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CONTENTS
10
Contents
PrefaceForeword
AcknowledgementsList of Abbreviations
vxvxviixxixxiii
Genesisof PorosityMembrane ManufactureReverse Osmosis Membranes
Tangential Flow versus Dead-End FiltrationCertain Reverse Osmosis Applications
NanofiltersUltrafilters
Introduction
Chapter I:The 'Sterilizing' Filter
HistoryThe 0.2/0.22 flm Rated MembraneAdvocacy for the Use of 0.1 flm Rated MembranesConsiderations Regarding the 0.1 flm Rated FiltersFlow Rate Comparisons: 0.1 flm Versus 0.2/0.22 flm
Average Pore SizeFlow Rates versus Pore Size Ratings
Rating AmbiguitiesCartridge Construction Influences
In SummaryThe 0.2/0.22 flm versus the 0.1 flm Rated MembraneThe Authors' Intentions
Chapter 2: Casting-Process Membranes
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VI Contents
Chapter 5: PrefiLters and Flow Decay
Microporous MembranesAsymmetric MembranesInfluencing Filter Properties
Chapter 3: Membrane Pore Structure
Pore FormationPore Architecture
Pore ShapesPorosity and Pore Numbers
Assigning Pore Size RatingsPore Size Ratings
Mean Flow-Pore
The Largest PoresAbsence of Rating Standards
Latex Particles
Latex Particle ApplicationsSurfactant Molecular Action
Pore Size DistributionPore Size Distribution and Retention
Pore Size Distribution During Filtration
Membrane Homogeneity
Chapter 4: Depth-Filter Structure
Membrane and Depth FilterTechnologiesDepth Type FiltersDepth-Filter ConstructionsPolypropyleneand Heat
Other Heating ConcernsAbsolute RatingsNominal Ratings
Prefilter Action
Prefilter Effects on Filter Efficiency
Flow Decay StudiesModeling the Sizing ofThroughputs and Flow Rates
Pleating Effects on Throughput and Flow DecayThe EFAof 47 mm Discs
Inhomogeneity ConsequencesFlow Decay ProcedureArithmetical Calculation
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Contents Vll
Chapter 6: Particles/Organisms 81
Particles
OrganismsBrevundimonas diminutaB. diminuta Size
B. diminuta ShapeStages of Organism Growth
Temperature Effects
81828283838585
Chapter 7: Biofilms 89
Organism Attachments to SurfacesExtracellular Polysaccharide Substances
Protection against BiocidesBiofilm Formation
Stages of AttachmentReasons for Biofilm Formation
Reductions in Free Surface EnergyChemotaxisSurvival Mechanism
Ralsoniapickettii and BurkholderiacepeciaQuorum SensorsDevelopment Time
Surface Smoothness Influences
Velocity InfluencesFluorinated Surface Influences
Investigative ProcedureDealing with BiofilmsPresent Biofilm StatusBiofilm Sanitization
Hot WaterSteam
Test OrganismSteam Conditions
Using SteamHeat Availability from Steam
89909091929393939494949595969698100101101102103103104105106107108109110111
Ozone
Hydrogen PeroxideSodium HypochloritePeracetic Acid
Causation of Pyrogens
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Vlll Contents
Chapter 8: The Fluid Vehicle 113
ViscosityFluidVelocity
Effect upon BiofilmVelocity and SloughingEffectsOn Deep BedsEffect On Ultraviolet EfficiencyEffectsOn Filtrations
Chemical IngredientsCompatibility IssuesCohesiveEnergyDensityIncompatibility Effectson PoreSizeDetection by Integrity Testing
113114115117118118119119120120121121
Chapter 9: The Operational Conditions 123
Differential Pressure Effects
Compressibility of GasesTemperature Effects on AdsorptionsAdsorption Versus Solution
123126127130
Chapter 10: The Polymer Matrix 131
Influence of the Filter PolymerElectrophoresisVaccine Adsorption to Filters
Organism Adsorptions to Reverse Osmosis PolymersNon-Specific Protein AdsorptionStrength Characteristics: T and E
131135136137137138
Chapter 11: The Challenge Density 141
FDA SpecificationsChallenge Density versus Penetration
EMEA SpecificationsDilute Challenges
Dilute Challenge Implications
141142143145149
Chapter 12: Organism Size Alterations 151
Survival Mechanisms
Physicochemically Induced ChangesAnomalous Penetrations
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Contents IX
Organism Shrinkage by LiquidVehicleRetention of Reduced-Size Organisms
153156
Chapter 13: Grow-Through and Penetration 157
Grow-ThroughGrow-ThroughVersusReverseOsmosis MembranesFDAAction on Grow-Through
Grow-Through ConcernsAwarenessof Organism SizeAlterationsPenetration
PoreSizeversusGrow-ThroughAnisotropic Membrane ResponsesChoosingthe PoreSizeRating
Grow-Through and PenetrationParticle Binding ForcesFilter Efficiency
Log ReductionValuesof FiltersMeasurementof Filter EfficiencyConsiderationsin Gas Filtrations
Measurement Intervals
157158158159159159160160161161161162164164165166
Chapter 14: The Air Vent Filter 167
Air Vent Filter
The Need for Hydrophobic FiltersHeat Laggingthe Vent Assembly
Presenceof Water
Sanitization by SteamMeasuringWater Intrusion
Critical SurfaceTension
Integrity Test InterpretationsBlowdownTime
Procedurefor Membrane Drying
167168168169170170171171172172
Chapter 15: Multifilter Arrangements 175
ParallelArrangementsSeriesArrangementsDouble LayeredFilters
HeterogeneousFiltersHomogeneousFilters
Repetitive Filter EffectsRedundant Filtrations
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Regulatory RecommendationsEconomics of Repetitive Filtrations
182183
Chapter 16: Cartridge Type Constructions 185
Cartridge ConstructionsStandard CartridgesMini-CartridgesDisposable CapsulesPleated Construction
FilterHousings
185187189189190192
Chapter 17: The Stainless Steels and Rouging 195
The Stainless SteelsAustenitic Stainless SteelsMartensitic Stainless SteelsFerritic Stainless Steels
Crystal FormationAnnealingand Rateof CoolingDifferent Crystal Properties
Series 300 Stainless SteelsRoleof Chromium
Rouge
195196196196197197198198199200202203205206206206207208208209209209210210211212213213214
Significanceof RougeInfluence of Carbon Dioxideand Oxygen
Some Types of CorrosionContact CorrosionGalvanic CorrosionPit Corrosion and Chloride IonsCrevice Corrosion
Critical Crevice Corrosion TemperatureStress Corrosion or CrackingMicrobially Induced Corrosion
StainlessSteel SurfaceFinishes
PicklingMillFinishNo. 2BMillFinishNo.4MillFinishNo.7
Mechanicalor AbrasiveFinishesInclusions
PolishingAfterGrindingSurface Smoothness Ratings
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Contents Xl
Chapter 18: Passivation and Electropolishing 215
ElectropolishingPassivation
Nitric Acid
Phosphoric AcidChelating Agents
Chelation
Cleaning The Metal SurfacesComposition of The Passive FilmThe Role of Nickel and MolybdenumService Lifeof the Passive Film
Welding: Effects of ImpuritiesWelding: Heat Effects
Welding of Stainless Steel TanksTubing or Piping
215217218219219220221221222223224224226227
Chapter 19: Polymeric Constructions 229
Polymeric Materials in Water SystemsExtractables Testing Modes
Temperature and Duration ofTestsComparisons Based on Extractables
Fluorocarbons
Perfluoroallomer (PFA)Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF)
PVDF LeachingResponse to Ozone
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVe)Polypropylene
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Chapter 20: Cartridge Handling 239
Cartridge Insertion into Housingsa-Ring Replacements
Procedure for Cartridge WettingPrefiltration Integrity TestingConsiderations of FlowVelocities
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Chapter 21: Mechanism of Particle Retention 247
Definition of 'Mechanism of Retention'Filter Cake Formation
Retentions by Particle Impactions
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xu Contents
Gravitational SettlingInertial ImpactionBrownian Motion
Relative Retention EfficiencyMost Penetrating Particle
The SieveRetention Mechanism
Adsorptive Sequestration MechanismAdsorptive EffectsAdsorption of Organisms
Supportive ExperimentalFindingsElford's FindingsTannyet al.Bowman et al.
Wallhausser'sFindingsLeahyand Sullivan
Surfactants and Water WettingAdsorption of Protein
Isoelectric Point
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Chapter 22: Mathematical Modeling of Filter Blockage 265
Mathematical ModelingFor Sieve Retention
For Adsorptive SequestrationAnalysis of the Blocking Mechanisms
265266266267
Chapter 23: Adsorption Bonding 271
Bonding,ElectronSharingand ElectricalChargesBond TypesPartial Charges
The Ionic BondFuoss Effect
Endotoxin Adsorption by Ionic InteractionCompetition Among Ions
Fajan's RuleHydrophobic ContributionThe Covalent Bond
The Dipole StructureThe Hydrogen Bond
Surfactants and Water-WettingDensityof WaterSolvating Effectsvan der Waals Forces
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Contents X111
Attractive and Repulsive ForcesAttenuation of Repulsive ForcesDebye Length PhenomenaColloidal DestabilizationBacterial Adhesion to Surfaces
286288289289291
Chapter 24: Electrical Double layer 293
The Electrical Double LayerThe Zeta Potential
Zeta Potential SummaryZeta Potential Numbers
Streaming Current Potential
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Chapter 25: Hydrophobic Adsorptions 303
Theories on Hydrophobic AdsorptionsNon-Specific Proteins
Conformational ChangesQualitative Measurement of Protein BindingProtein Fouling of Filters
Comparative Data from Beer FiltrationEndotoxin Removal by Adsorption
Hydrophobic Adsorption: UltrafiltersHydrophobic Adsorption: Microporous Membranes
Practical Implications of Adsorptive SequestrationBowen et al. ImplicationsSummary
303307308309310310312312313315316317
Chapter 26: Literature References 319
Index 345
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