy savings due toreducedimmunemaintenanceandup-regulationcouldbesizable.

Rawwildmeatispossiblylesspathogen-bearingonaveragethanrawmeatthathasbeenraisedandprocessedformass-marketconsumption.Whenmeatisprocessed

COOKING

6

attheslaughterhouse,E.coliandotherpathogensfromtheintestinescaninvadethegroundmeat.Thisiswhymostoutbreaksinvolveburgersandotherformsofgroundmeatbut isnotusually associatedwith steaks.Thesepathogensdonot enter theinsideofthemuscletissue(steaks).Wheneatingindustriallyraisedredmeat,itissuggested to cook burgers well. New processing techniques in industrial meatfacilities, such as piercing steaks to improve texture of tougher cuts ofmeat, canmeanthatpathogensmaybeenteringsteaksaswellasburgers.Slowcookingmeatappearstobeoneofthebestmethodstopreparemeatforoptimaldigestibility.

Cookingdoespreventmanyfood-borneillnessesthatwouldotherwiseoccurifthefoodwere eaten raw.Whenheat is used in thepreparationof food, it cankill orinactivate harmful organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, as well as variousparasitessuchastapewormsandToxoplasmagondii.Food poisoningandotherillnessfromuncookedorpoorlypreparedfoodmaybecausedbybacteriasuchaspathogenic strains of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium or Campylobacter,virusessuchasnoroviruses,andprotozoasuchasEntamoebahistolytica.Parasitesmaybeintroducedthroughsalad,meatthatisuncookedordonerare,andunboiledwater.

Thesterilizingeffect of cooking depends on temperature, cooking time, andtechniqueused.However,somebacteriasuchasClostridiumbotulinumorBacilluscereuscanformsporesthatsurviveboiling,whichthengerminateandregrowafterthe foodhascooled. It is thereforerecommended thatcooked foodshouldnotbereheated more than once to avoid repeated growths that allow the bacteria toproliferatetodangerouslevel.

When considering meat, there seems to be some evidence that processing meateither by pounding, drying, curing or cooking is beneficial. Pounding meat andmakingitsoftseemstoreducethecostofdigestion,partlybecauseitcanpassmorequickly through the gut. The collagen surrounding each fascicle of muscle fibersgenerallyremainstootoughformasticationuntilheatedto60–70C,whencollagenbeginstobehydrolyzedintogelatin,asolubleprotein.Althoughthemusclefibersthemselves remain tough, eat meat cooked beyond this temperature leads togelatinization of the collagen, which separates themuscle fibers and the gelatin. Improvedtextureofmeatmakesiteasiertochew,andeasierforourbodiestobreakdown.Alsowhenthefatsareheatedtooilfromafat,it’seasierforbiletoemulsify

COOKING

7

andultimatelyleadstofasterabsorption.Instudies,humansandchimpspreferthetasteofcookedmeat,leadingtouseatingmoreofit.Consumptionofmoreproteinmeantlargerbrainsandbiggermusclesasweevolved.

Itcanalsomakeiteasiertopreservefood.Somerootplantsareessentiallyinedibleor even toxic until cooked for awhile. Storage of cooked food is convenient andpreventsspoilage.

The thermiceffectof food(TEF) isdefinedas the increase inmetabolicrateafteringestionofameal,duetoenergyspentondigestion,absorptionandmetabolizingnutrients.Cookingalsoappearstohaveapositiveeffectonnetenergyinthebody.Humansonvegetariandietsexhibithigherreproductiveperformancewheneatingcooked food than raw food. Evidence of low energy intake in women eatingpredominantlyrawfoodissupportedbytheirhavinghigherratesofamenorrheaormenstrual irregularitiesthanthoseeatingcookedfood. Inonestudy, itwasfoundthatmenstruationwasabsentin23%offemalesofchildbearingagewhoateatleast70%oftheirfoodrawandin50%ofwomenreportinga100%rawdiet.Althoughthesewomenwereprimarilyvegetarian,theadditionofrawmeattothedietdidnotchange the odds of ovarian suppression. The researchers concluded thatwomensufferedbecauseoftheirrelativelylownetenergygainasaconsequenceofeatingtheirfoodraw.Inanotherstudy,anutritionalanalysissuggestedthatintraditionalcommunities, a diet of raw wild foods would render survival and reproductiondifficult.

Vitaminsarematerialsrequiredfornormalmetabolismbutwhichthebodycannotmanufactureitselfandwhichmustthereforecomefromexternalsources.Vitaminscomefromseveralsourcesincludingfreshfruitandvegetables(VitaminC),carrots,liver(VitaminA),cerealbran,bread,liver,ourowngutmicrobiota(Bvitamins),fishliveroil(Vitamin D)andfreshgreenvegetables(Vitamin K).Manymineralsarealsoessentialinsmallquantitiesincludingiron,calcium,magnesiumandsulfur;andinverysmallquantitiescopper,zincandselenium.Themicronutrients,minerals,andvitaminsinfruitandvegetablesmaybedestroyedorelutedbycooking.VitaminCisprone to oxidation during cooking and some may be destroyed by protractedcooking. The bioavailability of some vitamins such as thiamin (vitamin B1),pyridoxine(vitaminB6),niacin,folateandcarotenoidsareincreasedwithcookingbybeingfreedfromthefoodmicrostructure.Blanchingorsteamingvegetablesisaway

COOKING

8

ofminimizingvitaminandminerallossincooking.

Cookingalsoincreasesthedigestibilityofsomefoodsbecausemanyfoods,suchasgrains,areinediblewhenraw,andsomearepoisonous.Forexample,kidneybeansare toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence ofphytohemagglutinin,whichcanbeinactivatedaftercookingforatleasttenminutesat100°C.Aslowcookerhowevermaynotreachthedesiredtemperatureandcasesofpoisoningfromredbeanscookedinaslowcookerhavebeenreported.

Otherconsiderations for foodsafety incooking include thepreparation,handling,andstorageoffood.AccordingtotheUSDA,thetemperaturerangesfrom4to60°Cis the "Danger zone"where bacteria are likely to proliferate, and food thereforeshould not be stored in this temperature range.Washing of hands and surfaces,especially when handling different meats, and keeping raw food separate fromcooked food to avoid cross-contaminationaregoodpractices in food safety.Foodpreparedonplasticcuttingboardsmaybelesslikelytoharborbacteriathanwoodenones.Washingandsanitizingcuttingboardsishighlyrecommended,especiallyafterusewithrawmeat,poultry,orseafood.Hotwaterandsoapfollowedbyarinsewithadilutedantibacterialcleaner,oratripthroughadishwasherwitha"sanitize"cycle are effective methods for reducing the risk of illness due to contaminatedcookingimplements.

There are verymanymethodsof cooking,most ofwhichhavebeenknown sinceantiquity. These include baking, roasting, frying, grilling, barbecuing, smoking,boiling, steaming and braising. More recent innovations are microwaving andinductioncooking.

Variousmethodsusedifferinglevelsofheatandmoistureandvaryincookingtime.The method chosen greatly affects the end result because some foods are moreappropriatetosomemethodsthanothers.

COOKING

9

COOKING

10

COOKING

11

Fermentationisanon-thermalprocessthatproduceschemicalchangesbyenzymesproduced from bacteria, microorganisms or yeasts and is one of the oldestknownfoodpreservationtechniques.Duringfermentation,thecarbohydrateenergysourceinfood,suchaslactoseinmilkisconvertedtolacticacid.Thesamehappenswhen pickles are produced from cucumbers. Mushrooms and the yeast used inbakingarekindsoffungi.Yeastsconvertglucose toethanolandcarbondioxide.Manyhealth-producingsecondarymetabolitesareproducedthroughfermentation,especiallyBvitaminsandbioactivepeptidesthatcanbeantimicrobialandimmune-stimulatory.Intheearly1900sitwasrealizedthatbifidobacteriamaybeeffectiveinpreventinginfectionininfantsandtheconsumptionoffermentedmilkswereseentoreverseputrefactiveeffectsofthegutmicroflora,leadingtothedevelopmentoftheprobioticconcept.

Recent research is translating into new products now reaching the market .Examples include Eleve, a company being started at and by the University ofCalifornia Davis, commercializing Bifido longhum infantis –the uniqueBifidobacterium associated with healthy, breastfed newborns- with human milkoligosaccharides to promote much better long-term health and development ininfantswhoareformula-fed.

COOKING

12

Probioticsarealsousedinthetreatmentofinfectionsandusedtopromoteahealthyimmunesystem.Anewcompany,Synbiotics,wasstartedatandbytheMITtousespecific gene(s) insertion to create novel probiotics, and a series of powerful –hopefullysafe-medications.Consumingfermentedfoodswillimprovethepresenceofhealthybacteriainthegut.

Alloftheseimprovesurvivalratesofpopulationsanditisatthepopulationlevelthatevolutionworks.Nodoubt,then,thatcookinghasgivenusaveryspecialplaceinthefoodchain.Ithasmadeushumans.Ithasalsohelpeddefineusculturallythroughourcuisines.Howmuchlessinterestinglifewouldbewithoutthejoyofcooking!

Cooking –andmuch,muchmore- andmost phenomena that surroundus requireenergy: theprocessesofEarth's climateandecosystemaredrivenby the radiantenergyEarthreceivesfromthesunandthegeothermalenergycontainedwithintheearth.Heatandworkarespecialcasesinthattheyarenotpropertiesofsystemsbutare instead properties of processes that transfer energy. In general, we cannotmeasurehowmuchheatorworkarepresentinanobject,butratheronlyhowmuchenergyistransferredamongobjectsincertainwaysduringtheoccurrenceofagivenprocess.Heatandworkaremeasuredaspositiveornegativedependingonwhichsideofthetransferweviewthemfrom.

Basic overview of energy and human life

Inbiology,energyisanattributeofallbiologicalsystemsfromthebiospheretothesmallest living organism. Within an organism, it is responsible for growth and

COOKING

13

development of a biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism (e.g.mitochondria).Energyisthusoftensaidtobestoredbycellsinthestructuresofmolecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, andproteins,whichreleaseenergywhenreactedwithoxygenandrespiration.Sunlightis also captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis, whencarbondioxideandwater(twolow-energycompounds)areconvertedintothehigh-energycompoundscarbohydrates, lipids,andproteins.Plantsalsoreleaseoxygenduring photosynthesis, which is utilized by living organisms as an electron acceptor,toreleasetheenergyofcarbohydrates,lipids,andproteins.Releaseoftheenergystoredduringphotosynthesis,asheatorlight,maybetriggeredsuddenlyby a spark, in a forest fire, ormade availablemore slowly for animal or humanmetabolism, when these molecules are ingested, and catabolism is triggered byenzymeaction.

Anylivingorganismreliesonanexternalsourceofenergy—radiationfromtheSuninthecaseofgreenplants,chemicalenergyinsomeforminthecaseofanimals—tobeabletogrowandreproduce.Ingrowingorganisms,theenergythatisconvertedtoheatservesavitalpurpose,asitallowstheorganismtissuetobehighlyorderedwithregardto themolecules it isbuilt from.Thesecond lawof thermo-dynamicsstatesthatenergy(andmatter)tendstobecomemoreevenlyspreadoutacrosstheuniverse. Simpler organisms can achieve higher energy efficiencies than morecomplexones,butthecomplexorganismscanoccupyecologicalnichesthatarenotavailabletotheirsimplerbrethren.

COOKING

14

Great Cuisines of the World Aquestioncomesbackagainandagain:whataretheGreatCuisinesoftheWorld?Orwhichonedoyouconsidertobethegreatest?

Chinesecuisinesaretheonlyonesthathavesurvived(intheiroriginalform)tothesedays,andpossiblytheperfectexampleofabsorbingandintegratingfoods,productsor techniques from other continents, countries, climates or cultures. Others,includingItalian,French,Indian(many),Spanish,Japanese,Moroccan,Vietnamese,Thai,EastMediterranean/Turkish,IndonesianorMexicancamelaterand/orhaveundergonetoomanychanges,incarnationsandcolonizationsbeforereachingtheircurrentstatus.Theirraisond’être–besidesfeeding-isappealingtosenses,surprise,prestige,artevenbutarenotintimatelyinterwovenwithtraditionalmedicine–itselfpart of a ~4,000-year-old but still omnipresent cosmogony: Chinese is the onlysuccessful,verymuchaliveone.

Sincethe17thcenturyCE,Frenchcuisinehasbeenconsideredtoreignsupreme,butthis isan illusion–orablatant lie! Italiancuisinesweretheonesthatshapedandmoldedmostmoderncuisines;afterthefalloftheRomanEmpireittookafewshortcenturies for Sicily to be conquered and changed by theArabs (827-1091). Theybrought rice, spices, and opened the final legs of the Orient and Silk Roads to ablessedclimateandopen-minded,welcomingpeoplesandcultures.Soontherise,influence,domination,splendorandtradingempireofVenicewouldamplifythesetrendstowardstheByzantine,Ottoman,andArabEmpiresaswellastowardstheFarEastwiththelikesofMarcoPolo.

The cuisines of the world changed when the Europeans navigators, explorers,colonialistsstartedcirclingtheworldandpilferingtheNewWorld.After1550CE,foodbecameglobalized.Much,many,andinsomecountriesmostofthestaplescamefromMeso-orSouthAmerica;Italyadoptedmanythatarenowinseparablefromitscuisines. But Italy was then a much more civilized, open, artistic, creative andadvanced society than most -notably France. Food hygiene was practiced, tablemanners imposed, servicewasboth impressive in courts, papacyor at bourgeoismeals. When Caterina de’ Medici married, in 1553, King Henri II of France, sheintroducedalonglistoffoods,techniquesandutensilsfromItalytoFranceforthefirsttime.Herlegacyisamongstthemostenduringandwidespreadinfoodhistory.

COOKING

15

Theseincludethedinnerfork,parsley,lettuce,broccoli,artichokes,thegardenpea,pasta,Parmesan,aswellastheturkey,beans(insteadoffavas)andtomatoesoftheNew World.Shehasalsoreceivedcreditforintroducingsaucesandavarietyofdishes such asduck à l’orange anddeviled eggs. She alsobrought ice creammakers,maîtred’s,realprofessionalmastercookswhorecreatedthecomplexarrayofculinarytechniques.

SincethatwasthecourtoftheKingofFrance,allwasrapidlycopiedbythenobilityandcourtiersandspreadtonearbycountries,withwars,diplomacyandalliances.

François-PierredelaVarenne,inLeCuisinierfrançois(1651),wasthefirsttopresenttheconsiderableculinaryinnovationsachievedinFranceintheseventeenthcentury,while codifying food preparation in a systematicmanner, according to rules andprinciples.HeintroducedthefirstbisqueandBéchamelsauce.Hereplacedcrumbledbreadwithrouxasthebaseforsauces,andlardwithbutter.Hereonefindsthefirstusageofthetermsbouquetgarni,fondsdecuisine(stocks)andreductions,andtheuseofeggwhitesforclarification.Italsocontainstheearliestrecipeinprintformille-feuille.Thecookingofvegetablesisaddressed,anunusualdeparture.

Marie-Antoine Carême (1784-1833)worked as chef de cuisine to TalleyrandwhoactivelyencouragedCarêmeinthedevelopmentofanewrefinedfoodstyleusingherbs and fresh vegetables, simplified sauces with few ingredients. Talleyrandbecamea famoushostduringtheCongressofVienna(1815)—whenthecongressdisbanded,notonlythemapofEuropebutalsotheculinarytastesofitsupperclasseswerethoroughlyrevised.Carême'simpactonculinarymattersrangedfromtrivialtotheoretical. He is credited with creating the standard chef's hat, the toque; hedesigned new sauces and dishes; he published a classification of all sauces intogroups,basedonfourmothersauces.Heisalsofrequentlycreditedwithreplacingthepracticeofserviceàlafrançaise(servingalldishesatonce)withserviceàlarusse(servingeachdishintheorderprintedonthemenu)afterhereturnedfromserviceintheRussiancourt.

Finally,GeorgesAugusteEscoffier(1846–1935)wasaFrenchchef,restaurateurandculinarywriterwhopopularizedandupdatedtraditionalFrenchcookingmethods.He is a legendary figure among chefs and gourmets and was one of the mostimportantleadersinthedevelopmentofmodernFrenchcuisine.MuchofEscoffier'stechniquewasbasedonthatofMarie-Antoine Carême,oneofthecodifiersofFrench

COOKING

16

hautecuisine,butEscoffier'sachievementwastosimplifyandmodernizeCarême'selaborateandornatestyle.Inparticular,hecodifiedtherecipesforthefivemothersauces.ReferredtobytheFrenchpressasroidescuisiniersetcuisinierdesrois("kingofchefsandchefofkings"—thoughthishadalsobeenpreviouslysaidofCarême),Escoffier was France's preeminent chef in the early part of the 20th century.Alongsidetherecipesherecordedandinvented,anotherofEscoffier'scontributionstocookingwastoelevateittothestatusofarespectedprofessionbyintroducingorganizeddiscipline tohiskitchens.EscoffierpublishedLeGuideCulinaire(1903)that isstillusedasamajorreferencework,both inthe formofacookbookandatextbook on cooking. Escoffier's recipes, techniques and approaches to kitchenmanagementremainhighly influential todayandhavebeenadoptedbychefsandrestaurantsnotonlyinFrance,butalsothroughouttheworld.

However,Escoffierdidnotatallchangethecuisine,foodsupplyortechniquesoftheimmense majority of French (and other modest or poor) eaters; his cuisine –asquotedabove-wasforthekingsortheverywealthy.Onehadtowaituntilthe1970sfor a major change that would make the idea and recipes of ‘French cuisine’accessible to anddoableby themasses, e.g. theRecettes Inratables (“Recipes youcannotfail!”)byMichelOliver.

My late friend Raymond Oliver (I was his best man to his late marriage with aJapaneseyounglady)wasformorethan35yearstheownerofLeGrandVéfour***on theRuedeBeaujolais in theParis’ Palais-Royal district.His celebrity clienteleranged from statesmen like Winston Churchill and André Malraux, to writersincludingAlbertCamusandGeorges Simenon, to the industrialists and financiersHenryFordandDavidRockefeller.Hewasalsoaneruditewholovedtoremindusthat ‘French cuisine is…Chinese: Caterina de' Medici imported Italian cuisine andmanners toFrance;but the Italiansbased theirowncuisineon…noodles thatwereinventedbytheChinese!’

COOKING

17

Table Manners Sinceamealisasacrificialcommunionthatconnectsthehost,familyandguestsithas the rituals of celebration. Not the ones paraded on screen for mummifiedroyalties,limpingorfaintingpoliticians,orcelebritieswhosebrainishazelnut-sized;butthefamilyregularreunionthathonorsthefood,theprovider,themagiciancook,and shares these gifts with the diverse generations seated around the table. MyfriendClaudeFischlernamesitcommensality:“eatinganddrinkingatthesametableisafundamentalsocialactivity,whichcreatesandcementsrelationships.Italsosetsboundaries, includingorexcludingpeopleaccordingtoasetofcriteriadefinedbythegrouporsociety”.Henceétiquetteandmannersarederigueur.

Theseareobviouslynotinnateanddifferaccordingtoculture,rank,means,pride,location,andmanymore.Butaforeignvisitorissomewhatexpectedtoobserveandcomply.Thesesetsofrulescomplementandmagnifytheflavors,texturesofthefood,harmonizethechewwiththebeverage(s),andhelpeveryoneenjoythemomentandthecompany.Theyarenotrigidbutflexible;theyalsoevolveandadapt.Eachnewgenerationmoldsthemslightlydifferently,oftensimplified.

COOKING

18

Part 2: From Heaven to Hearth

ForChineseDaoists,aTripleBurnerinthestomachandintestinescookedfoodsintosweat,saliva,gastricjuices,andfinallyblood.Forthem,fermentationisjustanotherformofcooking.PregnantChinesewomenhadtostayawayfromfermentingfoodsforfearthattheseedcookinginthewombwouldinterferewiththefermentcookinginthejar.

Three%Early%Chinese%models%of%the%Universe%

The$Gai$Tian$Model$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$The$Hun$Tian$Model$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$The$$Shuen$Ye$Theory$$(Hemispherical$Dome)$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$(Celes6al$Sphere)$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$(Infinity)$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$

COOKING

19

Food,likeeverythinginthecosmos,wasmadeof4or5basicelements(wood,fireearth,metal,water,air)thatcouldbecombinedinadequateproportions.

Oil,water,salt,air,spices,aromatic,coloredfoodseachhavespecialsignificanceandproperties.Oil,congealedfire,containsthesparkoflife.Water–likefire-isatonceanagentandanelement;theultimateelement,tastelessbutabletocombineotherflavors into a harmonious blend. Pure sweet air is therapeutic, while foul air ispoisonous.Eat breath, not grains say the Daoists.Qiwhose character ismade ofcomponents that read as vapors arising from rice or millet (foods!) suffuses theuniverse; linkedwithsemen, it is theessence,energy,strengthderived fromfoodthatallowsthebodytogrow,developandact.Saltisapanacea,effectiveagainsttheplagueofworms;a little revealed the flavorsofbland foodwithoutdisplaying itspresence.

COOKING

20

Energy in the Dao Dao canbe roughly thoughtof as the flowof theUniverse, or as someessenceorpatternbehindthenaturalworldthatkeepstheUniversebalancedandordered.Itisrelatedtotheideaofqi,theessentialenergyofactionandexistence.Daoisanon-dualconcept–itisthegreaterwholefromwhichalltheindividualelementsoftheUniversederive.Daoismorecommonlyexpressedintherelationshipbetweenwu(voidoremptiness,inthesenseofwuji)andyinyang(thenaturaldynamicbalancebetweenopposites),leadingtoitscentralprincipleofwuwei(non-action,oractionwithoutforce).

Daoisusuallydescribedintermsofelementsofnature,andinparticularassimilartowater.Likewateritisundifferentiated,endlesslyself-replenishing,softandquietbutimmenselypowerful,andimpassivelygenerous.

PhysicalenergyasweknowitisnotpartofChinesetradition.Qiencompassesallforms–physical,chemical,biological-ofenergy.

IntraditionalChineseculture,qìorch'i,alsoknownasgiinKorean culture,kiin Japanese culture, is an active principle forming part of any living thing. Qiliterally translatesas"breath","air",or"gas",andfigurativelyas"materialenergy","lifeforce",or"energyflow".

Someelementsofqicanbeunderstoodinthetermenergywhenusedbywritersandpractitioners of various esoteric forms of spirituality and alternative medicine.ElementsoftheqiconceptcanalsobefoundinWesternpopularculture,forexample"TheForce"inStarWarsandJediism.NotionsintheWestofenergeia,élanvital,or"vitalism"arepurportedtobesimilar.

COOKING

21

The ancient Chinese described it as "life force". They believed qi permeatedeverything and linked their surroundings together. They likened it to the flowofenergyaroundandthroughthebody, formingacohesiveandfunctioningunit.Byunderstanding its rhythm and flow they believed they could guide exercises andtreatmentstoprovidestabilityandlongevity.

AlthoughtheconceptofqihasbeenimportantwithinmanyChinesephilosophies,over thecenturies thedescriptionsofqihavevariedandhavesometimesbeen inconflict.Until China came into contact with Western scientific and philosophicalideas,theyhadnotcategorizedallthingsintermsofmatterandenergy.Qiandli(理:"pattern")were'fundamental'categoriessimilartomatterandenergy.Fairlyearlyon, some Chinese thinkers began to believe that there were different fractionsofqiandthatthecoarsestandheaviestfractionsofqiformedsolids,lighterfractionsformedliquids,andthemostetherealfractionswerethe"lifebreath"thatanimateslivingbeings.Notonlyhumanbeingsandanimalswerebelievedtohaveqi.ZhuangziindicatedthatwindistheqioftheEarth.Moreover,cosmicyin and yang"arethegreatestofqi."Hedescribedqias"issuingforth"andcreatingprofoundeffects.Hesaid "Human beings are born [because of] the accumulation ofqi. When itaccumulates there is life.When it dissipates there is death... There is oneqithatconnectsandpervadeseverythingintheworld."

“Heaven(seenhereastheultimatesourceofallbeing)falls(duo墮,i.e.,descendsintoproto-immanence)as the formless.Fleeting, fluttering,penetrating,amorphous it is,andsoitiscalledtheSupremeLuminary.ThedaobeginsintheVoidBrightening.TheVoidBrighteningproduces theuniverse (yu-zhou).Theuniverseproducesqi.Qi hasbounds. The clear, yang [qi] was ethereal and so formed heaven. The heavy,turbid[qi]wascongealedand impededand so formedearth.Theconjunctionof theclear, yang[qi]was fluid and easy. The conjunction of the heavy, turbid[qi]wasstrainedanddifficult.Soheavenwasformedfirstandearthwasmadefastlater.Thepervading essence (xi-jing) of heaven and earth becomes yin and yang. Theconcentrated(zhuan)essencesofyinandyangbecomethefourseasons.Thedispersed(san)essencesofthefourseasonsbecomethemyriadcreatures.Thehotqiofyanginaccumulatingproducesfire.Theessence(jing)ofthefire-qibecomesthesun.Thecoldqi of yin in accumulating produceswater. The essence of thewater-qi becomes themoon.Theessencesproducedbycoitus(yin)ofthesunandmoonbecomethestarsandcelestialmarkpoints(chen,planets).”— Huai-nan-zi,3:1a/19

COOKING

22

TheconceptofQibearsnoresemblancetotheconceptasusedbyphysicists.Qiisanon-scientific,unverifiableconcept.AndthisremainsoneofthemajorchallengesforcommunicationbetweenWestern(science-based)andChinesescholars.

The Kitchen God and his Two Wives InChinesepopularbeliefs,therearethreedomainsinthecosmos-Heaven,Earth,andtheUnderworld-andeachdomainispopulatedbyahostofimportantgodsandgoddesses.

OneofthemostimportantdeitiesoftheEarthlyDomainwastheKitchenGod(orZaoJun, also known as the Hearth God or the Stove God). Every family had its ownKitchenGod,whowasconsideredtobethatparticularfamily’sguardian.TheKitchen

COOKING

23

Godwasanimportantintermediarybetweenafamilyandotherimportantgodssincethe stovewas thought to represent theunityof the family. In late-imperialChinatherewasaprocessknownas “familydivision,” inwhich twobrotherswhowerebothmarriedandhadchildrencoulddecide that theycanno longer live togetherpracticallyasonefamilyandwanttosplitupintotwofamilies.Whenthishappened,atleastoneofthebrothershadtodedicateanewKitchenGod,fortwofamiliescouldnotshareoneKitchenGod.

TheKitchenGodwasoftenrepresentedwithhiswife,orsometimeswithhis twowives.

Itwaswidelyheldthatonceayear,justbeforetheLunarNewYear,theKitchenGodwenttoHeaventoreporttotheJade Emperoronhisfamily’sactivitiesduringtheyear.Thefamily“sent”itsKitchenGodtoHeaventomakehisreportbyburningthepaperimagethathadhungoverthestovefortheentireyear.ButinordertoensureagoodreportbeforetheJadeEmperor,abitofhoneywouldfirstberubbedonthelipsof thepapergod, so thathewouldhaveonly sweet things to say to the JadeEmperor(orsothatthestickyhoneywouldpreventhimfromopeninghismouth,andnobadnewswouldgetout).

COOKING

24

Chinese Cuisines Chinese cuisineincludes styles originating from the diverse regions ofChina, aswell as from Chinese people in other parts of the world includingmostAsiannations.Thehistory of Chinese cuisineinChinastretchesback for thousands of years and has changed from period to period and in eachregion according to climate, imperial fashions, and local preferences. Over time,techniquesandingredientsfromthecuisinesofothercultureswereintegratedintothecuisineoftheChinesepeopleduebothtoimperialexpansionandfromthetradewithnearbyregionsinpre-moderntimes,andfromEuropeandtheNewWorldinthemodernperiod.

Classically the “Eight Culinary Cuisines” of China are Anhui, Cantonese, Fujian,Hunan,Jiangsu,Shandong,Sichuan,andZhejiangcuisines.

To illustrate in one map the real diversity and complexity of China’s culinarydiversity here’s the one published recently in the MIT Technology Review:https://www.technologyreview.com/s/517401/food-network-analysis-reveals-patterns-behind-chinese-regional-cuisines/

The colors of the different cuisines are superimposed on the provinces.

COOKING

25

Many cuisines cover more than one province, and some provinces offer diverse cuisines.

These results threw up a couple of surprises. First the research team found tworegional cuisines thatdiffered substantially fromeachother and fromeverythingelse:thecuisinesassociatedwithHongKongandYunGui.ThismayreflectthefactsthatethnicminoritieshavehistoricallyresidedintheYunGuiregionandthatHongKongwasruledbytheBritishEmpireandJapanformorethan100years.

Theyalsofoundthatthegeographicalproximity,ratherthanclimateproximity,isacrucialfactorthatdeterminesthesimilarityofregionalcuisines.

Thatalsoprovidesaninterestinginsightintothewayfoodculturesevolve.Clearly,Chinesepeoplemove(d)fromoneregiontoanother,takingtheirrecipeswiththem,where they can modify them as they wish. Obviously, that happens more oftenbetweenregionsthataregeographicallyclose.Historically,Chinesesocietygreatlyvaluedgastronomyanddevelopedanextensivestudyofthesubjectbasedonitstraditionalmedicalbeliefs.ChinesecultureinitiallycenteredaroundtheNorthChinaPlain.Thefirstdomesticatedcropsseemtohavebeen the foxtailandbroomcornvarieties ofmillet,whilericewas cultivated in thesouth.By2000BC,wheathadarrivedfromwesternAsia.

However,thesegrainsweretypicallyservedaswarmnoodlesoupsinsteadofbakedintobreadas inEurope.Nobleshuntedvariouswildgameandconsumedmutton,pork,dog,andbeefastheseanimalsweredomesticated.Grainwasstoredagainstfamineandfloodandmeatwaspreservedwithsalt,vinegar,curing,andfermenting.

BythetimeofConfuciusinthelateZhou,gastronomywasbecomingahighart.Hewasrecordeddiscussingonesuchpickyeater:"Forhim,thericecouldneverbewhiteenough.Whenitwasnotcookedright,hewouldnoteat.Whenitwasoutofseason,hewouldnoteat.Whenthemeatwasnotcutproperly,hewouldnoteat.Whenthefoodwasnotpreparedwiththerightsauce,hewouldnoteat."

DuringShiHuangdi'sQindynasty,theempireexpandedintothesouth.BythetimeoftheHanDynasty,thedifferentregionsandcuisinesofChina'speopleswerelinkedbymajorcanalsandleadingtogreatercomplexityinthedifferentregionalcuisines.Notonlyisfoodseenasgiving"qi",energy,butfoodisalsoaboutmaintainingyinandyang.Thephilosophybehind itwas rooted in the IChingandChinese traditionalmedicine:foodwasjudgedforcolor,aroma,taste,andtextureandagoodmealwas

COOKING

26

expected to balance the FourNatures ('hot',warm, cool, and 'cold') and the FiveTastes(pungent,sweet,sour,bitter,andsalty).Salt was used as a preservativefromearlytimes,butincookingwasaddedintheformofsoysauce,andnotatthetable. The predominance of chopsticks and spoons as eating utensils alsonecessitatedthatmostfoodbepreparedinbite-sizedpiecesor(aswithfish)besotenderthatitcouldbeeasilypickedapart.

During the Han dynasty, Chinese developed methods of food preservation formilitary rations during campaigns such as drying meat into jerky and cooking,roasting,anddryinggrain.ChineselegendsclaimthattheroastedflatbreadShaobing(shao-ping)wasbroughtbackfromtheXiyu(theWesternRegions,knownasCentralAsia) by theHan dynasty General Ban Chao, and that itwas originally known asHubing胡餅(barbarianpastry).Theshao-pingisbelievedtobedescendedfromtheHu-ping(Hubing)andtoberelatedtothePersianandCentralAsianNaanbreadandtheNear Eastern Pita bread. Foreignwesternersmade and sold sesame cakes inChinaduringtheTangdynasty.

During the Southern andNorthern Dynasties non-Han people like the Xianbei ofNorthern Wei introduced their cuisine to northern China, and these influencescontinueduptotheTangdynasty,popularizingmeatlikemuttonanddairyproductslikegoatmilk,yogurts,andKumisamongevenHanpeople.ItwasduringtheSongdynastythatHanChinesedevelopedanaversiontodairyproducts(oranintolerancetolactose)andabandonedthedairyfoodsintroducedearlier.TheHanChineserebelWang Su who received asylum in the Xianbei Northern Wei after fleeing fromSouthernQi,atfirstcouldnotstandeatingdairyproductslikegoat'smilkandmeatlikemuttonandhadtoconsumeteaandfishinstead,butafterafewyearshewasabletoeatyogurtandlamb,andtheXianbeiEmperorcouldaskhimwhichofthefoodsofChina(Zhongguo)hepreferred,fishvs.muttonandteavs.yogurt.

The greatmigration of Chinese people south during the invasions preceding andduring theSong dynasty increased the relative importance of southern Chinesestaplessuchasriceandcongee.TheYuanandQingdynastiesintroducedMongolianand Manchu cuisine, warm northern dishes which popularized hot pot cooking.During the Yuan dynasty many Muslim communities emerged in China, whopracticed a porkless cuisine now preserved by Hui restaurants throughout thecountry.YunnancuisineisuniqueinChinaforitscheeseslikeRubingandRushan

COOKING

27

cheesemade by the Bai people, and its yogurt that may have been due to acombination of Mongolian influence during the Yuan dynasty, the Central AsiansettlementinYunnan,andtheproximityandinfluenceofIndiaandTibetonYunnan.

Aspartofthelast legoftheColumbianExchange,SpanishandPortuguesetradersbegan introducing foods from theNewWorld to China through the port cities ofCantonandMacao.Mexicanchilipeppersbecameessential ingredients inSichuancuisine and calorically-dense potatoes and corn became staple foods across thenorthernplains.

During theQingDynasty, Chinese gastronomes such asYuanMei focuseduponaprimarygoalofextractingthemaximumflavorofeachingredient.However,asnotedinhisculinaryworktheSuiyuanshidan,thefashionsofcuisineatthetimewerequitevaried and in some cases were flamboyantly ostentatious, especially when thedisplayservedalsoaformalceremonialpurpose,asinthecaseoftheManchuHanImperialFeast.

Manchu Han Imperial Feast Simulated in the Tao Heung Museum of Food Culture, Fo Tan, Hong Kong

The People's Republic of China, amid numerous false starts, has largelyindustrialized food production. A side effect of this processwas the introductionofAmerican poultry-rearing techniques, which has greatly increased the relative

COOKING

28

consumptionofeggsandchickeninvariousChinesecuisines.

COOKING

29

Chinese Cooking Techniques

Chinese cooking techniques (Chinese:中餐烹調法) are a set of methods andtechniquestraditionallyusedinChinesecuisines.Thesedatebackmillenniabuthavebeen–andare-constantlyadaptedbyChinesechefs,withregionalvariationsduetodiverseopportunities,constraintsorlimitations.

Thecookingtechniquescaneitherbegroupedintoonesthatuseasinglecookingmethodoracombinationofwetanddrycookingmethods.

SingleManycookingtechniquesinvolveasingulartypeofheatedcookingoraction.

Wet

Wet-heat,immersion-basedcookingmethodsarethepredominateclassofcookingtechniquesinChinesecuisineandareusuallyreferredtoas"zhǔ"(煮).Infacttheterm(zhǔ,煮)iscommonlyusedtodenotecookingingeneral...

Quick

Fastwet-heatbasedcookingmethodsinclude:

English Equivalent

Chinese Pinyin Description

Braising

SimplifiedChinese:烧;traditionalChinese:燒

Shāo

Braisingingredientsovermediumheatinasmallamountofsauceorbrothandsimmeringforashortperiodoftimeuntilcompletion. Knownashongshao(红燒,lit.redcooked)whenthesauceorbrothissoysaucebased.

Quick\Boiling 氽or煠 DùnorZhá

Addingingredientsandseasoningstoboilingwaterorbrothandimmediatelyservingthedishwiththecookingliquidwheneverythinghascomebacktoaboil.

Scalding

焯orsimplifiedChinese:烫;traditionalChinese:燙

ChāoorTàng

Parcookingthroughquickimmersionofrawingredientsinboilingwaterorbrothone-timefollowedbyimmersionincoldwater.

COOKING

30

Prolonged

Prolongedwet-heatbasedcookingmethodsinclude:

English Equivalent


Bake stewing 煨 Wēi Slowlycookingaceramicvesselofbrothandotheringredientsbyplacingitinorclosetohotembers.

Gradual simmering

SimplifiedChinese:炖;traditionalChinese:燉

Dùn

Addingingredientstocoldwateralongwithseasoningsandallowingthecontentstoslowlycometoaprolongedsimmeringboil.ThisisknowninEnglishasdoublesteamingduetothevesselscommonlyusedforthiscookingmethod.ThetermisalsousedinChinesefortheWesterncookingtechniqueofstewingandbrewingherbalremediesofTraditionalChinesemedicine.

Slow red cooking

simplified Chinese:卤;traditional Chinese:滷

Lǔ

Cookingoverprolongedandconstantheatwiththeingredientscompletelyimmersedinastronglyflavouredsoysaucebasedbroth.Thistechnique,alongwithhongshao(红燒,lit),isknowninEnglishasredcooking.

Steaming 蒸or燖 Zhēng orXún

Steamingfoodtocompletionoverboilingwater.

Decoction 熬

Áo Cookingslowlytoextractnutrientsintothesimmeringliquid,usedtodescribethebrewingprocessinChineseherbologywiththeintentionofusingonlythedecoctedbrew.

COOKING

31

Dry

Air-based

Foodpreparationinhotdryvesselssuchasanovenoraheatedemptywokinclude:

English Equivalent Chinese Pinyin Description

Baking or Roasting 烤 Kǎo Cookingbyhotairthroughconvectionorbroilinginanenclosedspace

Smoking 熏 Xūn CookingindirectheatwithSmoke.Thesourceofthesmokeistypicallysugarortea.

Oil-based

Oil-based cookingmethods are one of themost common in Chinese cuisine andinclude:

English Equivalent Chinese Pinyin Description

Deep frying or Frying 炸 Zhá Fullorpartialimmersioncookinginhotoilorfat

Pan frying 煎 Jiān Cookinginapanwithalightcoatingofoilorliquidandallowingthefoodtobrown.

Stir frying or high heat Sautéing

炒

Chǎo Cookingingredientsathotoilandstirringquicklytocompletion.Thistechnique—aswellasbao(爆炒,油爆)—isknowninEnglishasstirfrying.ThistechniqueuseshigherheatthanthatofSautéing.

Flash-frying or High heat Stir frying

[油]爆 [Yóu]Bào Cookingwithlargeamountshotoil(油爆),sauces(酱爆),orbroth(汤爆)atveryhighheatandtossingtheingredientsinthewoktocompletion.

COOKING

32

Stirfrying(爆bào)isaChinesecookingtechniqueinvolvingrelativelylargeamountsofoil.

KianLamKhoidentifiesfivedistincttechniquesofstirfrying:English Equivalent Chinese Pinyin Description Plain stir-fry or Simple stir-fry

清炒

qīngchǎo Tostir-fryasingleingredient(witharomaticsandsauces).Aplainstir-fryusinggarlicisknownas蒜炒,suànchǎo.

Dry stir-fry or Dry wok stir-fry

煸炒 biānchǎo

Tostir-fryacombinationofproteinandvegetableingredients(witha smallamountofliquid).

Moist stir-fry

滑炒 huáchǎo

Tostir-fryacombinationofproteinandvegetableingredients(witha Gravy-likesauce).

Dry-fry or Extreme-heat stir-fry

干煸 gānbiān Toscorchinoilbeforestir-frying(withnoadditionofwater).

Scramble stir-fry 软炒 ruǎnchǎo Atechniqueformakingeggcustard.

Withoutheat

Foodpreparationtechniquesnotinvolvingtheheatingofingredientsinclude:

English Equivalent


Dressing 拌 Bàn Mixingraworunflavouredcookedingredientswithseasoningsandservedimmediately.Similartotossingadressingintosalad.

Marinating or pickling

腌 Yān Topickleormarinadeingredientsinsalt,soysauceorsoypastes.Useformakingpicklesorpreparingingredientsforadditioncooking.

Jellifying 凍 Dòng Toquicklycoolagelatinoragarosecontainingbrothtomakeaspicoragarjelly.

COOKING

33

Combination

The chicken in General Tso's chicken has been fried and lightly braised in sauce (Liu, 溜)

SeveraltechniquesinChineseinvolvemorethanonestageofcookingandhavetheirowntermstodescribetheprocess.Theyinclude:

• Dòng(凍):The technique isused formakingaspicbutalsoused todescribemakingofvariousgelatindesserts

1. Simmeringmeatforaprolongedperiodinabroth(Lu,滷)or(Dun,炖)2. Chillingtheresultingmeatandbrothuntilthemixturegels

• Hùi(燴 ): The dishes made using this technique is usually finished bythickeningwithstarch(勾芡)

3. Quickprecookinginhotwater(Tang,燙)4. Finishedbystir-frying(爆,炒)orShao(燒)

• Liū(溜):Thistechniqueiscommonlyusedformeatandfish.Pre-friedtofuismadeexpresslyforthispurpose.

5. Deepfrying(Zha,炸)theingredientsuntilpartiallycooked6. Finishing the ingredients lightly braising (Shao,燒) it to acquired a soft"skin"

• Mēn(燜):7. Stir-frying(爆,炒)theingredientsuntilpartiallycooked8. Coverandsimmer (Shao,燒)withbrothuntilbroth is fully reducedandingredientsarefullycooked.

COOKING

34

Chinese Food Therapy

Chinese food therapy (traditional Chinese:食療) is amode of dieting rooted inChineseunderstandingsoftheeffectsoffoodonthehumanorganismandcenteredonconceptssuchaseatinginmoderation.ItsbasicpreceptsareamixoffolkviewsandconceptsdrawnfromtraditionalChinesemedicine.Theydescribetheeffectofeach kind of meat, grain, herb, or vegetable on the human body, how the bodyoperates, and gave suggestions about what to prepare to stay healthy or curedisease.Itwastheprescientificanalogofmodernmedicalnutritiontherapy;thatis,itwasastate-of-the-artversionofdietarytherapybeforethesciencesofbiologyandchemistryallowedthediscoveryofpresentphysiologicalknowledge.ItnowqualifiesintheWestasalternativemedicine.

A Chinese medicinal diet is not a simple combination of food and herbs, but aspeciallyprepareddishmadefromChineseherbs,foodandcondimentsaccordingtothe theoretical guidelines of diet preparation. Such a diet is in response to thedifferent symptomsof a disease and its diagnosis according toTCM, andused topreventandtreatdiseases,improvefitness,and/orslowdowntheagingprocess.

Over the centuries, Chinese cuisine has developed into a remarkably varied one,usingfarmorevegetablesandmeatsthanavailableintheWest.OnefactorbehindthisdevelopmentisthelinkbetweendietandTraditionalChineseMedicine(TCM).Foodisconsideredmorethanjustsustenance;itcontainstherapeuticpropertiesandisprescribedbyTCMdoctors.Whileacupunctureandmassagemaybeusedtotreatanailment,andherbalmixturesinfusedtomaketeas,thefirstlineoftreatmentisusuallydietitself.ConsiderthefactthatalthoughChinasuffersfromair,water,andsoilpollution,lifeexpectancyinthecountryhasgrownto71yearswhichrivalsthatof theWest.This isa remarkableachievementgiven itsextremely lowpercapitaincome,shortageofmedicalservices,andlevelsofpollution.

Foodtherapyhas longbeenacommonapproachtohealthamongChinesepeoplebothinChinaandoverseasandwaspopularizedforwesternreadersinthe1990swiththepublicationofbookslikeBobFlaws’TheTaoofHealthyEatingandGraceYoung’sTheWisdomoftheChineseKitchen.

AnumberofancientChinesecookbooksandtreatisesonfood(nowlost)displayan

COOKING

35

earlyChineseinterest infood,butnofocusonitsmedicalvalue.Theliteratureon"nourishinglife"(yangsheng養生)integratedadviceonfoodwithinbroaderadviceon how to attain immortality. Such books, however, are only precursors of"dietary therapy", because they did not systematically describe the effect ofindividualfooditems.

ThecharacteristicsofusingChinesemedicinalfoodsforhealthandhealingare:

1. Synergyoffoodandmedicine

Medicine and food function as supplements and complement each other.Medicinalfoodisrenderedwithmedicinalproperties,andtheeffectsofmedicinebecomestrongerwiththecombinationoffood.

2. Appliedbydifferentiationofsymptomsandsigns

TCMdiagnosisandtherapyarebasedondifferentiatingsymptomsandsigns,andthisisincorporatedintotheselectionoffunctionalfoods.Specificgroupsofsignsand symptoms indicate specific treatment protocols. For example in spleendeficiencywhichisdiagnosedbylowspirits,weaknessof limb, lossofappetiteand abdominal distension - foods like Chinese date, ginger, Chinese yam andginsengareaddedinordertoinvigoratefunctioningofthespleen.

3. Uniquecookingtechniquesandprocedures

Inordertoensurethedesiredresultofamedicinaldiet,herbsandfoodsshouldbespeciallyprocessedsuchascuttingitintopieces,parchingorgrinding.Besides,cookingtechniquesareconsideredforretainingtheeffectiveconstituentsoffoodand bringing to bear its full effects on treatment and health care. Propertechniquesalsohelptopreservetheoriginaljuiceandflavoroftheingredientssothat it results inattractive colors, aroma, flavorand texture, thusarousing theappetite.Usualcookingmethodsaresteaming,stewing,boilingormakingsoupwhilethoseofdeep-fryorroastingarerarelyused(seesectionsbelow).

COOKING

36

4. Forenhancementandtreatment

Chinesemedicinalfoodsareamildercourseoftreatmentandcanbeusedeithertotreatdisease,ortohelphealthypeoplebuildstaminaandpreventdisease.Thisisoneofthecharacteristicsinwhichmedicinaldietisdifferentfromdrugs.

TheearliestworkonthesevarioustopicsdatesfromtheearlyHan Dynasty era (206 BCE-220 CE)and is called theHuangdi Neijing (The Yellow Emperor'sClassicofInternalMedicine).ItcontainsthebasicideasofChinesefoodtherapy.Thetext gave recommendations on what to eat for different health conditions anddifferentenvironmentalconditions.However,theearliestextantChinesedietarytextisachapterofSunSimiao'sPrescriptionsWorthaThousandGold(QianjinFang千金方),whichwascompletedinthe650sduringtheTangdynasty.Sun'sworkcontainstheearliestknownuseoftheterm"food(ordietary)therapy"(shiliao).Sunstatedthathewantedtopresentcurrentknowledgeaboutfoodsothatpeoplewouldfirstturntofoodratherthandrugswhensufferingfromanailment.Hischaptercontains154entriesdividedintofoursections–onfruits,vegetables,cereals,andmeat–inwhichSunexplainsthepropertiesofindividualfoodstuffswithconceptsborrowedfromtheYellowEmperor's InnerCanon:qi, theviscera,vitalessence(jing精),andcorrespondences between the Five Phases, the "five flavors" (sour, bitter, sweet,pungent, and salty), and the five grains. He also set a large number of "dietaryinterdictions" (shijin 食禁 ), some based on calendrical notions (no water chestnutsinthe7thmonth),othersonpurportedinteractionsbetweenfoods(noclearwinewithhorsemeat)orbetweendifferentflavors.

SunSimiao'sdiscipleMengShen(孟詵;621–713)compiledthefirstworkentirelydevotedtothetherapeuticvalueoffood:theMateriaDietetica(Shiliaobencao食療本草;"foodtherapymateriamedica").Thisworkhasnotsurvived,butitisquotedinlatertexts–likethe10th-centuryJapanesetextIshinpō–andafragmentofithasbeen found among theDunhuang manuscripts. Surviving excerpts show thatMenggavelessimportancetodietaryprohibitionsthanSun,andthatheprovidedinformationonhowtopreparefoodstuffsratherthanjustdescribetheirproperties.TheworksofSunSimiaoandMengShenestablishedthegenreofmateriadieteticaandshapeditsdevelopmentinthefollowingcenturies.

AlthoughthepreceptsofChinesefoodtherapyareneithersystematicnoridentical

COOKING

37

inalltimesandplaces,somebasicconceptscanbeisolated.Fooditemsareclassifiedas "heating" (re熱; "hot")or "cooling" (liang涼; "cool").Heating food is typically"high-calorie,subjectedtohighheatincooking,spicyorbitter,or'hot'incolor(red,orange)",andincludesredmeat,innards,bakedanddeep-friedgoods,andalcohol.Theyaretobeavoidedinthesummerandcanbeusedtotreat"cold"illnesseslikeexcessivepallor,wateryfeces,fatigue,chills,andlowbodytemperaturecausedbyanumberofpossiblecauses,includinganemia.Greenvegetablesarethemosttypicalcoolingfood,whichis"low-calorie,watery,soothingorsourintaste,or'cool'incolor(whitish,green)".Theyarerecommended for"hot"conditions:rashes,drynessorrednessofskin,heartburns,andother"symptomssimilar tothoseofaburn",butalsosorethroat,swollengums,andconstipation.

Ancient Chinese medical bookslist hundreds of plant, animal, and chemicalingredientsandtelltheirspecificeffectsonthehumanbody.Thesebooksgiveideasaboutthephysicalprincipalsinvolvedinhumanhealth,andtheydescribehowherbsor special foods help, along with TCM techniques such as moxibustion andacupuncture. Currently, there is a wide choice of foods that are used in manydifferentwaystopromotehealthandwellbeing.Itisestimatedthattherearemorethan600differentkindsofresourcerangingfromcereals,fruits,vegetables,meatsandmarineproducts.Manyof thesemaybeunfamiliar to foreignerswhomaybereluctant to try them;however, all arequitepreciousandeffective in the fieldofmedicinalfood.Manydifferentingredientsareusedtoaddtotheappealaswellastostrengtheneffectsofthecuisine.Wine,sugar,oil,salt,vinegarandhoney,andothercommonly available items such as almonds,mandarin orange, or peanuts, all areutilizedinthecookingprocess.

Thebasicideaistobalancetheqiandthebodyfluids—thefundamentalsofChinesetraditionalmedicine.Itisthoughtthatahealthybodyororganhasaproperbalanceof these things. When they are out of balance, there is disease or sickness. Theenvironment or physical injurydisrupts the balance. For example, cold weathercausesalackofqiorhighyininthebody.Sohighyangfoodsareeaten.Inhotweatherwhenthereisnaturallytoomuchyang,highyin foodsareeaten.Healingherbsoranimalpartscanbeaddedtothediettohealdisease.Interestingly,anyofthesameherbsareusedbyWesternherbalistsandherbalistsinotherpartsoftheworldforthesameconditions.

COOKING

38

Allfoodsarecategorizedbyqitemperature,rangingfromhighyangtohighyin,andone of the five food flavors (sour, sweet, bitter, hot and salty). A food item’s qitemperatureandspecificflavorinfluencesthebodyinitsownway.Itisthoughtthatpeopleshouldgenerallyincludealltheflavorsineverymealandbalancethe"heat".MostChinesepeoplethinkthatiftoomuchofonetypeoffoodisconsumed,itcancauseanimbalanceinthebody.

Theancienttextsdescribednotonlywhattoprepareformeals,butalsohowtoeatmeals.TheseChinesecustomsabouteatingmealshavebeenpartofthecultureforhundredsofyears:

• Trytoavoidoverlyprocessedfood.Eatnaturally.• Eatseasonalvegetablesandfruits.• Alwaysmakesurethevegetablesarecooked.• Sitdowntoeatataquietplace.• Chewthefoodwell.

COOKING

39

• Eatslowly.(慢吃mànchī‘eatslowly’means"bonappétit!"inChina)• Payattentiontoyoureatingandgetawayfromdistractions.InTCMyourmindplaysapartinhowwellyoudigestfood,sopayattentiontothetastesofthefood.

• Donotskipmeals.• Afterlunch,takeanaporrestforawhile.

Chinesebelievethateatingseasonalfoodisgenerallybest.Forexample,insummeryinfoodslikemelonsandcucumberareavailable,andinwinterhighyangfoodslikegarlicandonionsareavailableforconsumptionaswellaseasilystoredredpepperandotherhighyangherbs.Itisasifnatureproducestherighthealingfoodsforeachseasonfor people.During cold and flu season in the late fall andwinter, Chinesewould refrain from eating melons, especially if they had a cold. If Chinese getsunstroke(fromhotChinesesummerdays)theyavoidgarlicandonions.

COOKING

40

A Few Seasonal Recipes:

Winter: Chicken & Ginger Soup

Chinesepeopleliketodrinklotsofhotsouponcoldwinterdays.Buttheirideaistomakesoupswithhighyangvegetablesandherbsandincludemeattobalancethedish.Afavoritewintersoup,justlikeintheWest,ischickensoup.

Directions:

Takechickenportionsandboilthemwith2choppedpotatoes,halfawhiteChineseturnipandatablespoonofminedGinger.Whenthepotatoesandchickenpiecesarealmostcooked,addicedvegetablesandspices.

Thedicedvegetablesshouldinclude3mincedclovesofgarlicand1choppedonion,essentialforaddingyang.Youcanalsoincludeacupofcarrots,oneofmushrooms,oneofzucchiniand/orbokchoy,orotherwintervegetables.

Seasonings:

Tothemixaddateaspoonofseasalt,andthinslicesofAstragalus黄芪(vetchroot)andpinchesofturmeric;alsoredchilipepperflakeswillhelp.

COOKING

41

Spring: Asparagus and Vinegar Recipe

Inthespring,plantscomealiveandstartgrowing.Itisimportantforlivingthingstogetmoreyangforgrowth.Sinceliverandgallbladderareespeciallyimportantatthistime, eat the green seasonal vegetables that sprout out since they supply thenecessaryyang andhelp tonourish the liver.Green is thecolorof the liverandofspringisasaying.Drinkfreshsourjuices:thesestimulatetheqi.

Itisalsoatimewhenthebodydoes“springcleaning”onitselfbygettingridofstoredfatsandmeat,soeatinglessmeatandfatisbetterforhealth.

Directions:

Washabunchofasparagusandacarrotincleanwater.Chopupthevegetablesandlightlysteamthemuntiltheasparagusisslightlytenderandbrightgreen.Prepareadressingwith2partsofvirginoliveoil toonepartofplumvinegar(orapplecidervinegar).Pour thedressingonthevegetablesandenjoythedishwithsomelemonade:squeezeafreshlemonandaddthejuicetowater.

COOKING

42

Summer: Tomato and Cucumber Salad Recipe

A favorite dish for summer when the yang is naturally high, and you need to cool down a bit. Tomato and cucumber are high yin vegetables that are readily available.

Directions:

Useripeingredients.Dicearedonion,andslicetomatoes(peeledifpossible)andChineseorPersiancucumberspartlypeeled.Mixwitholiveoil,dill,saltandpeppertotaste.

COOKING

43

Autumn: Butternut Squash Soup Recipe

In the fall, life ebbs away and the qi returns to the earth. In TCM, the qi goes inwards into the body’s core.

Eatingthevegetablesandfruitsthatareseasonalhelpsyourbodytotransitionandstayhealthy.

Directions:

Takealargebutternutsquash,amediumonion,2clovesofgarlic,astalkofcelery,alargecarrot,someboiledchickenmeat;addsalt,pepper,cinnamonandnutmegtotaste.

Chopupanddiceall ingredients,but firstboil thesquash inwater ina largepot.Whenthesquashisalmostcooked,addalltheotheringredients(exceptthespices)andsimmerforafewminutes;thenaddthespicesandmixwell.Itwillbefragrantandchunky;ifyoupreferitsmooth,justblendinafoodprocessor.Canbereheated.

COOKING

44

The Special Niche of Cantonese Cuisine

SinceImade,formanydecades,HongKongmy‘homeawayfromhome’,Iwanttodetailsomewhatthecuisineofthearea,i.e.CantoneseCuisine.

Cantonesecuisine(traditionalChinese:廣東菜)comesfromGuangdongprovinceandisoneoftheEightCulinaryTraditionsofChinesecuisine.ItsprominenceoutsideChinaisduethenumbersofemigrantsfromGuangdong.ChefstrainedinCantonesecuisinearehighlysoughtafterthroughoutChina.WhenWesternersspeakofChinesefood,theyusuallyrefertoCantonesecuisine.

Guangzhou, the capital of Guangdong province, has long been a trading port andmanyimportedfoodsandingredientsareusedinCantonesecuisine.Besidespork,beefandchicken,Cantonesecuisineincorporatesalmostallediblemeats,includingoffal, chicken feet, duck's tongue, snakes, and snails.However, lambandgoat arerarely eaten, unlike in the cuisines of northern or western China. Many cookingmethodsareused,withsteamingandstir-fryingbeingthemostfavoredduetotheirconvenienceandrapidity.Othertechniquesincludeshallowfrying,doublesteaming,braising,anddeep-frying.

FormanytraditionalCantonesecooks,theflavorsofafinisheddishshouldbewellbalancedandnotgreasy.Apartfromthat,spicesshouldbeusedinmodestamountstoavoidoverwhelmingtheflavorsoftheprimaryingredients,andtheseingredientsinturnshouldbeatthepeakoftheirfreshnessandquality.ThereisnowidespreaduseoffreshherbsinCantonesecooking,incontrastwiththeirliberaluseinothercuisinessuchasSichuan,European,ThaiorVietnamese.Garlicchivesandcorianderleavesarenotableexceptions,althoughthelatterareusuallyusedasmeregarnishinmostdishes.InCantonesecuisine,anumberofingredientssuchasspringonion,sugar, salt, soy sauce, ricewine, cornstarch, vinegar, scallion oil, and sesame oil,sufficetoenhanceflavor,althoughgarlicisheavilyusedinsomedishes,especiallythoseinwhichinternalorgans,suchasentrails,mayemitunpleasantodors.Ginger,chilipeppers,five-spicepowder,powderedblackpepper,staraniseandafewotherspicesarealsoused,butoftensparingly.

Although Cantonese cooks paymuch attention to the freshness of their primary

COOKING

45

ingredients,Cantonesecuisinealsousesalonglistofpreservedfooditemstoaddflavortoadish.ThismaybeinfluencedbyHakkacuisine,sincetheHakkaswereonce(MingDynasty)adominantgroupoccupyingimperialHongKongandothersouthernterritories.

Some items gain very intense flavors during the drying / preservation /oxidationprocessandsomefoodsarepreservedtoincreasetheirshelflife.Somechefscombinebothdriedandfreshvarietiesofthesameitemsinadish.Drieditemsareusuallysoakedinwatertorehydratebeforecooking.These ingredientsaregenerallynot serveda la carte, but rather gowithvegetablesorotherCantonesedishes.

Thereareasmallnumberofdeep-frieddishesinCantonesecuisine,whichcanoftenbefoundasstreet food.TheyhavebeenextensivelydocumentedincolonialHongKongrecordsofthe19thand20thcenturies.AfewaresynonymouswithCantonesebreakfastandlunch,eventhoughthesearealsopartofothercuisines.Slow-cookedsoup,or lou fo tong (traditional Chinese:老火湯) in theCantonesedialect(literally meaning old fire-cooked soup) is usually a clear broth prepared bysimmeringmeatandother ingredientsovera lowheat forseveralhours.Chineseherbs are often used as ingredients. Soup chain stores or delivery outlets inCantonese-dominated cities such as Hong Kong serve this dish due to the longpreparationtimeofslow-cookedsoup.

Due to Guangdong's location on the southern coast of China, fresh seafood isprominentinCantonesecuisine,andmanyCantoneserestaurantskeepaquariumsor seafood tankson thepremises. InCantonesecuisine, as in cuisines fromotherpartsofAsia,ifseafoodhasarepugnantodorstrongspicesareadded;thefreshestseafoodisodorlessand,inCantoneseculinaryarts,isbestcookedbysteaming.Forinstance,insomerecipes,onlyasmallamountofsoysauce,ginger,andspringonionisaddedtosteamedfish.AccordingtoCantonesecuisine,thelightseasoningisusedonly to bring out the natural sweetness of the seafood. As a rule of thumb, thespiciness of a dish is usually inversely proportionate to the freshness of theingredients.

Noodlesareservedeitherinsoupbrothorfried.Theseareavailableashome-cookedmeals,ondim sumsidemenus,orasstreetfoodatdaipaidongs,wheretheycanbeservedwithavarietyoftoppingssuchasfishballs,beefballs,orfishslices.Littlepot

COOKING

46

rice(simplifiedChinese:煲仔饭;traditionalChinese:煲仔飯)aredishescookedandservedinaflat-bottomedpot(asopposedtoaround-bottomedwok).Usuallythisisa saucepan or braising pan. Such dishes are cooked by covering and steaming,makingthericeandingredientsveryhotandsoft.Usuallytheingredientsarelayeredontopofthericewithlittleornomixinginbetween.Manystandardcombinationsexist.

After theeveningmeal,mostCantoneserestaurantsoffer tongsui (Chinese:糖水;literally:"sugarwater"),asweetsoup.Manyvarietiesoftongsuiarealsofoundinother Chinese cuisines. Some desserts are traditional, while others are recentinnovations.Themoreexpensiverestaurantsusuallyoffertheirspecialtydesserts.

But since Southern China –essentially the Cantonese Cuisine cradle- has a long,respectedtraditionofhealthycooking, italsohasawealthofmedicinalfoodsandrecipes.Manyarecommontootherparts,provinces,cuisinesortraditionsofChina,butanumberarespecific,widelyprescribedandused,andthepopulationhasfaithinthem.Cantonesecookshaveclassifiedthemostimportantones.

COOKING

47

Cantonese Medicinal Cooking Techniques Roughtranslation Relatedsymptoms/effects Examples CuresDry fire (yang) Causesdrynessofskin,chapped

lips,nosebleedetc Chilipepper,deepfriedfood,beefjerky,lychee

Anyyinorcoolingfood

Wet heat (yang) Causesmouthcore,urinaryburningetc.probablyduetoacidityoralkalinity

Mango,pineapple,cherry Chrysanthemum,sugarcane,(竹蔗),imperataarundinacea(茅根),PrunellavulgarisL.(夏枯草)

Cold cooling (yin) Causesdizziness,weakness,paleorgreenface(lowoxygenlevelinblood)etc

Watermelon,cantelope,honeydewandcertainkindsofmelon-typefruitsorvegetables,greentea.

Anyboostingordryfirefood

Blocking Causeindigestion,stomachgasetc.

Allfibrousfood,e.g.yam,chestnuts

Haw(fruit山楂),malt(麥芽)

Poisoning Causespusorswellinginwound,outbreakofacnes,hemorrhoidetc.

Duck,goose,bambooshoot,allshellfish

Abstinenceatoutbreak

Greasy Causesgastricupset,runnystool,outbreakofacnes

Allgreasyfood,e.g.baconetc Notneededifnotoverused

Clear cooling Mildyintypethatcounteractthedryfiretype.Alsolistedasyinwhenoverused

Beer,lettuce,sugarcane,(竹蔗),imperataarundinacea(茅根),Americanginseng

Notneeded

Nourishing Moisturizing,soothing Apple,pear,fig,wintermelon,longan,Dioscoreaopposite(淮山),lotusseed,lilibulb,etc

Notneededifnotoverused

Boosting ReplenishesbloodandQi.Alsolistedasdryfirewhenoverused

Mutton,snake,wildgames,beef,reddates(紅棗)

Notneeded

Vigorating CirculatingbloodandQi Redwine,Koreanginseng

Notneeded

Generating, strengthening

Improvesvariousinternalfunctions

Various

This superficial survey of some aspects of Chinese cuisines (and culture) shouldmakeyouhungryformorefood–includingforthought!

COOKING

48

Part 3: Are We Still Eating What We Like?

In2012thescientificjournalFlavourpublishedanOp-Edofmine:“Weonlyeatwhatwelike”ordowestill?

Herearesomeparagraphsthataretodayjustasrelevant:

Whatdowelikeinfood?Thelistislongandopenended.Weobviouslyfollowoursenses:sight,smell,taste,texture,diversesounds.Wegetmessagesfromourgenes,groomedformillennia.Wedocherishmemoriesandtheyrushbackfast,veryfast.Wepositionfoodinitscurrentenvironment,attimespleasantissime,atothertimesintolerable,butalwaysincontext.

We eat stuff because we were told, or attracted/lured, brainwashed, coerced, byimitation or begging for inclusion, or even by challenge or curiosity. We also eatbecauseit’stimeandwearehungry,becauseweneedfoodifwedrink,becauseofsalt,or chili peppers, or gluttony, or... Sometimes we are satisfied, or full, or happy, orfrustrated.

There’slittlerationality,norealrules,nofoolproofrecipe.Itisyou,now,then,there,inagivenenvironment;anditwillneverbethesametwice.

Foodisneededtoliveandsurvive.Someofourgeneshavebeenhonedtoperforminahostileenvironment,theonethatwasthelotofthe>90%untilthetwentiethcentury.

COOKING

49

Sugarwasindustrializedinthe1500s;fatwassynonymousoffeastuntilthe1900s;foodwasseasonal,andpreserving itwasdifficult,random,expensive. InWarsaw,Poland(whereIwasborn),icefromtheWisła(Vistula)wasslicedinMarch,keptincavesanddistributedoverthesummerandfalluntilthe1960s.

Now,withconcentrationofproductionandmassdistribution,anyfailureinthechainresults in decimating food poisoning. The world has changed: Taylorism andindustrial production, assisted by expert sociologists, marketers, psychologists,physiologists,nutritionistsandotherfoodscientistshavemanagedtoglobalizefoodbeforeanyotherhumanactivity.WhenweknowthattheadvertisingbudgetofCoca-Cola ($4.3Billion) isbigger than theGNP(grossnationalproduct (GNP))of>100countriesoftheUnitedNations,Ifeelhumbledwritingthisprose.

Whatdoes the industrysell,whyandhow? It sells sweetand fat; it sells itat thelowest cost (= mass produced) and maximal profit; it sells it everywhere withminimaldifferences;itsellsitbybribingpolicymakers,andbuyingthewholechainofdistribution; it sells itwithhelpsomeof thesmartestscientists thatconsultorwork there for transient illusion of glory and fortune; it sells it like the tobaccoindustrysellsbytargetingchildrenandwomenAnditworks:NestléislistedNo.1intheFortuneGlobal500as theworld'smostprofitable corporationwithamarketcapitalizationof$271.5billion.IthasaddedJennyCraigtoitsempire,theJennyCraigthatsellsmealsplus2snacksincludinganAnytimeBarthatpacks110emptycaloriesin thedailyrationof theUScustomer.ThebucketofKentuckyFriedChickenwilldeliver~3,000kilocalories,mostlyfatsandcarbohydrates,andIknowmanywhoeatthatbythemselves!

Iwrotethat“theonlynaturalthinginaDietCokeisthewater”-ifyouacceptthattapwater(forexampleDasani)isstrictlynatural;therevenueoftheCocaColaCompanywasUS$43.6billionin2015.

Ifweallbenefiteverywherefromthediverse,successiverevolutionsinwatersafety,agriculture already capable of feeding 9 billion earthlings; in health and lifeexpectancy;intamingsoontheFourHorsemenoftheApocalypse(Conquest,War,FamineandDeath)–assuming thatwecancontrolhumannefarious instincts-wehavealsobuiltaninvasivesystemoffinancial-industrialcomplexesthatarecreatingmajor,growing,destructionsofpeople,nature,climateandwideningtheintolerablegapbetweenthe<1%havesandthe>99%havelessorclosetonothing.

COOKING

50

In food –as in tobacco and pharmaceuticals- almost every daily aspect of ourproduction, transport, information (a.k.a. entertainment), policies, safety,distribution, transformation, is controlled by just a few mammothindustrial/commercial conglomerateswhoseexecutivesshareandexchangeseatsontheirrespectiveBoardofDirectors,oringovernments,parliaments,internationalorganizations,byplayingapermanentgameofmusicalchairs.Thegameisrigged,alwaysintheirfavor.

TheGoldenCalf(Greed)istheonlyidolworshipped.Justlookbelowatthislistofcompanies:theyalreadypopulatetheshelvesofeverysupermarketorconveniencestoreoftheplanet–includedthebasesinAntarcticaorthepilesofgarbageoftheEverestortheTexas-sizedpatchinthevortexofthePacificOcean.

Allthesegroups,withAdecoagro,AdlerSeeds,Agria,AgriSA,Agrium,Alico,ArcherDanielsMidland,BASF,Monsantoandtheirkinoralliesareopenabouttheirplans:theypublisheachyearaReportdetailinggoalsandstrategy.

COOKING

51

ThisisthedangerofGlobalization:uniformity(justlikethechowforlabrats);massproductionwithmaximumprofits,lowestsalariesandcosts;irreversibledestructionoflocalresources,environmentandcultures;amplificationofclimatechangesandcatastrophes;social,familial,personalmisery,unrest,withviolenceandcrime;andeachandeverycornerofourBluePlanetistargeted,soonaffected.

Responsivenesstosugarsandsweetnesshasveryancientevolutionarybeginnings.Newbornhumaninfantsalsodemonstratepreferencesforhighsugarconcentrationsand prefer solutions that are sweeter than lactose, found in breast milk; it alsocontrols paininpreemiesandnewborns.

Sweetness appearstohavethehighesttasterecognitionthreshold, beingdetectableat~1partin200ofsucroseinsolution. Sweetnessintensityindicatesenergydensity.The 'sweet tooth' thus has an ancient evolutionary heritage, and while foodprocessinghaschangedconsumptionpatterns,humanphysiologyremains largelyunchanged.

Then,recentlytwodiscoverieschangedourfoodsupply:aby-productofcorn/maize,the high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), and the artificial sweeteners. The HFCS iscomposedofamixtureof42to55%fructose,41to45%glucoseand0to5%glucosepolymersdependingonthespecificblend.Inthe1980sitmostlyreplacedsucroseasthemainsweetenerofsoftdrinks.

Ratesofobesitysubsequentlyrose,parallelinganincreaseintheconsumptionofsoftdrinks in general. In addition, laboratory research suggests a link betweenconsuming largeamountsof fructoseandvarioushealthproblemse.g.highbloodpressure,elevatedbloodtriglycerides,sizeandtypeoflow-densitylipoproteins,anduricacidlevels.Worse,HFCSisaddictive.

ThemostelaboratetheoryofsweetnesstodateisthemultipointattachmenttheoryproposedbyJean-MarieTintiandClaudeNofrein1991.Thistheoryinvolvesatotalofeight interactionsitesbetweenasweetenerandthesweetnessreceptor, althoughnotallsweetenersinteractwithalleight sites.Thismodelhassuccessfullyhelpedtodevelop highlypotentsweeteners,includingtheguanidinefamily withlugduname,about 225,000 times sweeter than sucrose. But plasma beta-endorphinconcentrationsweremore elevatedafteranaspartamedrinkthanafterthesucrose

drinkorfasting,andinsulinincreasedafterdrinkingas muchwithaspartameaswithsucrose, meaning that possible addiction and obesity were right there with the

COOKING

52

sweetener!

Theproblemisthatthepalatabilityandenjoymentoffoodsareoftentiedtotheirenergydensity,andthereforefatcontent.Energy-densefoodsthatarerichinfataremore palatable than aremany low-energy density vegetables and fruits. High-fatfoods,many containing sugaror salt, haveanundeniable sensoryappeal andaredifficulttoresist.

There are many explanations for why humans like fat. Several physiologicalmechanismshavebeenproposed,manyofwhicharebasedonthestronglinksfoundbetween fat content, palatability, satiety, and energy density. The orosensorypropertiesoffatorfat

“taste”areperceivedthroughspecificreceptorsandacombinationoftaste,texture,and olfaction. My friend Marian Apfelbaum, MD, a great nutritionist, starts hislecturesonfat(anddiet)bywhisperingintothemicrophone:“Fattastesgooood;fatisgooood”.

Indeedfattastesandmakesfoodtasteverygood.Fatisalsoaconcentratedsourceof energywith rewardingpost-ingestive effects. The learningof foodpreferencesmaybebasedonassociatingsensoryattributeswiththephysiologicconsequencesofingestion,suchassatietyandwellbeing.

Thatiswhythecombinationofsweetnessandfatinfastorjunkfoodisdifficulttoresist, and is eventually “as addictive as heroin.” Getting a shot of opioids anddopaminetothebrainwhileonthego,snackingonadarkpenis-shapedbarfullofindustrialfats,andguzzlingasupersizedHFCS-ladendrinkisthecitydweller’sfateinmany,andmorecountries.

Thentheygetgluedtothetelevisionthatbrainwasheswithseductiveadspromotingthese products and that lifestyle. These “foods” and beverages are very smartlydesignedandcreatedtoappealtoournucleusaccumbens,andhedonichunger.

Mealswereandareshared;theyarecommunion,conviviality,commensality(ClaudeFischler’ s greatneologism).Weeat,notnutrientsandcalories,but foods,dishes,mealsandwedosoinspecificplaces,atspecifictimesandwithspecificpeoplewithwhomwehaveinteractionsandrelationships.Eatingisnotjustindividualbehavior;italsoconsistsofsocialpracticesandrituals.Inmostifnotallsocietiesontheplanet,eatingisdoneinasocialcontext.

COOKING

53

Individualizationand,as itwere,privatizationofeating inplethoricsocietiesmaycarrymore liabilities thanbenefitswhile theremaybe longunsuspectedbenefitsassociatedwiththesharingoffoodinthecommonmeal.Mealsaretheheartandthehearthofallhumangroups,fromtheoriginalsoup-breadsoakedinbroth-tothe3-dayweddingfeastsofBosniaorIndia.Eating,sharingtogetheristhequintessentialbasichumanactivity –with sex. It hasbeen transmogrified a fewdecades ago in“feeding” individuals with processed chemicals and flavors, blessed by somenutritionistswhosehorizonisthelabbenchandtherodentcage:>85%ofscientificstudiesinnutritionareconductedonpurestrainratsormice,andthenapplied(withcatastrophic, repeated results) to humans. If all living organisms share commongenes,wehavelittleincommonwiththeseexperimentalanimals,theirenvironment,diet,orgutmicrobiota!

Innoneofthe143countries(andcounting)whereIhaveworkedisthedegradationof the human bonding worse than in the United States; bromides and theomnipresent empty message of “family values” are what politicians and policymakers utter, in a country where one in four children eats alone (watchingcommercialsonjunkfood);wherefoodstampsdonotdeliverthehealthyfoodspoorfamiliessobadlyneed,buttoooftensomeamongsttheworstprocessedones;whereour daughter Emilie was the only student in her 4th grade class to draw a realchicken (beak, feathers and all) while the others sketched a frozen, packagedmiserablebird;wheremostyoungadultswillneverknowasfishanythingbutMrsPaul’sfishfillets;whereyoubetternotdropa“vine”calibratedtomatoonyourtoe(itwillhurt!);wherestandardslicedsandwichbreadhasthetextureandblandnessofaKleenextissue;andwherepeoplegetlonesome,angry,hopeless,joyless,becausetheyaredeprivedofsharingthecrustyfragrantbread-themealthatweallneed.

COOKING

54

My rant could stop here, but it would barely graze the surface of very complexinteractions,manyofthemhavecometolightrecently,forexamplethemicro-biome.Icannotthinkofanymass-promoteddietthatcouldpossiblybebeneficialtosimplyoverweight people. These are either chastising – and rapidly abandoned-, orunaffordable,impractical.

Itisnotbecausethesedietsareallbad;someofthemareinfactprettygood,buttheyaddressamomentintime,justagivenmomentinthelifeofhuman,socialindividual,witha complexmixtureofpasts,presentsandvisionsof the future.Theyarenottailored,andrevised,adjusted,modified,accordingtoamyriadofinterferences.

Howcouldthey?

Andtheyignoreouruniquehumanfeature:pleasure.Pleasureisnotan“extra”,orbonusbringingalittlemoresoultocertainofouracts;itisafundamentalpartofouranimallife.Itisjustasdifficulttodefineasspirit,butnonethelesshumansneedit.Otherwisetheydiveintotheabyssofimpasse,nothingnessorsuicidaldepression.AsJean-AnthelmeBrillat-Savarinwrote:Thepleasuresofthetableareforeveryman,ofeveryland,andnomatterofwhatplaceinhistoryorsociety;theycanbeapartofallotherpleasuresandtheylastthelongest,toconsoleuswhenwehaveoutlivedtherest.

Ourown,personalGut-Brainaxisconditionsourdailylife.It isadaptable,flexible,adjuststomood,food,circadianrhythms,climate,environmentandeachoneofusneedsitinperfectshape.Itexemplifiesourunique,transient,hourlyreincarnations–evenwithaging,decrepitudeandultimatelydeath.

In an article published on 19 April 2016 the Australian authors describe a gutmicrobiota–inflammasome–brain axis, whereby the gut microbiota viainflammasome-signalingmodulatepathwaysthatwillalterbrainfunction,andaffectdepressive-andanxiety-likebehaviors.

Sinceourmooddoesconditionandismodulatedbyourgutmicrobiota–hencethefoodwe search and enjoy- how canwe ever be happywith universal, industrial,standardized–andevermoreoftenunsafe-feedingconcoctions?

COOKING

55

Ifindeedweshouldonlyormostlyeatwhatwelike,wemustconsiderwhatwecanafford;whatmatchesourinheritedandnewlymutatedgenes,andtheonesofourmicrobiota;whatisinourcultureandintheonesweexploreoradopt;whatmakesthePantheonofourpleasurablememories(mostlybeforetheageofsix!);whatwebringtothekitchenorthetable,discuss,foragefor,andareproud,elatedtoshareandpartake.Whatmade,makesandwillmakeusHumans.

BonAppétit!

PortolaValley,May2016

COOKING

56

Acknowledgements Thisessayattemptstosummarizewhathavelearnedfrommanyfriendlyexperts.More are scientists whom I never met but was impressed and excited by theirpublications–all recent andupdated.Wikipedia, as always,hasprovided current,reliableinformation.

IowemuchmoretoYvesP.Huin,aclose,indispensablefriend,inspiration,computerwizardandwisevisionary.JanWouterVasbinder’steamattheParaLimesInstituteof the Nanyang Technological University, its workshops and unique conferences(and speakers) fanned the ambers and generated the required sparks. The topChinesechefs I coached intocurrentFoodScience in2014at theChineseCuisineTrainingInstituteonPokfulamRoadvalidatedtheopeningversesoftheCodexofUr-Nammu(c.2100-2050BCE):IlearnedfrommyMasters;IlearnedmorefrommyPeers;but the oneswho taughtmemostweremy Students. My team at theHong KongPolytechnicUniversitywas,isandremainsthemastthatIgrabandIrelyuponforediting,technicalsupport,andunbeatablehospitality:thankyouAilsaYuen,FannyNg,WaiyinPang,VenusWong,GaryCheungandyourgroups!

ButwithoutmyfamilyIwouldhavelostmymarbleslongago!Notonlydotheycareabout thedailychores,errandsandhurdles,but their loveandsupport liftme tolevels I couldonlycontemplate fromafar; thearchitectandconductor ismywifeEmiko.

COOKING

57

References • LaudanR.Cuisine&Empires.UniversityofCaliforniaPress,Berkeley.2013.Ivol.pp42-55

• Wikipedia

• http://www.cavemenworld.com/eat/advantages-of-cooked-food/

• http://www.radiancenutrition.com/tag/benefits-of-cooking-food/

• http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/prb/earthly.htm

• https://www.technologyreview.com/s/517401/food-network-analysis-reveals-patterns-behind-chinese-regional-cuisines/

• http://www.shen-nong.com/eng/lifestyles/food_concept_cmd.html

• http://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/

• HalpernGM.Flavour2012,1:17http://www.flavourjournal.com/content/1/1/17

• DorfmanL,CheyneA,FriedmanLC,WadudA,GottliebM:Sodaandtobaccoindustrycorporatesocialresponsibilitycampaigns:howdotheycompare?PLoSMed2012,9(6):e1001241.doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001241.

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9#cite_note-9.

• Sweetnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweetness.

• MitchellA,WaltmanPA:Oralsucroseandpainreliefforpreterminfants.PainManagNurs2003,4:62–69.

• SlaterR,CornelissenL,FabrizziL,PattenD,YoxenJ,WorleyA,BoydS,MeekJ,FitzgeraldM:Oralsucroseasananalgesicdrugforproceduralpaininnewborninfants:arandomisedcontrolledtrial.Lancet2010,376:1225–1232.

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-fructose_corn_syrup_and_health.

• StanhopeKL,HavelPJ:Fructoseconsumption:considerationsforfutureresearchonitseffectsonadiposedistribution,lipidmetabolismandinsulinsensitivityinhumans.JNutr2009,139:1236S–1241S.

• LustigRH:Fructose:metabolic,hedonic,andsocietalparallelswithethanol.JAmDietAssoc2010,110:1307–1321.

• HayesJE:Transdisciplinaryperspectivesonsweetness.ChemosensoryPercept2008,1:48–57.

• MelchiorJC,RigaudD,Colas-LinhartN,PetietA,GirardA,ApfelbaumM:Immunoreactivebeta-endorphinincreasesafteranaspartamechocolatedrinkinhealthyhumansubjects.PhysiolBehav1991,50:941–944.

COOKING

58

• DrewnowskiA,Almiron-RoigE:HumanPerceptionsandPreferencesforFat-RichFoods.InFatDetection:Taste,Texture,andPostIngestiveEffects.EditedbyMontmayeurJP,leCoutreJ.BocaRatonFL:CRCPress;2010.Chapter11.FrontiersinNeuroscience.

• JohnsonPM,KennyPJ:DopamineD2receptorsinaddiction-likerewarddysfunctionandcompulsiveeatinginobeserats.NatNeurosci2010,13:635–641.

• LoweMR,ButrynML:Hedonichunger:anewdimensionofappetite?PhysiolBehav2007,91:432–439.

• FischlerC:Thenutritionalcacophonymaybedetrimentaltoyourhealth.ProgrNutr2011,13:217–221.

• Krajmalnik-BrownR,IlhanZE,KangDW,DiBaiseJK:Effectsofgutmicrobesonnutrientabsorptionandenergyregulation.NutrClinPract2012,27:201.doi:10.1177/088453311436116.

• CabanacM:Preferringthepleasure.AmJClinNutr1985,42:1151–1155.

• Brillat-SavarinJ-A:PhysiologieduGoûtouMéditationsdeGastronomieTranscendante.Ouvragethéorique,historiqueetàl'ordredujour,dédiéauxGastronomesparisiens,parunProfesseur,membredeplusieurssociétéslittérairesetsavantes.Paris:ChezA.SauteletetCie.Libraires;1826

• http://www.globalfoodforums.com/food-news-bites/2016-food-trends/

• WongML,InserraA,LewisMDetal.Inflammasomesignalingaffectsanxiety-anddepressive-likebehaviorandgutmicrobiomecomposition.MolecPsych2016;1-6doi:10.1038/mp.2016.46

COOKING

59

Illustration Credits • https://www.finedininglovers.com/search/?Arcimboldo

• https://www.pinterest.com/pin/459930180675955132/

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mBT5O3OXXkY&ab_channel=JacobBurton

• http://www.dataweek.co.za/news.aspx?pklnewsid=21815

• http://amazingribs.com/tips_and_technique/thermodynamics_of_cooking.html

• http://online.cit.edu.au/kitchen_ops/tools/kitchen/hfood/microwav.html

• http://www.kitchenapparatus.com/is-the-induction-cooking-safe-for-health/

• http://tellmewhyfacts.com/science/Energy+and+Human+Life

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie-Antoine_Car%C3%AAme

• https://www.escoffier.edu/about/about-auguste-escoffier/

• https://www.ied.edu.hk/apfslt/v7_issue2/liusc/lisc5.htm

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Xing

• https://www.amazon.com/Yinyang-Chinese-Thought-Culture-Approaches/dp/052116513X

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qi

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitchen_God

• https://www.pinterest.com/kiwiandsteve/kitchen-god/

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu_Han_Imperial_Feast

• http://www.theepochtimes.com/n3/576437-understanding-the-yin-and-yang-of-foods/full/

• http://sploid.gizmodo.com/fascinating-graphic-shows-who-owns-all-the-major-brands-1599537576

• https://medicalxpress.com/news/2015-07-meth-addicted-rats-rodent-casino.html

• http://www.polyu.edu.hk

• http://beyondaddiction.ca/2016/09/04/gut-brain-addiction/

Documents

Cooking · cooking (digesting) continued. Fermentation was a puzzle; it remains so: as Andrew ... where fish is cooked with the acids in lemon or lime juice. Preparing food with heat