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The Continuity of Zoroastrian Beliefs in Iran
as Expressed in the Shahnameh,
Epic of the Kings
And the Relation of the Shahnameh to Other Traditions
Afshin Zand
1997
Introduction
Ferdowsy (ca. 940-1020 AD), one of the great poets of Iran, has produced a timeless
body of epic poetry in Persian, the Shahnamah (Šāhnāmeh). It is often referred to as the
Epic of the Kings or just Book of Kings in the English-speaking world.
The Shahnameh is vast. It took a year to read. The focus of the present work to is show
the strong links of the Shahnameh to pre-Islamic Iran and Zoroastrianism and, where
relevant, describe the relation and connection of the Shahnameh to other traditions and
literatures. The series is not intended to be a review of prior criticism on the subject.
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The Shahnameh may be regarded as a historical expression of the national character of
Iran over the course of its existence which span millennia, to the time of the fall of the
last Iranian dynasty to Islam (ca. 650 AD). The earliest portions bespeak of a part of
humanity that in ancient times as man was emerging from pre-history vied to civilize the
world around them. The process occurred at different times and different places for
different parts of humanity. The stream that has produced present-day civilization has its
roots in the Near East. Ferdowsy was from of the city of Tus in northeastern Iran. He
composed the Shahnameh around the turn of the millennium, based on all the lore and
ancient records of pre-Islamic Iran, oral and written, then extant and available to him. He
is believed to have taken some thirty years to complete it, around 1010 AD. It is evident
from the verses of the later great poets, such as Khayyam and Hafez, that they were
influenced by Ferdowsy. There is some consensus that the period of classical poetry in
Modern Persian ends with Hafez (early 1300s). After about six centuries there is the rise
of poetry in the modern era. The greatest modern poet of Iran in the modern era, Bahar
(1884-1951), who has been given the honorific “prince of Poets”, characterized the
Shahnameh as the “Bible of the Persians”:
شاهھھھنامهھ هھھھست بی ااغرااقق قرآآنن عجم ررتبهھ دداانایی ططوسی ررتبهھ پيیغمبریی
The Shahnameh in truth is the Bible of the Persians
The rank of the sage of Tus, the rank of prophets1
Modern Persian (ca. 900 AD to the present) possesses a rich body of literature. Greatness
has many criteria and dimensions to it, some of which can be subjective. The great poets
were in reality prophets as well as philosophers, In the top tier of rank, given most any
criteria, would be included Ferdowsy, Rumi, Sa'di and Hafez. Among scholars of Persian
literature others have referred to Rumi’s works as the Bible of the Persians2. Thus while
there is Rumi (mid 1200s AD) and Hafez (early 1300s AD) who could be judged using
other criteria, more favorable to their genre, calling one of the Persian classical poets,
including Ferdowsy, as the greatest would lead to competition among their admirers and
something they did not wish us to do. Rather, we may view the concepts in their poetry
as existing in different sectors of spiritual space, which unlike physical space is not
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limited in its dimensions to three or four. Forcing them on a uni-dimensional scale for
judgment would be tantamount to comparing apples and oranges.
The Shahnameh is still very much readable by modern day Iranians. In the aftermath of
the Arab invasion of Iran in the early 600s AD, its bloody and forcible conversion to
Islam, and the emergence in due course of what is now referred to as Modern Persian,
many Arabic words had entered the Persian language. The Shahnameh, written in the
purest Persian, contains less than 0.2% Arabic words3. It is believed that due to the
influence of the Shahnameh and how it was received by the Iranian people that the
Persian language has changed little over the course of the past millennium.
Withal, there can be little doubt as to which of the great poets represents the spirit and
identity of the nation as a whole. Former Prime Minister of Iran, Mohammad-Ali
Foroughy, himself a Shahnameh scholar, describes the place of the Shahnameh vis a vis
the national ethos in his introduction to a national edition of the Shahnameh:
“As a person, Ferdowsy is a consummate Iranian, the archetype of what
constitutes being an Iranian, an embodiment of our national values. So much so,
that if you were to seek his sentiments, feelings and character in what he has left
behind, it would be as though you sought the Iranian nation itself.”4
The Shahnameh contains timeless pieces of moral philosophy. They occur naturally in
the course of events and are intertwined with stories and with the verse, and the music the
verse produces in citation. Since Ferdowsy was recounting events of history or legends,
he generally did not devote whole sections exclusively to moral philosophy like the odes
of Rumi, Hafez or the quatrains of Khayyam which contain concisely in one place the
philosophical thought of the poet.
At various points throughout the Shahnameh, Ferdowsy makes it quite clear that he is the
poet of those stories, not the original author. He is the poet who put the oral and prose
accounts from history and from lore into verse. His main source text was Khoday-Nameh,
a work which has not survived. It was a book of history commissioned by the kings of
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Iran during the Sasanian period (ca. 225-650 AD). Yet the meaning of the stories and
events seem so closely tied with Ferdowsy’s verse and style that for the readership the
author of the stories tends to be identified with Ferdowsy.
The Shahnameh has often been quoted for its tragedies, its graphic description of battles,
of sunrise, nature and - not least –classic scenes of romance. To take a digression and
cite an example of the latter, the figure Rapunzel in the West, whose lover climbs up to
see her by the locks of her hair has its forbear in Roodabeh in the Shahnameh. It occurs at
the beginning of the Iranian heroic age, where Roodabeh, in a tower, lowers her locks of
hair for Zaal, her lover, who climbs up to see her. In that age there were also women
knights and warriors. The romance and wedding of Zaal and Roodabeh exemplify the
first occurrence of love and marriage between different cultures and ethnicities in the
experience of the Iranians: between the Aryans and non-Aryans. Zaal5, son of a hero of
Iran, is described as fair and having been born with white hair, as an albino, whereas
Roodabeh is described as having pitch black hair. Aryan, which the name Iran derives
from, had no physical connotation; it meant noble. In an age where there were no photos,
and meetings between members of different tribes far from each other took much effort,
their love begins when messengers give descriptions of each side to the other. There is
opposition form the families of both. But they overcome that opposition. Their son
Rostam is born ruddy, with red hair, and becomes the greatest hero of Iran in the
Shahnameh. When a figure reaches a status such as Rostam, he is famed by not only his
own deeds but slowly anonymous tales get woven around him, as with Moses in the
Bible. In private circles, the other great knights in the Shahnameh deride Rostam for
being of poor blood. By comparison, the offspring of marriages between the fair
Norsemen and dark-haired inhabitants of Ireland often had red hair. We also have similar
occurrences among Jews.
Broadly speaking, the Shahnamah may be divided into three sections, each with
numerous subdivisions. The first section is a legendary history of Iran and the Aryani
people. In this instance Aryan is used in the broader definition of the word, including
Indo-European society postulated before recorded history. The eponymous figure
i Arya means noble in ancient Persian, without any physical or racial connotations whatsoever. Its congnates from East to West, mean the same, Arya in Sanskrit and eire in Old Irish, both meaning noble.
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Jamsheed in the Shahnamah is Yima in the Avesta, the holy books of the pre-lslamic
religion of Iran. Yima occurs in the Vedic tradition as Yama. He is the same character as
Ymir in Scandinavian and Irish mythology. He evolved to the twain Remus and
Romulus, the eponymous ancestors of Rome. These correspondences were first noted by
Bruce Lincoln6.
After the mythological section we enter the Iranian heroic age, though there is a grey
region in between, that being the reign of Manoochehr and the appearance of Zaal, who
fell in love with Roodabeh, predecessor of Rapunzel. There is of course no reliable way
to establish the dates of the figures and events in either the mythological or heroic age for
Iran, or any tradition so old. As one point of reference, which due to lack of further data
remaining form the past cannot be conclusively proven right or wrong, Aristotle and
other classical authors put Zoroaster the prophet if ancient Iran, whose rise post-dates the
figures we have spoken of so far, at about 6,000 years before Plato. Others place him
5000-7000 years before Plato.
After the heroic age, comes the historical age, dating from shortly before Alexander,
whose events correspond to recorded history, as from the Babylonian, Greek, Roman,
Armenian, Syriac and other accounts. The third section of the Shahnameh, clearly
delineated from the first two by its correspondence to recorded history, recounts events to
the Arab invasions of Iran (ca. 635-650 AD). Ferdowsy’s accounts of the Sasanian period
(ca. 225-650 AD) in some places closely parallels that of Roman historians, such as the
graphic description of battle scenes that resemble those given by Ammianus Marcellinus
in his History of the Later Roman Empire (ca. 375 AD). Both the verse of Ferdowsy and
the prose of Ammianus have the effect of at times of taking the reader virtually live to the
scene.
The best known representative story in the Shahnamah, whether in or outside Iran, has
been the tragedy of its greatest hero, Rostam and his son Sohrab, who knew not his father
until being slain in combat at his hands for the sake of preservation of the statehood of
Iran. Often it is tales that are recited from the Shahnameh, much like the Thousand and
One Nights. But the whole poem has a moral tone to it that transcends the meaning of the
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words and the subject of the story being told. Interspersed throughout the Shahnamah are
jewels of moral philosophy. In recitals of the Shahnameh these are overshadowed by the
dramatic descriptions of scenes of battle, heroism, kingship and succession, overt praise
of God and God’s nature.
The Shahnameh is comprised of about fifty thousand couplets, in perfect meter and
rhyme, which have withstood the vicissitudes of time in coming down to us from
Ferdowsy. Based on his own estimate of sixty thousand, the remaining ten thousand have
not reached us through the various scribes, perhaps due to political adversaries who may
have influenced and tampered with the work of scribes.
Much of the classical literature of Iran can be seen as being rooted in its pre-Islamic
beliefs, values and culture. Thus the transmission or survival of such works through the
ages by scribes was dependent overall on the balance of how well the works were
received by the public and how much opposition the works drew from the Islamic clergy
and their followers. The Shahnameh survived through the centuries because of having
that balance favorable to it. It has an appeal not only in what is today Iran, within its
present borders, but well beyond, such as in Tajikistan. Sir John Malcolm, British
Ambassador to Persia ca. 1810, later author of the first comprehensive history of Persia in
English, reports how he would see Persian tribesmen lay bare their soul when reciting the
Shahnameh.
In composing the Shahnameh, Ferdowsy, based on his own account, was preceded by
another poet, Daqiqyii, who composed the first few thousand couplets, but died before he
could take the undertaking close to completion. There is but a very slight and hardly
perceptible difference between the verse and style of Daqiqy and of Ferdowsy, such that
if we did not have Ferdowsy’s account to the inclusion of about a thousand verses from
Daqiqy, the difference would be hardly noticeable by anyone. But the portion composed
by Daqiqy, though small, is highly significant, because it tells of the rise of Zoroaster, the
great prophet of ancient Iran.
ii Variant : Daqiqi. The q is a fricative, elsewhere written as gh.
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Zoroaster enunciates the religion of Good and Righteousness. Daqiqy’ tells of how
Zoroaster managed to convert the reigning king to the faith. Zoroaster asks the king to
learn the tenets of the Good Religion, arguing to him how it is unseemly to rule
arbitrarily, without din, without ethics. The word din in Modern Persian, meaning
religion, faith etc., derives from Avestan daena, meaning conscience, and spiritual
identity of the righteous human being. A term of similar pronunciation occurs in Arabic
also, but in Arabic it means law, imposed from without, versus its connotation in
Persian, spiritual precepts inculcated or developed within.
Although my experience with the Shahnamah goes back to an early age, it was in the
1980s that I first began to seriously read the Shahnamah. School children in Iran prior to
the Islamic Revolution received lessons in the Shahnameh. But mostly, this was the
tragedy of Rostam and his son Sohrab and what was impressed on the mind of the child
was often the gross physical struggle, not the timeless jewels of moral philosophy. From
the outset it was clear no mere single course would suffice to read and comprehend the
Shahnameh, over even two semesters. Such a course during a regular academic term at
any institution has to be limited to selected tracts. It took me a year, in the 1980s, to read
the Shahnameh for the first time, Thereafter I went through selected passages that I had
marked multiple times. Over the years as my knowledge grew I became aware of its
relations to other literary and cultural traditions. My first copy got worn out in the process
of reading, its pages coming apart at the seam. I found a near duplicate, and later on
various other editions. There are a number of English translations of the Shahnameh,
ranging from some of the oldest by the Warner Brothers (long predating the movie house
of same name) to the latest by Dick Davis of Ohio State University. Among other
European languages, its translation in Italian is known to come close to conveying the
original.
Sir William Jones and Indo-European Society
In 1786 with the publication of his seminal work showing the languages of India, Iran
and Europe to have evolved form one source, now extinct, Sir William Jones began a
branch of inquiry that continues to the present day. In the Shahnameh Salm is the
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eponymous ancestor of Rome, a veiled reference to the Europeans of the time, and Toor
is the eponymous ancestor likely of Northern peoples, later to be known as Norsemen
and Vikings. Iraj, young brother of Salm and Toor, is the eponymous ancestor of Iran.
On this basis there may exist an equivalence between Toor and Thor in the Eddas and
Sagas of Scandinavia. Ferdowsy quotes a great king of Iran Khosrow Parviz (ca. 600 AD)
in his peace treaty with the Emperor Maurice of Rome, as saying
کهھ اازز پيیش بودد آآنن بزررگگ اانجمن بهھ خويیشی چنانم کنونن با تو من
In bonds of kinship I feel such with you
That was that Great Society from the start 7
That seems to refer to the Indo-Europeans. Fereydoun had just overthrown Zahhak. The
‘Great Society’ had not yet formed (unless we regard what is depicted as his reign in the
Shahnameh as an age, and by extension the lives of his three sons, Salm, Toor and Iraj as
ages). Thus it may indicate a knowledge of Indo-European society independent of that
stream of mythology.
Likewise we find Omar Khayyam describing the monarchs of Iran and Rome as of the
same lineage, having one origin8, in his book Norooz-Nameh. Norooz is the new year
celebrated on the first day of spring. Founded by Jamsheed in the Shahnameh, today
Norooz is celebrated by about a hundred million Persian speaking people. Nameh as in
Shahnameh, refers to book. Nam in Persian is cognate of English name. The notion of
books likely evolved from letters carried by messengers bearing names. Thus nam
evolved to nameh, the word for letter in Modern Persian.
The Nart Saga and King Arthur
Themes in the Shahnameh closely parallel those in the Nart Saga of the Ossettes. The
Ossettes are a people of the Caucasus. They are descended from the Alans, an Iranian
tribe related to the Sarmatians, also an Iranian tribe. The Ossettes became politically
detached from Iran in the course of Iran’s borders shrinking over the centuries. Scott
Littleton and colleagues have shown that themes in the Arthurian legends, such as sword
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in the stone, are traceable to the legends of the Osettes, as recorded in the Nart Saga9.
They have established the link in history, in that as a result of a peace treaty between
Rome and an Iranian tribe closely related and identified with the Alans, Sarmatians,
several thousand of their cavalry are sent into exile in Britain. They carried with them
their history and legends, which then became the core of the Arthurian legends. Then for
the next two thousand years Celtic legends blended and woven with this core of
Arthurian legends. Another detachment of the Alans and Sarmatians settle among the
Germans and form part of the ethnogenesis of the German nation. Yet others among
them may have gone to Ireland.
From Ferdowsy’s Prolegomena to the Shahnameh
Ferdowsy begins with praise of the Wise Lord, lord infinite-wisdom, of which man
inherits a part and can nurture and develop that.
بهھ نامم خدااووند جانن وو خردد کزيین برتر اانديیشهھ برنگذرردد
خدااووند نامم وو خدااووند جایی خدااووند ررووززیی ددهه ررهھھھنمایی
In the name of God of wisdom who bestowed life
Whom the thoughts of man cannot higher reach
The God of fame and of place
Who enables our livelihood and provides guidance10
From Ferdowsy’s Discourse on Creation and Evolution
Then Ferdowsy goes on to the beliefs regarding creation of the universe, the big bang, the
four elements, fire, water, earth and air, the heavens one after another, the Earth, the sun,
the emergence of plants and animals, and man. There appears to be a precursor to
Darwin's theory of evolution in that Ferdowsy does not explicitly state that man was
created, but clearly describes that in the course of the evolution of the universe as
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described, following the emergence of plants and animals, upright man came into being,
and [with his intelligence] became the key to these riddles.
شد اايین بندهھھھا رراا سرااسر کليید چو ززيین بگذرریی مرددمم آآمد پديید
بهھ گفتارر خوبب وو خردد کارربند سرشش ررااست بر شد چو سروو بلند
And after these, man came into being
And became the key to all these riddles
Man raised his head up like a tall cypress
Uttered good words and enacted wise deeds11
His reference below to twain worlds, is to gaiti and mainyu, the material world and the
spiritual world respectively in ancient Persian world view. Man has appeared after
undergoing a course of ‘upbringing” in both the spiritual and material world, in the
matter through evolution. Ferdowsy concludes his discourse on creation addressing the
very last in creation, man:
ااند بهھ چنديین ميیانجی بپرووررددهه ااند تراا اازز ددوو گيیتی برآآووررددهه
نخستيین فطرتت پسيین شمارر تويیی خويیشتن رراا بهھ باززیی مداارر
From twain worlds hast thou been formed.
Through many an intermediary hast thou been raised.
The zenith of Creation, the last in succession
Art thou; care that thou not wasteth thy life12
Ferdowsy's Postscript, Critical of the Sultan
“O Mahmud, shah and conqueror. Though you fear men not, have fear of God.
Many a righteous kings ruled over the world before your reign. It was justice that
they instituted for the under-privileged. They sought from this world naught but
good renown, and from that renown eventual salvation. Those kings who were
bound to money, had no respect among the wise.”
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The great knights and heroes of whom I have spoken, all dead long ago, their
names revived through my words. Alike Jesus, I have raised the dead in name.
Service I have rendered, O King, that shall remain behind of you. Great edifices
fall into ruin, from rain and the heat of the sun. I have erected an edifice immune
from the elements . . .
ددوو صد گفتهھ چونن نيیم کردداارر نيیست بزررگی سرااسر بهھ گفتارر نيیست
Yet greatness lies not all in words.
Two hundred words aren't worth half a deed13.
Much later in the Shahnameh Ferdowsy in relation to the above says :
بمانادد تا هھھھست گرددوونن بهھ پایی مراايین ددااستانن هھھھمايیونن بهھ جایی
So long as the cosmos shall revolve
This, my august epic shall survive
The following headings refer to standard headings in various editions of the Shahnameh,
except on the death of Rostam, where the page and edition are given.
Start of the Mythological Age, Reign of Kiumars
The actual story of kings in the Epic starts with the first king, being synonymous with the
first mortal, Kiumars, whose name derives from Gayo Maretan in the pre-Islamic
scriptures of Iran. The equivalent of Adam in the biblical tradition, but mainly in the
sense of being the first human beingiii. Gayo denotes life, that which is live and hence
fleeting and perishable. Maretan denotes mortal and is a cognate of mortal in English.
The Persian word for man, mard, derives from the same, meaning he who is susceptible
[one day] of dying.
iii It seems in both stories the fact is glossed over that you cannot have a man without a woman. That issue is better covered in Rumi’s poetry.
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Reign of Tahmoores
Tahmoores battles, defeats and chains a people perceived as "devils". At a primitive stage
in the development of the Aryan people, when for the first time they came across pother
ethnic groups, they experienced culture shock. They could not learn and understand each
other's language and culture in time and hostilities had a way of breaking out. This we
may surmise because after Tahmoores overcomes the so-called devils, they teach the
Aryans how to read and write, not only in one script, but multiple. The bounds in time
based on present knowledge very approximately fall in line with what is known of the
birth of writing today, and of the Sumerian achievements in this regard having seen their
course of evolution from earlier systems. The Indo-Europeans are postulated by a
consensus of scholarship to have lived around the Caspian, , ca. 5000 BC and by many
other scholars in various other areas in Europe. That is before they began to disperse in
waves and more significant differentiation in language than existed began to occur. Thus
the people whom the primitive Aryans impulsively saw as "devils" are likely to have
been among the proto-Sumerians or other Caucasians, founders of the earliest
civilizations, who were literate, but neither Semitic nor Indo-European.
Reign of Jamsheed, or Yima Khshaeta
After Tahmoores we come to Ferdowsy's account of the long reign of Jamsheed. His
name derives from Yima Khshaeta in the Avesta, meaning shiny-faced Yima. His
equivalents in Sanskrit, in Scandinavian and Irish lore, and in Roman mythology, has
been mentioned above.
During Jamsheed’s reign there come into being, the functional classes of society, those
of priests, warriors and farmers/tradesmen/craftsmen. These divisions and their parallels
in other Indo-European traditions form the basis of a tripartite ideology put forth by
Georges Dumézil in the mid twentieth century. The class of farmers later comes to
include craftsmen, tradesmen and professionals. There is no conception of money
changers, or 'bankers', for there was as yet no money - only barter.
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Jamsheed is also the enunciator of the Persian new year, celebrated or observed from his
time to our present day on the first day of spring - today by over a hundred million people
in the Persian-speaking world.
But when Jamsheed begins to think of himself too highly, the farr (from Avestan
khvarenah), or spirit of kingship, that makes men righteous leaders, and no longer subject
to their own desires and whims, departs from him. The now soul-less king and hence the
country then fall prey to Zahhak. The name Zahhak derives from azhi dahak, meaning
dragon, in Modern Persian ezhdeha, meaning dragon.
Reign of Fereydoun
After a period of oppressive rule by a criminally ill Zahhak, a descendant of Jamsheed,
Fereydoun becomes the savior of Iran. The Avestan for Fereydoun is tharaetaona,
denoting 'of three tan’, or three bodies, which may be interpreted to refer to his three
sons. Thrae, meaning three, cognate of English three and the root of Modern Persian seh,
meaning three. Fereydoun defeats Zahhak, but rather than killing him chains him to Mt.
Demavand, the tallest of Iran's mountains.
Fereydoun was a shape-changer, a quality we find also in Freyr in Scandinavian
mythology. Fereydoun had three sons, Salm, Toor and Iraj, the latter meaning Arya. Iraj
was the eponymous ancestor of the Aryans, in the narrow definition of the term, who
branched off from the main body of Indo-Europeans and gave their name to Iran, a
modern contraction in Persian of Avestan Airyana Vaeja, "Land of the Aryans".
Ferdowsy by way of example of Fereydoun dissociates the spiritual qualities from the
base self and body:
“Good and Evil shall not remain constant. Treasures and high towers shall not
remain behind of one when dead. It is words that shall remain. Freydoun was not
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an angel, made of heavenly material. Through righteousness and magnanimity he
gained renown. Enact righteousness and magnanimity and you be Fereydoun.”14
Excerpt From the Reign of Manoochehr:
“The World is akin to a farm full of colors and scents. Harvest time is the time of
our death, the flowing water our life, and the crops our selves. We are at our
station, yet constantly riding the crest of night and day. As a caravan that passes
from this city to the next. Some ahead, others behind, each reaching their
destination in turn.”
Reign of Goshtasb; Rise of Prophet Zoroaster
God summons Zoroaster to the realm of the spirit, minoo (Avestan mainyu). Zoroaster,
inspired by Ahura Mazda, teaches a new religion and succeeds in converting the king. Up
to the time of Zoroaster, in the Shahnameh Iranians appear to worship the sun, which
may have been as a source of physical light, symbolic of the spiritual.
بشاهه جهھانن گفت پيیغمبرمم تراا سویی يیزدداانن هھھھمی ررهھھھبرمم
بيیاموزز اازز ااوو ررااهه وو آآيیيین ااوویی ززگويیندهه بپذيیر بهھ دديین ااوویی
زز آآيیيین دديین بهھی وبيیام دديین نهھ خوبست شاهھھھنشهھی کهھ بی
پديید آآمد آآنن فرهه اايیزددیی بدیی برفت اازز ددلل بد سگاالنن
پر اازز نورر اايیزدد ببد ددخمهھ هھھھا ووزز آآلوددگی پاکک شد تخمهھ هھھھا
"Zoroaster said to the king of the World, that I come as a prophet, to guide you in
the path of God. Hearken to his messenger, and heed his ways. Adopt the Good
Religion (metaphor for Zoroastrianism), for without that it is unseemly to rule.
The Divine Glory appears. It cleanses all hearts. Filled with the Light of God were
all the dark dungeons./ All seeds were cleansed from impurity”.
It is implicit in the Shahnameh that Zoroaster's message, would, in the End of Time,
serve to slay Ahriman (Avestan Angra Mainyu), the Evil Spirit.
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کسی کو نداارردد ررهه ززررددهھھھشت بهھ يیزدداانن کهھ هھھھرگز نبيیند بهھشت
"By God, whoso would not follow the way of Zoroaster, shall not enter paradise."
The news reaches the traditional enemies of Iran, Turanians, who then decide to make
war anew on Iran. The Turanians were kin to Iranians. But they are depicted as a less
civilized tribe. It is only epochs and millennia later than the term Turan begins to be
grafted and identified with Turk. In origin, it derives from Toor, son of Fereydoun, who
may be the same figure as Thor in Scandinavian mythology.
مانن آآمدمم سهھھھمی گويید اازز آآ ززنزدد خداایی جهھانن آآمدمم
خدااووند رراا دديیدمم ااندرر بهھشت مر اايین ززند ااووستا هھھھمهھ ااوو نوشت
بدووززخخ ددرروونن دديیدمم ااهھھھريیمنا نيیاررستمش گشت پيیراامنا
"Zoroaster claims to have come from heaven, from the sole God of the universe.
He has seen the Wise Lord in heaven, and received the Avesta from Him.
Zoroaster also visited hell, wherein he saw Ahriman15. Didn’t hang around
Ahriman’s piramoon (cognate of English perimeter).”
His visit, i.e., his spirit hovering over and about hell, forms the prototype for the visit in
Ardaviraf-Nameh16, a work dated to about 600 AD, where Ardaviraf visits heaven and
hell and brings back news of them. In turn, centuries later, Ardaviraf-Nameh is a
precursor to Dante's Divine Comedy. Although the provenance may not have been
established, it is a given that in the ancient world the spoken word travelled more widely
and faster than the written word.
Death of Rostam
The death of Rostam, Iran's greatest hero of legend, is a story not frequently recited from
the Shahnameh, for it seems tantamount to the end of Iran, and God on Earth. Ferdowsy
relates of an old sage in the city of Marv in the northeast, by name Azad-Sarv ("Free
Cypress") who had a copy of Nameye Khosravan, or the book of kings, the main source
for the Shahnameh that Ferdowsy put in verse. Azad-Sarv’s lineage went back to Sam,
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grandfather of Rostam. It is through the oral tradition recollected Rostam’s battles.
Rostam’s half-brother Shoghad, in exile, conspires with the king of Kabol to murder
Rostam by inviting him to Kabol and laying in his path ditches camouflaged with
vegetation in which spears planted with poison tips pointing up awaited the victim.
Rostam and his horse fall in the ditches. A little, after carrying out justice on the
perpetrator, Rostam dies. Ferdowsy describes how the hearts and minds of human
beings, which can be hidden from one another, being in the spiritual domain, are but plain
to God. At his death Rostam gives thanks to God, and begs forgiveness for his sins. The
sins are not explicitly stated, but in the main they would be Rostam’s slaying of his son
Sohrab to protect Iran:
کهھ بوددمم هھھھمهھ سالهھ يیزدداانن شناسس چنيین گفت ررستم ززيیزدداانن سپاسس کزيین پس کهھ جانم ررسيیدهه بهھ لب اازز اايین کيین من ررووزز نامد بشب مراا ززوورر ددااددیی کهھ اازز مرگگ پيیش اازز اايین بی ووفا خوستم کيین خويیش
گناهھھھم بيیامرزز وو پوززشش پذيیر دهه وو ددستگيیرکهھ هھھھستی تو بخشن هھھھمانن ررااهه پيیغمبر وو دديین تو پذيیرفتم وو ررااهه آآيیيین تو
چو ددااررمم ررهه دديین وو آآيیيین پاکک رروواانم کنونن گر بر آآيید چهھ باکک بميینو بر اافراازز جانن مراا بتست آآشکارراا نهھانن مراا
بگفت اايین وو جانش بر آآمد ززتن ريیانن شدند اانجمنبروو ززاارر وو گ
“Thus said Rostam his last prayers. Thanks be to the Wide Lord; I have been a
follower if God through my life. Thanks be that I was bestowed the strength to
seek my vengeance from this traitor. Your prophet and your faith, I accepted, and
so have no fear now, should life leave my body. Take up my soul then to heaven.
My heart and mind plain to you. This he said, and life departed from his body;
and left those who loved him in mourning.”17
The Iranian myth of creation as it comes to us in the Greater Bundahishn, part of its pre-
Islamic scriptures, describes that human beings exist as souls in Heaven. They are
brought into being in heaven during acts of creation by God. But they have Free Will.
They exist in a state of timelessness in heaven. It is of their own volition that they decide
to come down to Earth, be embodied in material form, risk exposure to Evil, and fight the
good fight to advance the cause of Good. They then come down to earth, where time
ticks. They vie to improve it, then return. Having left the earth better, they leave behind
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their material bodies and return in a state of timelessness. The state of timelessness
equates with eternity.
We have, further, a sublime discourse of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Iranian state (ca.
500 BC), on the immortality of the soul as recorded by Xenophon, and a millennium
after that a very similar discourse by the great Persian King Anushiravan (late 500s AD).
Of course we do not know how long has elapsed between the events described in the first
two mythological sections in the Shahnameh and the third, the historical section. It is
likely to be well over a millennium in most cases, and perhaps several millennia.
There is far more in the Shahnameh expressing Zoroastrian concepts, showing the
continuing presence of pre-Islamic thought in Iran. It is difficult to convey the music and
all of the spirit through translation. The spirit of ancient Iran runs through its tone. The
foregoing is an abridgement of prior work that suffices as a representative set. It is apt to
end this brief study with the observation of others well before us who sensed the same
influence and who conveyed their impressions for those who may not be able to read the
Shahnameh in the original, such as James V. Wilkinson, 1931:
"From its majestic breadth and range, from the sonorous sweep of its language,
from its significance as the embodiment of the whole national legend of an
ancient and imaginative race, the Shah-Namah of Firdausi ranks unquestionably
among the great epics of the world. It is inspired by a deep sense of the greatness
of Providence and the impermanence of mortal things. The real theme, indeed, is
the unending conflict behind the scenes of fighting and feasting, knight-errantry
and romance, between the powers of Good and Evil, a conflict which is
emphasized by the habitual use of the language of the old Zoroastrian faith, rather
than that of orthodox Islam.”18
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Reference Works
Verses quoted from the Shahnameh are from the following single-volume Amir Kabir
edition (abbreviated AK) except as noted:
فرددووسی٬، اابوااقاسم٬، شاهھھھنامهھ فرددووسی٬، چاپپ ااميیر کبيیر. چاپپ پنجم. تهھراانن ٢۲۵٣۳٧۷
فرددووسی٬، اابوااقاسم٬، شاهنامه فردو"، چاپپ ااميیر کبيیر. چاپپ پنجم. تهھراانن ٢۲۵٣۳٧۷
! دنيا در كنگره هزاره فردو! درتهران، سپتامبر ١۱٩۹٣۳۴. محرمم مست&%ق#" نيهای جمعى از فض"ی ايران و 'ا سخ) هزاره فردو"، شامل ١۱٣۳١۱٣۳. ددنيیایی کتابب٬، تهھراانن ١۱٣۳۶٢۲
سيیمرغغ٬، نشريیهھ بنيیادد شاهھھھنامهھ فرددووسی. ووززااررتت فرهھھھنگ وو هھھھنر. اازز ٢۲۵ ااسفند ١۱٣۳۵١۱
ددهھھھباشی٬، علی٬، گرددآآووررندهه٬،فرددووسی وو شاهھھھنامهھ٬، مجموعهھ مقاالتت٬، چاپپ ااوولل ٬، بهھارر ١۱٣۳٧۷٠۰
١۱٣۳٢۲٧۷نولدکهھ٬، تيیوددوورر٬، حماسهھ ملی اايیراانن٬، ترجمهھ بزررگگ علویی با مقدمهھ سعيید نفيیسی
١۱٣۳۵٠۰شفيیعی٬، محمودد٬، فرااهھھھم آآووررندهه٬، دداانش وو خردد فرددووسی
١۱٣۳٧۷١۱بيیژنن)٬، نقشهھ جغراافيیايیی شاهھھھنامهھ فرددووسی٬، شهھيیدیی ماززندرراانی (
نوشيین٬، عبداالحسيین٬، سخنی چند ددرر باررهه شاهھھھنامهھ (بدوونن تارريیخ چاپپ)
١۱٣۳٨۸٠۰ززنجانی٬، محمودد٬، فرهھھھنگ جامع شاهھھھنامهھ٬،
Davidson, Olga, The Crown Bestower and the Iranian Book of Kings, in Acta Iranica, Papers in Honor of Professor Mary Boyce, 1985, Vol. 10, pp. 61-148. Fatemi, Saifpour, The Place of Firdusi in the Persian Literature, Iran Review, Vol. I, no. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1949, pp. 28-33. Ferdowsy, Abolghasem, The Epic of the Kings, Shah-Nama, the national epic of Persia by Ferdowsi, translated by Reuben Levy 1967, Revised by Amin Banani, 1973 and 1977. Ferdowsy, Abolghasem, The Shah Nameh, translated by James Atkinson, Esq., Edited by Rev. J. A. Atkinson, 1989, Sahab Geographic and Drafting Institute. ١۱٣۳۶٩۹ تهھراانن. دديیماهه Ferdowsy, Abolghasem, The Shah Namah of Firdausi, described by J. V. S. Wilkinson, the India Society, 1931. Frye, Richard N., The Charisma of Kingship in Ancient Iran, Iranica Antiqua, Vol. VI, Leiden, 1964, pp. 36-54. Reprinted in Richard Nelson Frye, Opera Minora, Vol. I, with an Introduction by Y. M. Nawabi, Shiraz, 1976, pp. 111-129
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Inlow, E. Burke, Shahanshah, the Monarchy of Iran, 1979. Printed in India. Published by Motilal Banarsidass. Liu, William, J., Parallels Between the Shahnameh and the Feng-Shen-yen-I and Some Possible Explanations, Humanities E-159J, Harvard University, Fall 1984. Shahbazi, Shapur, Ferdowsi : A Critical Biography. Harvard University Center for Middle Eastern Studies, 1991, Mazda Publishers. Wickens, G. M., The Imperial Epic of Iran : A literary Approach, in Iranian Civilization and Culture, editor: C. J. Adams, 1972. Also published in Acta Iranica. Wickens, G. M., Persian Literature as an Affirmation of National Identity, Review of National Literatures, Ann Paolucci, Editor; Javad Heidari, Special Ed., Von Grunebaum, G. E., Ferdausi's Concept of History, in Islam, Essays on the Nature and Growth of a Cultural Tradition, G. E. Von Grunebaum, 1955.
Notes
Verses quoted from the Shahnameh and referenced herein are form the following single-volume
:standard edition (Amir Kabir) ااميیر کبيیر
فرددووسی٬، اابوااقاسم٬، شاهھھھنامهھ فرددووسی٬، چاپپ ااميیر کبيیر. چاپپ پنجم. تهھراانن ٢۲۵٣۳٧۷
1 ١۱٣۳۶-١۱۴٠۰صفحهھ ١۱٣۳٢۲٢۲. هھھھمچنيین ددرر هھھھزااررهه فرددووسی٬، ٬۴٠۰۶، صفحهھ ١۱٣۳١۱٣۳فرددووسی نامهھ مهھر بهھارر٬، محمد تقی ٬،
In translating, I have employed the term Bible in place of Qur’an, for it conveys the meaning and connotations in English. 2 See the article on literature in Nagel’s Iran, 1977, p. 52. The author is not explicitly listed but I have a recollection it is Phillip Gignoux. 3 Based on there being 800-900 Arabic words by various counts in the Shahnamah, an average 10 words per couplet, and 50,000 couplets extant. The count of Arabic words is given as 984 in Arthur Upham Pope’s Introducing Persian Architecture, 1976 p 49. Other sources give counts in the 800s. 4 Mohammad Aly Foroughy
١۱٣۳۵٩۹فرووغی٬، محمد علی٬، مفدمهھ بهھ شاهھھھنامهھ فرددووسی٬، اانتشاررااتت جاوويیداانن ٬، بدوونن تارريیخ. قبل اازز
5 ااميیر کبيیر صفحهھ ۴٨۸
6 See Bruce Lincoln, The Indo-European Myth of Creation, History of Religions, Vol. 15, 1975.
7 ااميیر کبيیر صفحهھ ۵٠۰۵
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8 . اازز رروویی نسخهھ ٬٢۲۵٣۳٧۷، ٨۸۶(منسوبب)٬، بهھ کوشش علی حصورریی٬، ززبانن وو فرهھھھنگ اايیراانن شماررهه خيیامم٬، عمر٬، نوررووززنامهھ
.٬١۱٩۹، صفحهھ ١۱٩۹۶٢۲برلن چاپپ عکسی مسکو 9 See the works of C. Scott Littleton, including:
From swords in the earth to the sword in the stone, : A possible reflection on an Alano-Sarmatians rite of passage in the Arthurian tradition. Journal of Indo-European Studies, Homage to Georges Dumezil, 1983, p. 53-67
With Linda A. Malcor, From Scythia to Camelot. A radical Reassessment of the Legends of King Arthur, the Knights of the Round table and the Holy Grail, 1994
The New Comparative Mythology, An Anthropological Assessment of the Theories of Georges Dumezil, 1973.
10 ٢۲٢۲ااميیر کبيیر صفحهھ
11
٢۲٢۲ااميیر کبيیر صفحهھ
12 ااميیر کبيیر صفحهھ ٢۲٣۳
13
شاهھھھنامهھ فرددووسی٬، اانتشاررااتت جاوويیداانن ٬، بدوونن تارريیخ صفحهھ نوززددهه
14 This section appears in the Amir Kabir edition at the end Zahhak's reign, but does not occur in certain others editions. 15 After the Exile (597-537 BC) Satan assumed the role of Ahriman in the Judaeo-Christian tradition.
16 ١۱٣۳٧۷٢۲ترجمهھ وو تحقيیق ژژاالهھ آآموززگارر ١۱٩۹٨۸۴. بهھ کوشش فيیليیپ ژژيینو. ااررددااوويیراافف٬، ااررددااوويیرفنامهھ
Vahman, Fereydoun, Arda Wiraz Namag, The Iranian Divine Commedia, Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies, No. 53, Monograph Series, Curzon Press, 1986, London and Malmo.
ااوويیراافنامهھ٬، يیا بهھشت وو ددووززخخ ددرر آآيیيین مزدديیسنا٬، ترجمهھ وو کوشش ررحيیم ررفيیعیااررددااوويیراافف٬، اارردد ١۱٣۳٧۷٢۲
Death of Rostam 17
٣۳٣۳٧۷صفحهھ ااميیر کبيیر 17 Wilkinson, J. V. S., The Shah-Namah of Firdausi, 1931, p. 5.
Renditions to English by the Author Abridged from the author’s Moral Philosophy of the Shahnameh, 1993
© 1997 Afshin Zand. Revision History
2014: Azhi Dahhak and Dragon paragraph revised.