Contemporary Sediment-Transport Processes in Submarine Canyons

MA06CH03-Puig ARI 5 November 2013 12:21

ContemporarySediment-Transport Processesin Submarine CanyonsPere Puig, Albert Palanques, and Jacobo MartınInstitut de Ciencies del Mar, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientıficas (CSIC),Barcelona E-08003, Spain; email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 2014. 6:53–77

First published online as a Review in Advance onAugust 5, 2013

The Annual Review of Marine Science is online atmarine.annualreviews.org

This article’s doi:10.1146/annurev-marine-010213-135037

Copyright c© 2014 by Annual Reviews.All rights reserved

Keywords

turbidity currents, hyperpycnal flows, sediment failures, dense shelf-watercascading, bottom trawling, internal waves

Abstract

Submarine canyons are morphological incisions into continental marginsthat act as major conduits of sediment from shallow- to deep-sea regions.However, the exact mechanisms involved in sediment transfer within sub-marine canyons are still a subject of investigation. Several studies haveprovided direct information about contemporary sedimentary processes insubmarine canyons that suggests different modes of transport and varioustriggering mechanisms. Storm-induced turbidity currents and enhancedoff-shelf advection, hyperpycnal flows and failures of recently depositedfluvial sediments, dense shelf-water cascading, canyon-flank failures, andtrawling-induced resuspension largely dominate present-day sediment trans-fer through canyons. Additionally, internal waves periodically resuspendephemeral deposits within canyons and contribute to dispersing particlesor retaining and accumulating them in specific regions. These transportprocesses commonly deposit sediments in the upper- and middle-canyonreaches for decades or centuries before being completely or partially flushedfarther down-canyon by large sediment failures.

53

Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


INTRODUCTION

Submarine canyons are common morphological features incising continental margins (Shepard& Dill 1966, Shepard 1981, Harris & Whiteway 2011) and act as preferential conduits for sedi-ment transport from shelf environments to adjacent basins (Figure 1). However, the mechanismsinvolved in such transport, which ultimately contribute to the erosion and/or infill of submarinecanyons, are still not fully understood.

Since the late 1960s, oceanographic instrumentation and associated control and data-loggingcapacities have been developed to allow scientists to deploy instruments at sea that could remainsubmerged and operational for extended periods. Following this approach, several studies of waterand sediment dispersal involving simultaneous records (current speed and direction, temperature,conductivity, turbidity, downward particle fluxes, etc.) collected by various oceanographic sen-sors and sampling devices have been obtained in submarine canyons. These measurements haveprovided insight into the contemporary sedimentary processes operating in them, and include

0

Elev

atio

n (m

)

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

–500

–1,000

–1,500

–2,000

–2,500

–3,000

Figure 1Perspective view from the northwestern Mediterranean Digital Elevation Model (Farran 2005) showing the numerous submarinecanyons incising the Gulf of Lions and the northern Catalan continental margin (see location in Figure 2). Vertical exaggeration =10× .

54 Puig · Palanques · Martın

Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


1234

6

5 7 8 9

1011

1213

1415

16

17

18

19 20 21

22

23 2425

26

Figure 1

Abra (24)Baltimore (10)Bari (21)Blanes (18)Bourcart (19)Capbreton (16)Cap de Creus (19)Congo (22)Eel (2)Fangliao (25)Foix (18)Gaoping (25)Grand Banks Valley (13)Grand Rhone (19)Guadiaro (17)Halibut (13)Hudson (11)Hueneme (4)Lacaze-Duthiers (19)La Fonera (Palamós) (18)La Jolla (5)Lisbon (14)Lydonia (12)Mississippi (7)Monterey (3)Mugu (4)Nazaré (15)Oceanographer (12)Planier (19)Quinault (1)Rio Balsas (6)Rio de la Plata (8)Salt River (9)Scripps (5)Sepik (26)Setúbal (14)Soquel (3)Swatch of No Ground (23)Var (20)

Figure 2Locations of submarine canyons mentioned in this review. Some areas (numbers) comprise multiple canyons located in the same region.

Turbidity current:a general term todescribe a rapidlymoving, fully turbulentcurrent of dense,sediment-laden waterflowing down a slope

observations in submarine canyons incised on tectonically active margins or nearby major riversthat may be analogs for sedimentary processes during low-stands of sea level.

Early reviews on currents in submarine canyons were based on short current-meter recordsfrom Scripps Canyon (Inman et al. 1976) and from a large variety of locations in submarinecanyons around the world (Shepard et al. 1979). Since then, longer instrumented deploymentshave been carried out with the aim of improving our understanding of sediment transport anddispersal mechanisms acting within canyons. Information derived from these observations hasbeen included in recent reviews addressing the initiating processes of turbidity currents (Piper& Normark 2009), the dynamics of the flows within submarine canyons and their role in shelf-ocean exchange (Allen & Durrieu de Madron 2009), and the technological and scientific progressenabled by current-meter measurements in canyons (Xu 2011).

This review aims to reexamine and summarize current knowledge of contemporary sediment-transport processes within submarine canyons, focusing on the information derived from in-strumented moorings and benthic frame deployments since the late 1960s. To provide a bettercomparison among study sites, special emphasis has been put on identifying the depths and heightsabove the seafloor where measurements were made (see Figure 2 for submarine canyon locations).The review has been organized by major triggering mechanisms and provides complementary in-formation on the generated sedimentary deposits, in a source-to-sink approach.

SURFACE WAVES

Storm-Induced Turbidity Currents

The first successful measurements of a storm-induced turbidity current were made at 44-m depthin Scripps Canyon using a current meter placed 3 m above bottom (mab), conveying a record

www.annualreviews.org • Sediment-Transport Processes in Canyons 55

Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


Hyperpycnal flow:a negatively buoyantplume that flows alongthe seafloor in front ofa river mouth as aresult of increasedsedimentconcentration

ADCP: acousticDoppler currentprofiler

through a wire to the Scripps pier (Inman 1970, Inman et al. 1976). During a storm event onApril 24, 1964, the current meter failed at a down-canyon velocity of 50 cm s−1 and was sub-sequently lost. Approximately eight other similar events were observed afterward, including themeasurement on November 24, 1968, of a sustained current of 190 cm s−1 over 2.5 h before themeter was lost. In the neighboring La Jolla Canyon, Shepard & Marshall (1973) placed two currentmeters at 206-m depth (2 and 4 mab) just before a storm on December 4, 1972, and the meters weredisplaced down-canyon. The meters were recovered 500 m away from their original placement,and the record showed speeds of up to 50 cm s−1 followed by an abrupt termination of data.

Gennesseaux et al. (1971) obtained further evidence of storm-induced turbidity currents in VarCanyon, where two down-canyon current-velocity peaks of >80 cm s−1 were recorded at 800-mdepth (1.5 mab) during a strong storm on April 23, 1971. These events preceded a flood of the VarRiver on April 24, after which the currents maintained a sustained down-canyon direction with rel-atively high velocities, presumably related to hyperpycnal flows (see Hyperpycnal Flows and Flood-Related Sediment Failures, below). In Rio Balsas Canyon, Shepard et al. (1975, 1977) recordedsix strong down-canyon pulses of >50 cm s−1 at 285-m depth on April 29–30, 1975, during ahigh-tide period with unusually large swell; these pulses were also attributed to turbidity currents.

Monterey Canyon is recurrently affected by sediment flushing of the canyon head during thefirst storm of the fall/winter season (Okey 1997). Xu et al. (2002) observed a sharp increase in waterturbidity in this canyon at 1,450-m depth (100 mab) that lasted from February 8 to February 15,1994. The measurements were interpreted as resulting from a storm-induced turbidity current,although no simultaneous high current velocities occurred. On December 20, 2001, during aperiod of large swells, an instrumented frame deployed at 525-m depth was displaced ∼550 mdown-canyon by a turbidity current and buried in 70 cm of sediment (Paull et al. 2003).

Further instrumented mooring deployments in the axis of Monterey Canyon at 820-, 1,020-,and 1,450-m depth were conducted from December 2002 to November 2003 (Xu et al. 2004). Theuse of moored acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs) allowed, for the first time, recording ofthe velocity profiles of several turbidity currents whose maximum down-canyon velocity reached190 cm s−1. The first two turbidity currents were also captured by a mooring deployed at 1,300-mdepth (MBARI 2003) and occurred during a stormy period with significant wave heights (HS) >

5 m. The turbidity current on December 17, 2002, was not recorded at 820-m depth and appearedto be generated in the upper reaches of the tributary Soquel Canyon, whereas the one on December19–20, 2002, was recorded at all monitoring sites. These turbidity currents lasted a few hours, andsome gained in speed as they traveled down-canyon, suggesting a possible self-accelerating process.

From 2002 to 2010, numerous sediment-transport events were observed at different depthsin the axis of Monterey Canyon and were attributed to turbidity currents, the majority of whichwere correlated with storms or localized canyon wall failures (Barry et al. 2006, Xu 2011, Xuet al. 2013). None of these turbidity currents appeared to reach beyond 2,500-m depth, wherethe canyon widens, the axial gradient decreases, and the flow presumably loses both speed andsediment concentration and therefore dissipates (Xu 2011).

The floor of Monterey Canyon is covered by crescent-shaped bedforms down to 2,100-m depth(Smith et al. 2005, Paull et al. 2011), the origin of which appears to be linked with the observedturbidity currents (Xu et al. 2008, Paull et al. 2010b). Sediment coring revealed that the floor ofthe axial channel is filled with unconsolidated sand, cobbles, and mud casts (Paull et al. 2005).Similar sediment facies and crescent-shaped bedforms have been recently documented in the axisof La Jolla Canyon (Paull et al. 2013) and the head of Nazare Canyon (Duarte et al. 2012).

Time series collected in Nazare Canyon have also identified the presence of storm-induced turbidity currents, although observations were conducted at much deeper locations. OnDecember 19, 2003, during a benthic lander deployment at 4,298-m depth, de Stigter et al. (2007)


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


Nepheloid layer:a layer in the watercolumn that containslarger amounts ofsuspended sedimentcompared with aclear-water minimumwithout particles

Advection: thetransport of a waterproperty created by aflow crossing agradient of thatproperty210Pb: a naturallyoccurring radioactivelead isotope used todate marine sedimentsover a period of100–150 years owingto its half-life of22.3 years

recorded a sudden increase in current speed (from 10 to 20 cm s−1) associated with a sharp rise insuspended-sediment concentration (SSC), which remained high for four days. Concurrent moor-ing observations with sediment traps and current meters deployed at 1,600- and 3,300-m depthfrom October 2002 to December 2004 demonstrated the link between such a transport event anda storm-induced turbidity current (Martın et al. 2011). A previous storm on January 21, 2003(HS = 9.1 m), also triggered a turbidity current that caused an increase of down-canyon currentspeed at 3,300-m depth and overfilled the sediment trap with sandy-silt sediments rich in vegetaldebris. However, no related increase of current speed was observed at 1,600-m depth despite alarge increase in SSC, suggesting that the turbidity current decelerated and accelerated along thecanyon, controlled by local slope gradients and modulated by internal tides (see Internal Waves,below). A similar event occurred during a storm from October 30 to November 2, 2004 (HS =10.3 m). The sediment trap at 3,300-m was overfilled, although sand and plant debris were presentin much smaller amounts. Unlike the previous event, the current-meter data in the same mooringdid not show an increase in current speed, and the event was interpreted as the distal part of aturbidity current, which generated a concentrated bottom nepheloid layer (Martın et al. 2011).

Using a benthic lander deployed at 3,120-m depth on a terrace adjacent to the axis of NazareCanyon, Masson et al. (2011) reported three other sediment-transport events, which occurredon September 28, 2005; November 14, 2005; and January 14, 2006. On each of them, relativelylarge and sharp increases in turbidity that appeared essentially unrelated to current variation wereobserved, followed by a gradual decline to background values over 10 days or more. These eventswere also interpreted as the end member of a process continuum that ranges from true turbiditycurrents triggered by storms to lateral advection of nepheloid layers formed from such currents(Masson et al. 2011).

Sediment coring has indicated that the middle Nazare Canyon is a region of high sedimentaccumulation rates (Schmidt et al. 2001, Van Weering et al. 2002, de Stigter et al. 2007) and a sinkof organic carbon (Masson et al. 2010). In the upper-canyon thalweg, muddy sediments with thinsilt to fine-sand layers overlying massive sands with excess 210Pb activity are usually found, whereasin the middle canyon, fine-grained sedimentation prevails, predominantly in the canyon terraces.Sandy turbiditic deposits in the lower canyon (>4,000-m depth) are restricted to centennialor longer-timescale processes linked to seismic events (de Stigter et al. 2007, Arzola et al.2008).

Several storm-induced turbidity currents were also recorded by instrumented moorings inHueneme and Mugu Canyons at ∼180-m depth (Xu et al. 2010). Four turbidity currents wererecorded in Hueneme Canyon: two consecutive currents on December 5 and 7, 2007, during a“dry” storm (i.e., not concurrent with the flooding of the nearby Santa Clara River) and two onJanuary 5 and February 25, 2008, during “wet” storms (i.e., when the river was in flood). Onlytwo of these storms (December 7, 2007, and February 25, 2008) triggered a concurrent turbiditycurrent in Mugu Canyon. ADCP measurements revealed that turbidity currents were 10–20 mthick, lasted a few hours, and reached the highest velocities at ∼4 mab, attaining speeds of >200 cms−1. Crescent-shaped bedforms are also present in the axes of these canyons (see figure 1 in Xuet al. 2010).

In Capbreton Canyon, Mulder et al. (2012) deployed two instrumented moorings at 500- and1,500-m depth and recorded a sediment-transport event that was attributed to a turbidity currentgenerated by a storm on December 3, 2007 (HS = 5.5 m). At 500-m depth, the current increasedabruptly from 5 to 32 cm s−1 in conjunction with increases in water temperature and acousticbackscatter signal, but the event was not observed in the deeper mooring. Coring conductedin Capbreton Canyon (Mulder et al. 2001b, 2012; Gaudin et al. 2006b) also indicated presentaccumulation of sandy to gravelly sediments in the axial channel, including a recent turbidite


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


Fluid mud:a negatively buoyantnear-bottom layer ofwater with sedimentconcentrations of>40 g L−1 infreshwater and >10 gL−1 in seawater

Sediment gravityflow: any gravity flowdriven by the excessdensity provided bythe sediment that itcontains (also calledsediment density flow)

sampled at 647-m depth attributed to a major storm on December 27, 1999 (HS = 12 m), whilethe canyon terraces preserve numerous fine-grained turbidites that result from the spillover ofturbidity currents.

All the above-mentioned submarine canyons cut into the continental shelf, with their headslocated at shallow depths a short distance from the coastline, where coarse sediments delivered byalong-shelf currents or nearby rivers can be temporarily deposited until a storm flushes them down-canyon. Gradual retrogressive slope failures of steep slopes in noncohesive sands (i.e., breaching)caused by dilation and consequent pore pressure drop during storm events have been postulatedas the initiating mechanism (Mastbergen & Van den Berg 2003).

Submarine canyons whose heads are located at midshelf or shelf-break depths and that receivefine-sediment supplies from nearby rivers can also experience storm-induced turbidity currents.In Eel Canyon, Puig et al. (2003) recorded a sharp increase in SSC (up to 106 mg L−1) at 280-mdepth (15 mab) immediately after the arrival of a dry storm (HS = 10.7 m) on October 28, 1999.In intermediate waters (115 mab), SSC increased 3 h later, reaching maximum values of ∼30 mgL−1. This time lag reflected a rapid, highly concentrated transport of sediment near the bottomand a more dilute advective sediment transport in intermediate waters related to the detachmentof sediment particles at shelf-break depths (see Advection from Shelf Resuspension, below). Abenthic tripod was subsequently deployed at 120-m depth in the same canyon thalweg, revealingthat wave-supported turbidity currents are generated at the canyon head during storms every timethe wave orbital velocity increases (Puig et al. 2004a) (Figure 3). Wave-load liquefaction wassuggested as the mechanism for removing unconsolidated sediments that progress down-canyonat relatively low velocities (<40 cm s−1) as wave-supported fluid muds.

Sediment coring in Eel Canyon revealed fine-grained deposits with high accumulation rates(>4 cm y−1) and the presence of physical structures (Mullenbach & Nittrouer 2000, 2006;Mullenbach et al. 2004; Drexler et al. 2006). These deposits were consistently observed in theupper-channel thalwegs (<500-m depth) but not deeper, suggesting that most of the sedimenttransported down-canyon had settled to the seabed at depths just below where the wave energywas sufficient to maintain the sediment gravity flows. Long cores showed truncated profilesof excess 210Pb that indicate massive remobilization of sediment on timescales of >100 years(Mullenbach & Nittrouer 2006).

Ross et al. (2009) reported mooring observations at 300-m depth in Mississippi Canyon andprovided evidence of the impact of Hurricane George on sediment transport along this canyon.Two strong down-canyon flows reaching >60 cm s−1 were recorded at 3 mab on September 27and 29, 2008. No SSC measurements were available at that time, but the flux of material collectedby sediment traps indicated enhanced down-canyon sediment transport. Dail et al. (2007) hadpreviously collected seabed samples in Mississippi Canyon at 320-, 515-, and 665-m depth inOctober 2004, and they reported 2–6-cm event-driven sediment deposits attributed to HurricaneIvan. The well-developed physical stratification and graded nature suggested that the sedimentwas deposited by storm-induced sediment gravity flows.

Sediment coring from the Swatch of No Ground submarine canyon head (<564-m depth)indicated extremely high deposition (up to ∼50 cm y−1) of fining-upward graded deposits withsharp basal contacts, which are correlated with storm events during typhoons (Michels et al.1998, 2003; Kudrass et al. 1998). Acoustic surveys before and after the passing of Typhoon Sidr(November 15, 2007) over Swatch of No Ground Canyon revealed widespread mass failuresaround the canyon head and rims (Rogers & Goodbred 2010). Such storm-induced mass failuresappear to evolve down-canyon as sediment gravity flows and are then preserved in the canyon-head sedimentary record. Hale et al. (2012) also found rapid sedimentation and the presence ofphysical sediment structures in sediment cores taken in Fangliao Canyon from 361- to 859-m


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


Sampling dates in 2000

60

70

80

90

100

110

Dep

th (m

)

–40

–20

0

20

40

–20

–10

0

10

20

0

10

20

30

40

0

Jan. 27 Jan. 28 Jan. 29 Jan. 30 Jan. 31 Feb. 1 Feb. 2 Feb. 3

20

40

60

80

100

0

0.1

0.2

ADCP backscatter

Alo

ng-c

anyo

nflo

w (c

m s

–1)

Cam

era

opac

ity

(%)

Chan

ge in

cur

rent

spee

d (1

00 c

mab

–30

cm

ab) (

cm s

–1)

Wav

e or

bita

lve

loci

ty (c

m s

–1)

Up-canyon

Down-canyon

Shea

r str

ess

(Pa)

100 cmab

30 cmab

Figure 3Details from benthic tripod records at the head of Eel Canyon (120-m depth) during a storm in late January2000, showing three periods of elevated wave orbital velocities and shear stresses that generated wave-supported sediment gravity flows. Note that currents at 30 cm above bottom (cmab) were greater thancurrents at 100 cmab and were directed down-canyon, and that the acoustic backscatter (as a function ofheight) measured by an upward-looking acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) and the opacity on aseabed-imaging video camera denoted higher estimates of suspended-sediment concentration. Adapted fromPuig et al. (2004a).


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


depth after Typhoon Morakot (HS > 10 m) and suggested storm-induced gravity flows as thesediment-delivering mechanism into the canyon.

Advection from Shelf Resuspension

Enhanced sediment transport and increased particle fluxes during storm events have also beenrecorded in many submarine canyons by the advection of resuspended sediments from the adjacentshelves. Monitoring in Quinault Canyon (Carson et al. 1986) showed that sediment resuspended onthe shelf during storms was advected over the canyon, forming shelf-break intermediate nepheloidlayer (INL) detachments (Hickey et al. 1986) that increased particle fluxes in the upper canyon(Baker & Hickey 1986) and caused preferential accumulation of fine-grained sediments in thecanyon-head thalwegs (Thorbjarnarson et al. 1986). Similarly, the development of a shelf-breakINL was observed over Grand Rhone Canyon after a storm event (Durrieu de Madron 1994),and enhanced deposition from shelf-break INL detachments was recorded in La Fonera (Palamos)Canyon during a major storm on November 11, 2001 (HS > 11 m), that overfilled several sedimenttraps (Martın et al. 2006).

Advection of shelf sediment into submarine canyon depends mainly on the storm magnitude andduration and on the prevailing currents delivering resuspended particles toward the shelf-edge andcanyon rims. Palanques et al. (2008) analyzed the timing and mechanisms involved in the shelf-to-canyon sediment transport in Cap de Creus Canyon during two major storm events. Theyfound that the storm-induced downwelling transport during stratified conditions on December3–4, 2003 (HS = 8.4 m), did not last long enough to allow the advection of resuspended coastalsediment to reach the canyon head, whereas during a longer storm event on February 20–22,2004 (HS = 7 m), with the presence of cold, dense waters over the shelf (see Dense Shelf-WaterCascading, below), the resuspended sediment could be flushed through the canyon head. In BlanesCanyon, Sanchez-Vidal et al. (2012) also reported the effects of a storm on December 26, 2008(HS = 8 m), that caused strong downwelling and transported large amounts of resuspended shelfmaterial deeper into the canyon.

HYPERPYCNAL FLOWS AND FLOOD-RELATED SEDIMENT FAILURES

The first observational record inside a submarine canyon of what appeared to be a hyperpycnalflow was obtained in Abra Canyon on August 5, 1976 (Shepard et al. 1977, 1979). The observationswere made during the southwest monsoons, with no real storm condition or exceptional swell butwith heavy rainfall in the mountains that caused a large discharge from the Abra River. Currentsobtained at 622-m depth recorded a rapid buildup of down-canyon currents for more than 3 h,with the currents attaining velocities of 72 cm s−1 at 3 mab and 53 cm s−1 at 30 mab.

Shepard et al. (1979) also described a turbidity current in Rio de la Plata Canyon, off the riverof the same name in Puerto Rico. Two current meters were deployed at 238- and 439-m depth(3 mab) during the flood season. On January 25, 1977, a turbidity current that lasted ∼2 h andattained a speed of 100 cm s−1 was observed only at the shallower station, with no evidence ofcontinuation at the deeper station. Shepard et al. (1979) explained this turbidity current as beinggenerated by the large amount of sediment carried into the ocean at the time of the flood, althoughthe three-day delay with respect to the peak discharge (see figure 97 in Shepard et al. 1979) suggestsa failure of recently deposited sediments.

Johnson et al. (2001) reported four events in a 12-year time series (1988–2000) of hydro-graphic profiles that seem to represent hyperpycnal flows from the Salinas River into MontereyCanyon. Distinctly warmer, fresher, and turbid water was identified at 200-m depth after major


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


Hypopycnal plume:a positively buoyantplume of river water,which can be loadedwith suspendedsediment but still belighter than ambientseawater

floods. The calculated density was less than that of the overlying water, and the excess of densitywas attributed to high suspended loads. During the March 1995 event, a 150-m-thick, warm,fresh, turbid plume was observed during a remotely-operated-vehicle dive at 1,170-m depth in-side the canyon. A current meter deployed at 949-m depth (1 mab) on the canyon flank duringthis event recorded a sharp drop in salinity and increase in temperature, but currents did notincrease.

Var Canyon is recurrently affected by hyperpycnal flows from the Var River (Mulder et al.1998). Early observations by Gennesseaux et al. (1971) at 800-m depth in this canyon (see SurfaceWaves, above) showed a sustained down-canyon flow period with several pulses of ∼40–60 cms−1 after a flood of the Var River on April 24, 1971, that could have been the result of a hyper-pycnal flow. More recently, Khripounoff et al. (2009) deployed several moorings along the axisof Var Canyon at 1,200-, 1,850-, and 2,200-m depth from October 2005 to March 2008. Theirstudy documented six sediment gravity flows that were associated with floods and interpreted ashyperpycnal flows. These flows were characterized by a sudden increase of down-canyon currentvelocities, which reached 21–65 cm s−1 and lasted 8–22 h, and by large downward particle fluxes.Only two of those events reached the mooring located at 1,850-m depth.

Additional instrumented moorings were later deployed at 510-, 1,280-, and 1,575-m depthalong the axis of Var Canyon from December 2008 to March 2009 (Khripounoff et al. 2012).Three major sediment gravity flows were analyzed using information derived from two ADCPs.The first event, on December 15, 2008, occurred during a Var River flood and was determinedto be a hyperpycnal flow with a large vertical extent (>100 m high) and relatively low velocity(∼40 cm s−1). The second event, on February 8, 2009, was more energetic, with a maximumhorizontal current peak of 60 cm s−1 but a low vertical extent (30 m high). This event occurred36 h after the peak of the Var River flood on February 6 and was considered to be a canyon-headsediment failure. The third event, on February 18, 2009, was not recorded at 510-m depth andarrived at 1,280-m depth with a speed of >85 cm s−1, and was consequently interpreted as theresult of a sediment failure on the canyon flank. In light of these new observations, Khripounoffet al. (2012) reinterpreted the six events recorded in Var Canyon from 2005 to 2008 (Khripounoffet al. 2009) and showed that at least two of those events probably were not hyperpycnal flows butrather were turbidity currents generated by sediment failures, because the time interval betweenthe flood and the gravity flow was too long and the current speed was too fast.

Analysis of a sediment core collected on a terrace of Var Canyon at 1,970-m depth allowedMulder et al. (2001a) to correlate hyperpycnal turbiditic sequences with major floods of the VarRiver, which occurred on a decadal frequency. Recently, Mas et al. (2010) conducted a morecomprehensive analysis of sediment cores collected along the entire canyon system and foundthat sediment-transport processes during the present high-stand of sea level are dominated byhigh-frequency (yearly) hyperpycnal flows and turbidity surges generated by small-scale failures,by larger and less frequent (decadal) hyperpycnal flows, and by high-magnitude turbidity currentsgenerated by large-scale slope failures. Deposits correlated with low-magnitude, high-frequencyevents (i.e., the ones observed with moored instruments) are confined in the upper part of thecanyon and are preserved in the inner terraces, whereas high-magnitude events bypass the channel-floor region and participate in the construction of the Var Sedimentary Ridge.

The Gaoping (previously Kaoping) River, which is directly connected to Gaoping Canyon,can also reach hyperpycnal concentrations during typhoon conditions (Kao & Milliman 2008).Turbidites and/or hyperpycnites are common in the canyon sediments (Huh et al. 2009, Liu et al.2009), although the normal mode of riverine sediment delivery is via hypopycnal plumes (Liu& Lin 2004). Typhoons Kai-tak ( July 7–9, 2000) and Nakri ( July 9–10, 2002) induced down-canyon transport to ∼300-m depth of suspended particles delivered by river discharge and wave


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


234Th: naturallyoccurring radioactivethorium isotope usedto date marinesediments over aperiod of a few monthsowing to its half-life of24.1 days

resuspension on the shelf (Liu & Lin 2004, Liu et al. 2006), although none triggered a sedimentgravity flow.

During Typhoon Kalmaegi ( July 16–18, 2008), Liu et al. (2012) monitored a down-canyonsediment gravity flow at 650-m depth. During the peak of the flood, on July 18, sharp increasesin water temperature and acoustic backscatter were recorded at the mooring site. Down-canyoncurrent velocities measured by a single-point current meter (55 mab) reached a peak of 160 cms−1, and currents from the lowermost bin of an ADCP (42 mab) recorded sustained down-canyonvelocities over 14 h that reached ∼80 cm s−1. A sediment trap collected large amounts of plantdebris and sand particles at the time of the gravity flow. Maximum flood SSCs during TyphoonKalmaegi were below the threshold values for hyperpycnal plunging, and HS reached >4 m,indicating a combined effect of the flood and waves as a triggering mechanism. A few days later,Typhoon Fong Wong ( July 26–29, 2008) caused greater river discharge and higher waves, butthe moored instruments did not record any significant sediment-transport event (Liu et al. 2012),suggesting that the canyon-head sediments were previously flushed down-canyon during TyphoonKalmaegi.

Typhoon Morakot (August 7–9, 2009) dropped 2,777 mm of rain in three days over southernTaiwan (Ge et al. 2010), and the Gaoping River reached 27,447 m3 s−1 on August 8, attainingdischarges above hyperpycnal thresholds for several hours (Carter et al. 2012). Maximum HS

reached >10 m during the peak of the flood (Hale et al. 2012). Immediately after Morakot, onAugust 14–15, 2009, Kao et al. (2010) conducted hydrographic profiles off southwestern Taiwanand observed a 250-m-thick and anomalously warm, turbid, low-salinity water mass close to thebottom, at 3,000–3,700-m depth. This anomalous water mass was interpreted as resulting froma large hyperpycnal flow channelized along Gaoping Canyon. Several offshore cable breaks alsooccurred in Gaoping Canyon immediately after Morakot (Carter et al. 2012, Su et al. 2012). Twoof the breaks occurred ∼8 h after the peak flood discharge in water depths of <2,100 m; thesebreaks could have resulted from the hyperpycnal flow, although the apparent high speed (16.6 ms−1) suggested a major failure of recently deposited flood sediment in the upper-canyon region(Carter et al. 2012) (see Large Submarine Slope Failures, below). Approximately three days later,when the flood had subsided, a series of six cables broke from ∼3,000-m to >4,000-m depth asa result of a flow that clearly came from a sediment failure and reached apparent speeds in thelower-canyon/trench region of 5.4–10.3 m s−1 (Carter et al. 2012).

The Sepik River is assumed to regularly or episodically produce hyperpycnal flows that directlyprogress down-slope into Sepik Canyon (Kineke et al. 2000). Seabed cores from the canyon axisprovided evidence of active sediment gravity flows with multiple fine-grained turbidities (Walsh& Nittrouer 2003). A core collected at 650-m depth contained ∼24 cm of excess 234Th, indicatingextremely rapid deposition (∼0.2 cm d−1) of recently supplied material.

LARGE SUBMARINE SLOPE FAILURES

Evidence of large slope failures evolving into turbidity currents channelized through submarinecanyons comes mainly through data obtained from communication cable breaks. Such turbiditycurrents are extremely energetic, attaining speeds in the tens of meters per second, and are there-fore difficult to capture using moored instrumentation. They also have long run-out distances,generally extending along the entire length of the submarine canyon and submarine channel beforearriving at the basin seafloor.

The best-studied case is the powerful and long-run-out turbidity current triggered on theupper continental slope offshore of the Grand Banks by a relatively large earthquake (Mw = 7.2)on November 18, 1929. Doxsee (1948) reported 28 cable breaks south of the epicenter. A series of


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


11 delayed cable breaks (up to 13 h after the earthquake) occurred in progressively deeper watersand were used by Heezen & Ewing (1952) and Heezen et al. (1954) to propose the occurrence ofa large turbidity current channelized through several submarine canyons (i.e., valleys). The cablebreak times indicated a maximum flow velocity of ∼20 m s−1, and evidence of current erosionin the valleys suggested a flow thickness of 300–400 m. The turbidity flow arrived at the Sohmabyssal plain with an estimated velocity of 3 m s−1 and created a >150-km3 turbiditic deposit (∼1 mthick) that was mostly sand. Sediment budget calculations indicated that such coarse sedimentscame from infilling of canyon-head regions rather than from regional failures of continental slopesediments (Piper & Aksu 1987; Piper et al. 1988, 1999; Hughes Clarke et al. 1990).

Another well-studied long-run-out event occurred on October 16, 1979, following a failureof sediment associated with the construction of an extension to Nice Airport (Gennesseaux et al.1980, Piper & Savoye 1993, Mulder et al. 1997). The initial slope failure evolved into a flow thatsubsequently entered Var Canyon and broke two cables at the mouth of the canyon. The timingof the cable breaks indicated an average frontal speed of 7 m s−1 over the first ∼85 km of the flowpath and ∼1.8 m s−1 over the following ∼30 km. A sand bed resulting from the 1979 event wasdeposited at >2,000-m depth on the lower-canyon and fan-valley region.

Heezen et al. (1964) documented 30 submarine cable breaks from 1887 to 1937 across Congo(formerly Zaire) Canyon at depths between 500 and 2,300 m, which were attributed to turbiditycurrent activity related to Congo River sediment discharge. Long-term mooring deploymentsconducted from early 2000 to early 2005 in and around the Congo submarine channel recordedtwo highly energetic turbidity currents that reached >4,000-m depth (Khripounoff et al. 2003,Vangriesheim et al. 2009). On March 8, 2001, a mooring deployed at 4,051-m depth inside thechannel was severely damaged by a turbidity current. An hourly-averaged current velocity of121 cm s−1 was measured at 150 mab just before the line was cut and released to the surface.The current meter at 30 mab was broken, and a sharp increase in water turbidity was observedat 40 mab. The mooring line was severely tilted, and the sediment trap, which apparently hitthe seafloor, was overfilled with large plant debris and fine sand. A second mooring deployed at3,951-m depth on the channel levee, 18 km to the southwest, did not record any velocity increase atthe time of the turbidity current, but the sediment trap at 30 mab collected extremely high particlefluxes of terrigenous composition. Such large particle flux was not observed at the sediment trapplaced at 400 mab, and the near-bottom signal was interpreted as the arrival of fine sediments atthe levee site that overflowed from the channel during the turbidity current (Khripounoff et al.2003). No similar events were recorded during 2002 and 2003.

From 2004 to early 2005, two additional moorings were deployed in the channel at 3,420-mdepth and in the lobe area at 4,790-m depth (Vangriesheim et al. 2009). On January 23, 2004, thehourly-averaged current speed at 3,420-m depth suddenly increased to 43 cm s−1 and 40 cm s−1 at60 and 410 mab, respectively, and the water turbidity signal fluctuated greatly before, during, andlong after the current-velocity peak. The amount of particulate matter collected by a sedimenttrap (50 mab) increased drastically and consisted essentially of clay, with small biogenic debris andless than 5% sand. At 4,067-m depth inside the channel, the current peaks arrived 19 h later andlasted for approximately 3 h. Hourly-averaged velocities reached a maximum speed of 76 cm s−1

and 96 cm s−1 at 60 and 190 mab, respectively. During the event and for one week after, turbidityremained at saturated values (i.e., above the sensor range); it then decreased slowly over the nextmonth. The sediment trap (50 mab) collected material very rich in sand (60% of the sample) withvery little biogenic debris. At 4,790-m depth inside the channel, the arrival of the turbidity currentwas seen only as a subtle increase of the current speed (up to 8.4 cm s−1), although enhanced fluxesin the sediment trap (30 mab) indicated that particles from the turbidity current arrived at thatlocation. Based on the time of arrival at the three sites and the distances between them along the


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


Bottom trawling:a nonselectivecommercial fishingtechnique wherebyheavy nets and othergear are pulled alongthe seafloor

meandering channel, the average frontal speed of the turbidity current was estimated to be 3.5 m s−1

for 240 km between 3,420-m and 4,067-m depth and 0.7 m s−1 for the next 380 km, until the termi-nation of the channel at 4,790-m depth. Vangriesheim et al. (2009) interpreted these two large tur-bidity currents as resulting from large failures of accumulated sediments at the canyon-head regionduring the Congo River flood season, although the exact triggering mechanism remained unclear.

In Gaoping Canyon and the Manila Trench, several submarine cable breaks occurred duringtwo nearly simultaneous Pingtung earthquakes (Mw = 7) on December 26, 2006 (Hsu et al.2008). Five submarine slides were identified. The first two cable breaks occurred along the nearbyFangliao Canyon almost simultaneously with the first main shock, and were caused by two separateslides. The third and fourth cable breaks occurred in the Gaoping Canyon axis at 1,511- and1690-m depth just 1 min after the main shock, and were caused by a third slide that evolved intoa turbidity current with a velocity of 20 m s−1. Only 4 min later, a fourth slide occurred deeperin the canyon that evolved into a second turbidity current that caused nine more cable breaks atdepths of 2,780–3,967 m and attained velocities of 3.7 m s−1 in the lower Gaoping Canyon and5.7 m s−1 in the Manila Trench.

In Monterey Canyon, the Loma Prieta earthquake (Mw = 7.1) on October 17, 1989, causedslumping of sediments along the canyon-head walls (Schwing et al. 1990, Greene et al. 1991)but did not trigger flushing of the canyon-head sediments, which occurred two weeks after theearthquake with the arrival of the first storm of the fall/winter season (Okey 1997) (see SurfaceWaves, above). Short displacements of a series of transponders deployed at the flanks and axis ofthe canyon at 2,200-m depth provided further evidence of sediment slumping during the earth-quake and the presumable generation of a small turbidity current (Garfield et al. 1994). Johnsonet al. (2005) reported that the last major turbidity current that passed the Shepard Meander(>3,500-m depth) was ∼150 years ago, and the combination of DDTr (dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane and its residues) and 14C data indicated that the last major sediment-transportevent to deposit sand within the Monterey Fan channel occurred between 60 and 125 yearsago (Paull et al. 2010a). These results suggest that large sediment failures delivering coarsesediments toward deeper regions of Monterey Canyon are linked to large-magnitude earth-quakes, as has been inferred from the sedimentary record of nearby submarine canyons in thenorthern-California margin (Goldfinger et al. 2007).

BOTTOM TRAWLING

Mooring observations in La Fonera (Palamos) Canyon in 2001 (Palanques et al. 2005b, 2006b;Martın et al. 2006) revealed the occurrence of frequent turbidity currents caused by trawling-induced resuspension along the northern canyon flank, although isolated turbidity currents as-sociated with sediment failures from untrawled canyon flanks were also observed in the records(Martın et al. 2007). Trawling-induced turbidity currents were recorded in the canyon axis at1,200-m depth (12 mab), mainly during spring and summer, reaching velocities of ∼25 cm s−1

and SSCs of ∼35 mg L−1.More recently, in 2011, a mooring deployed at 980-m depth within a tributary valley downslope

from a trawled canyon flank documented the nearly daily occurrence of turbidity currents linkedto the passage of the trawling fleet. Such turbidity currents were observed repeatedly duringweekdays at working hours, reaching maximum downslope velocities of up to 38 cm s−1 andSSCs of up to 236 mg L−1 (Puig et al. 2012) (Figure 4). Because bottom trawling has beenconducted in this region for decades, the continuous sediment reworking and removal from thefishing ground gradually smoothed the morphology of the canyon flank, reducing its originalcomplexity.


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


These recurrent trawl-induced turbidity currents travel downslope from the canyon flank tothe main canyon axis, where they deposit their sediment load. Sediment coring at 1,700-m depth inthe canyon axis revealed that a twofold increase of the sediment accumulation rates occurred afterthe 1970s, following the industrialization of the trawling fleet (Martın et al. 2008). Enhancedparticle fluxes collected by sediment traps and attributed to bottom trawling have also beenreported in Foix Canyon (Puig & Palanques 1998b) and Guadiaro Canyon (Palanques et al. 2005a),where trawling activities damaged some moorings, as also occurred in Blanes Canyon (Zuniga et al.2009).

DENSE SHELF-WATER CASCADING

Dense shelf-water cascading is a meteorologically driven oceanographic phenomenon in whichdense water formed by cooling, evaporation, or freezing over the continental shelf moves downthe continental slope to a greater depth as a gravity-driven current (Killworth 1983, Ivanov et al.2004). Submarine canyons incised on continental shelves where this phenomenon occurs canchannelize dense water and its sediment load toward greater depths until they reach their neutraldensity level, causing resuspension and transport of sediments.

In June 1976, Shepard & Dill (1977) recorded a dense water flow in Salt River Canyon, northof St. Croix Island. Measurements at 48-m depth recorded occasional down-canyon flows of upto 25 cm s−1 during a falling tide; these flows were observed at 3 mab but not at 30 mab. Highevaporation rates cause high salinities in the Salt River estuary, and cascading of high-density saltywaters down the canyon head was suggested as the mechanism enhancing near-bottom currents.Hurricane Hugo passed over St. Croix Island on September 17, 1989, at the time that a currentmeter was deployed in Salt River Canyon at 18.5-m depth (0.5 mab) (Hubbard 1992). As thestorm passed over St. Croix, the change in wind direction and subsequent decrease in wave heighttriggered a release down the canyon of dense water trapped in the estuary and along the adjacentshoreline. For a period of 4–6 h, net down-canyon currents reached velocities of 2 m s−1 andoscillatory flows of 4 m s−1, removing up to 2 m of sand along the base of the western canyonwall.

The Gulf of Lions is one of the regions of the world where dense shelf waters are generated bycooling and evaporation owing to cold, dry winds blowing during winter (Millot 1990; Durrieude Madron et al. 2005, 2008; Canals et al. 2009). Early measurements at 1,000-m depth in Planierand Lacaze-Duthiers Canyons identified a major cascading event during the winter of 1998–1999 that caused a fivefold increase in the downward particle fluxes recorded by sediment trapsdeployed at 30 mab (Heussner et al. 2006). During the winter of 2003–2004, further mooringdeployments were conducted at ∼300-m depth in seven submarine canyon heads in the Gulf ofLions, and multiple dense shelf-water cascading events affecting the upper continental slope wereidentified along the entire margin (Palanques et al. 2006a, Bonnin et al. 2008, Fabres et al. 2008).The preferential along-shelf circulation toward the west, the narrowing shelf, and the coastaltopographic constraint of the Cap de Creus peninsula cause most of the off-shelf dense water andsediment transport to occur mainly through Lacaze-Duthiers and Cap de Creus Canyons, wherecascading events reached velocities of >80 cm s−1. Such events occurred frequently from Januaryto May 2004, lasted for a few days, and often began and/or were enhanced during storms, whichcaused increases in SSC and contributed to the amplification of down-canyon sediment fluxes(Palanques et al. 2008, 2011).

During the anomalously dry, cold winter of 2004–2005, a major cascading event was monitoredin these two canyons (Canals et al. 2006, Ogston et al. 2008, Puig et al. 2008). In Cap de CreusCanyon, cascading continuously affected the entire upper-canyon section from late February to


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


late March, maintaining cold temperatures and high, steady down-canyon currents of >60 cm s−1

(Figure 5). SSC increases were associated with cascading outbursts, but the magnitude of the SSCpeaks decreased with time, suggesting a progressive exhaustion of the resuspendable sedimentsfrom the canyon seafloor. At 500-m depth within the canyon, sediment trap samples at 30 mabshowed large fluxes with up to 65% sand during the cascading flow. In the basin (∼2,350-m depth,

0

40

80

120

160

0

10

20

30

40

June 9–22, 2011

SSC

(mg

L–1)

Spee

d (c

m s

–1)

SSC

(mg

L–1)

Spee

d (c

m s

–1)

0

40

80

120

160

0

Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed

June 21, 20110:0

01:0

02:0

03:0

04:0

05:0

06:0

07:0

08:0

09:0

0

10:00

11:00

12:00

13:00

14:00

15:00

16:00

17:00

18:00

19:00

20:00

21:00

22:00

23:00

0:00

5

10

15

20

25 38

5 mab

20 mab

50 mab

12 mab

40 mab

80 mab

5 mab

20 mab

50 mab

12 mab

40 mab

80 mab


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


250 mab), a sediment trap recorded an increase of particle fluxes by two orders of magnitude formore than one month, associated with this major cascading event (Palanques et al. 2009).

During the winter of 2005–2006, nine mooring arrays were deployed from 300- to 1,900-mdepth along Lacaze-Duthiers and Cap de Creus Canyons and on the adjacent southern openslope (Sanchez-Vidal et al. 2008, 2009; Pasqual et al. 2010; Palanques et al. 2012). Three deep-reaching cascading pulses occurred (in early January, in late January, and from early March tomid-April, 2006) following a multistep sediment-transport mechanism. Sediment was initiallytransported from the shelf to the upper-canyon region, mostly through Cap de Creus Canyon, andwas subsequently resuspended and redistributed downslope by the next deep-reaching cascadingpulses. At depths greater than 1,500 m, where the canyon widens, most of the suspended sedimentleft the canyon and flowed along the margin (Palanques et al. 2012). Further monitoring in thehead of Cap de Creus Canyon has indicated large interannual variability in this oceanographicprocess and complex interactions with concurrent storm events and the associated downwellingtransport (Ribo et al. 2011, Martın et al. 2013, Rumın-Caparros et al. 2013).

DeGeest et al. (2008) conducted sediment coring in the head of Cap de Creus Canyon andfound erosion and low accumulation rates on the southern canyon flank along the preferentialpath of dense shelf-water cascading flows and higher accumulation rates in the northern canyonflank. The cores collected in the canyon thalweg showed a thin mud layer, which appears tobe flushed down-canyon periodically, overlying sand with excess 210Pb activity. These recentsediments show sharp contact with overconsolidated ancient muds. In nearby Bourcart Canyon,sediment cores showed that down to 350-m depth, the canyon seafloor is blanketed with up to1.5 m of structureless muddy sand with excess 210Pb activity (Gaudin et al. 2006a). These depositswere termed cascadites, and were interpreted as the product of repeated cascading flows thatcaused the reworking, transport, and accumulation of sands within the canyon head.

In the Adriatic Sea, dense waters formed in the northern Adriatic shelf by the action of cold,dry winds are advected along the shelf toward the south until they cascade into the southernAdriatic Pit and Bari Canyon (Trincardi et al. 2007, Turchetto et al. 2007). Two near-bottommoorings deployed at ∼600-m depth in the two canyon branches from March 2004 to March 2005recorded the highest particle fluxes in spring 2004, during a period characterized by the lowestwater temperatures and highest current speeds (up to 72 cm s−1) associated with cascading flowsalong the canyon (Turchetto et al. 2007).

In West Halibut Canyon (off Newfoundland), multiple cascading events were observed at276-m depth during the winter of 2008–2009 (Puig et al. 2013). Down-canyon flows (>100 cms−1) carrying cold water and low SSCs occurred repeatedly, associated with cold-wind periodsthat caused sustained heat loss and triggered convection. Sediment transport during these eventswas restricted to bedload and saltation, producing winnowing of sands and fine sediments aroundlarger gravel particles. The dense waters appear to be generated around the outer shelf and areevacuated rapidly toward the slope through the canyon in one or two tidal cycles, instead of beinggenerated on coastal shallow regions and advected across the shelf for long distances.

←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−Figure 4Time series of near-bottom suspended-sediment concentration (SSC) and current speed recorded atdifferent heights above the bottom [in meters above bottom (mab)] in the northern flank of La Fonera(Palamos) Canyon (980-m depth) over a two-week period. Trawling-induced turbidity currents wererepeatedly observed during weekdays (i.e., working days for the fishery fleet) and were not observed onweekends. The detail of a one-day record ( June 21, 2011) shows two events that correspond to the two mainhauls of the trawling fleet, the first heading offshore and the second heading to port. Gray bars on the x axesdenote working days and working hours, respectively. Adapted from Puig et al. (2012).


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


Oct. 2004

Nov. 2004

Dec. 2004

Jan. 2005

Feb. 2005

Mar. 2005

Apr. 2005

May 2005

June 2005

July 2005

Aug. 2005

Sept. 2005

0

10

20

30

40

0

10

20

30

40

SSC

(mg

L–1)

0

10

20

30

40

200 m

500 m

750 m

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

Curr

ent s

peed

(cm

s–1

)

0

20

40

60

80

100

200 m

500 m

750 m

10

12

14

16

10

12

14

16

Pote

ntia

l tem

pera

ture

(ºC)

10

12

14

16

200 m

500 m

750 m


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


Internal waves:gravity wavesgenerated byperturbations ofisopycnal(equal-density)surfaces in a stratifiedfluid

Baroclinic motion:a fluid motioncomponent resultingfrom pressuregradients whenisopycnal surfaces arenot parallel to isobaric(equal-pressure)surfaces

INTERNAL WAVES

Early current-meter deployments in several submarine canyons off California provided the firstevidence of internal waves moving along canyon axes (Shepard et al. 1974, Gordon & Marshall1976). Shepard et al. (1979) later reported approximately 200 short records from current metersdeployed in submarine canyons, which showed that currents rarely cease flowing alternatively up-and down-canyon at semidiurnal or diurnal periods and frequently attain speeds of >30 cm s−1,sufficient to transport sand-sized sediments.

Focused monitoring studies were subsequently conducted on the eastern US margin submarinecanyons—Hudson (Hotchkiss & Wunsch 1982), Lydonia and Oceanographer (Butman 1988a,b),and Baltimore (Gardner 1989a,b) Canyons—and showed enhanced internal-wave activity. Mooredcurrent measurements showed that baroclinic motions at tidal frequencies were intensified bothup-canyon and toward the canyon floor, dominating the flow field and controlling the sedimenttransport. Strong bottom currents (>50 cm s−1) periodically resuspended sediments along thecanyon axis to depths of ∼600–800 m. Coarse sediments are typically found in the heads of thesesubmarine canyons, coinciding with the depth range where internal-wave resuspension occurs,and become progressively finer with depth.

Gardner (1989b) described in detail the internal wave resuspension mechanism, which consistedof a bore of cold (i.e., deep) water with a turbulent head moving up-canyon, resulting in a sharpSSC peak at the beginning of an event followed by a smaller and more continuous SSC increasethat corresponded to the down-canyon advection of the resuspended particles. Such advectedparticles can then move seaward along density surfaces as INLs, settling out in deeper waters,and/or can eventually leave the canyon confinement and contribute to the sediment transportalong the margin.

Periodic internal-wave resuspension has been observed in various submarine canyons, includingMonterey (Xu et al. 2002), Guadiaro (Puig et al. 2004b), Nazare (de Stigter et al. 2007), Mugu (Xuet al. 2010), Gaoping (Liu et al. 2010), Lisbon and Setubal (de Stigter et al. 2011), and Halibut(Puig et al. 2013) Canyons. It has also been inferred in many others (e.g., Drake & Gorsline1973, Puig & Palanques 1998a, Durrieu de Madron et al. 1999), typically in association with thedevelopment of enhanced nepheloid layers, which contribute to focusing sediment deposition inspecific canyon regions.

IMPLICATIONS FOR SOURCE-TO-SINK STUDIES

Direct observations of water and sediment transport within submarine canyons, together with in-formation derived from submarine cable breaks and sediment coring, have indicated that many sub-marine canyons are actively transporting sediments. These conditions appear to be more prevalentthan previously predicted, raising questions about the existing paradigm that submarine canyonsare mainly passively accumulating sediment during the present high-stand of sea level and thatsediment transport through them was restricted to catastrophic turbidity currents during pastlow-stands of sea level.

Canyon transport activity seems to depend largely on the proximity to a major sediment sourcefrom the continent (e.g., riverine or littoral drift inputs) and on the prevailing weather forcing and

←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−Figure 5Time series of potential temperature, current speed, and suspended-sediment concentration (SSC) recorded at 200-, 500-, and 750-mdepth (5 m above bottom) along Cap de Creus Canyon during the major dense shelf-water cascading event in the Gulf of Lions duringthe winter of 2004–2005. Adapted from Puig et al. (2008).


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


oceanographic conditions (e.g., wave regime, dense water formation, and internal waves), despitethe canyons’ location on an active or passive margin. Submarine canyons whose heads interceptcoastal currents and reach the depth of surface-wave reworking can receive enhanced advectionof shelf resuspended sediments and be recurrently affected by storm-induced turbidity currents,and canyons directly connected to river sources can additionally be exposed to hyperpycnal flowsduring pulses of river discharge or can be affected by turbidity flows derived from failures of re-cently deposited fluvial sediments. The combined effect of river floods and storms (concurrent ordelayed) is an important component for shelf-to-canyon sediment transport in many continentalmargins. Canyons incised on margins where dense shelf waters are formed can be periodicallyaffected by cascading flows that cause resuspension and down-canyon sediment transport, andinternal waves can periodically resuspend ephemeral deposits and contribute to dispersing themoff-canyon and/or favoring sediment accumulation in specific canyon regions. Naturally occurringcanyon-flank failures evolving into small turbidity currents also contribute to down-canyon sed-iment transport. Together with these processes, human activities (particularly trawling-inducedresuspension along canyon rims and flanks) can contribute to sediment transport in submarinecanyons.

Observational studies also indicate that various sediment-transport mechanisms can coexist ina given submarine canyon and that along-canyon transport is not a constant and unidirectionalprocess. Rather, it is characterized mainly by cycles of resuspension, down-canyon transport, anddeposition, alternating with intervals during which the sediment rests on the seabed for hours,days, or years. Ephemeral sediment deposits can then be stored in the upper- and middle-canyonreaches, temporarily preserved in the canyon axis or terraces for decades or centuries, before beingtotally or partially flushed farther down-canyon by large sediment failures that deliver sedimentto the basin seafloor. In most submarine canyons, these large events appear to be triggered bylarge-magnitude earthquakes, except in canyons directly connected to major rivers, where largesediment inputs can be directly remobilized by major sediment failures and can bypass the entirecanyon without the need for a major seismic event.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Observational studies during the past few decades using deployed instrumentation have greatlyimproved our knowledge of contemporary sediment-transport processes acting within subma-rine canyons. Recent measurements have greatly benefited from technological improvements andincreasing data-logging capacities, particularly the use of ADCPs. However, there is a need forsimilarly accurate SSC measurements at various levels throughout the near-bottom water columnto properly estimate sediment fluxes. In submarine canyons susceptible to being affected by hy-perpycnal flows or dense shelf-water cascading events, accurate and simultaneous measurementsof water temperature and salinity should be made to compute water density. Observations in sub-marine canyons should be combined with boundary-layer measurements on the adjacent shelf andshould be analyzed together with external forcing conditions (e.g., winds, surface waves, and riverdischarges) to correctly discern the mechanisms involved in shelf-to-canyon sediment delivery.Finally, the effects of bottom trawling activities should be considered in future studies, particularlyin submarine canyons currently being exploited by trawling fleets.

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings thatmight be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


LITERATURE CITED

Allen SE, Durrieu de Madron X. 2009. A review of the role of submarine canyons in deep-ocean exchangewith the shelf. Ocean Sci. 5:607–20

Arzola RG, Wynn RB, Lastras G, Masson DG, Weaver PPE. 2008. Sedimentary features and processes inthe Nazare and Setubal submarine canyons, west Iberian margin. Mar. Geol. 250:64–88

Baker ET, Hickey BM. 1986. Contemporary sedimentation processes in and around an active west coastsubmarine canyon. Mar. Geol. 71:15–34

Barry JP, Paull CK, Xu JP, Buck KR, Whaling P, et al. 2006. The tempo and intensity of turbidity flows inMonterey Canyon. Eos Trans. AGU 87(Ocean Sci. Meet. Suppl.):OS52A-05 (Abstr.)

Bonnin J, Heussner S, Calafat A, Fabres J, Palanques A, et al. 2008. Comparison of horizontal and downwardparticle fluxes across canyons of the Gulf of Lions (NW Mediterranean): meteorological and hydrody-namical forcing. Cont. Shelf Res. 28:1957–70

Butman B, ed. 1988a. North Atlantic slope and canyon study, vol. 1. Open-File Rep. 88-27A, US Geol. Surv.,Woods Hole, MA. http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1988/0027a/report.pdf

Butman B, ed. 1988b. North Atlantic slope and canyon study, vol. 2. Open-File Rep. 88-27B, US Geol. Surv.,Woods Hole, MA. http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1988/0027b/report.pdf

Canals M, Danovaro R, Heussner S, Lykousis V, Puig P, et al. 2009. Cascades in Mediterranean submarinegrand canyons. Oceanography 22(1):26–43

Canals M, Puig P, Durrieu de Madron X, Heussner S, Palanques A, Fabres J. 2006. Flushing submarinecanyons. Nature 444:354–57

Carson B, Baker ET, Hickey BM, Nittrouer CA, DeMaster DJ, et al. 1986. Modern sediment dispersal andaccumulation in Quinault submarine canyon: a summary. Mar. Geol. 71:1–13

Carter L, Milliman JD, Talling PJ, Gavey R, Wynn RB. 2012. Near-synchronous and delayed initiation oflong run-out submarine sediment flows from a record-breaking river flood, offshore Taiwan. Geophys.Res. Lett. 39:L12603

Dail MB, Corbett DR, Walsh JP. 2007. Assessing the importance of tropical cyclones on continental marginsedimentation in the Mississippi delta region. Cont. Shelf Res. 27:1857–74

DeGeest AL, Mullenbach BL, Puig P, Nittrouer CA, Drexler TM, et al. 2008. Sediment accumulation inthe western Gulf of Lions, France: the role of Cap de Creus Canyon in linking shelf and slope sedimentdispersal systems. Cont. Shelf Res. 28:2031–47

de Stigter HC, Boer W, de Jesus Mendes PA, Jesus CC, Thomsen L, et al. 2007. Recent sediment transportand deposition in the Nazare Canyon, Portuguese continental margin. Mar. Geol. 246:144–64

de Stigter HC, Jesus CC, Boer W, Richter TO, Costa A, van Weering TCE. 2011. Recent sediment transportand deposition in the Lisbon-Setubal and Cascais submarine canyons, Portuguese continental margin.Deep-Sea Res. II 58:2321–44

Doxsee WW. 1948. The Grand Banks earthquake of November 18, 1929. Publ. Dom. Obs. 7:323–35Drake DE, Gorsline DS. 1973. Distribution and transport of suspended particulate matter in Hueneme,

Redondo, Newport, and La Jolla submarine canyons, California. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 84:3949–68Drexler TM, Nittrouer CA, Mullenbach BL. 2006. Impact of local morphology on sedimentation in a sub-

marine canyon, ROV studies in Eel Canyon, northern California, U.S.A. J. Sediment. Res. 76:839–53Duarte J, Taborda R, Beach Canyon Proj. Team. 2012. Beach to Canyon Head Sedimentary Processes

Project. In Actas das 2.as Jornadas de Engenharia Hidrografica, pp. 231–34. Lisbon: Instituto Hidrografico.http://websig.hidrografico.pt/www/content/Documentacao/jornadas_2012/Actas2asJornadas_2012red.pdf

Durrieu de Madron X. 1994. Hydrography and nepheloid structures in the Grand Rhone canyon. Cont. ShelfRes. 14:457–77

Durrieu de Madron X, Castaing P, Nyffeler F, Courp T. 1999. Slope transport of suspended particulate matteron the Aquitanian margin of the Bay of Biscay. Deep-Sea Res. II 46:2003–27

Durrieu de Madron X, Wiberg PL, Puig P. 2008. Sediment dynamics in the Gulf of Lions: the impact ofextreme events. Cont. Shelf Res. 28:1867–76

Durrieu de Madron X, Zervakis V, Theocharis A, Georgopoulos D. 2005. Comments on “Cascades of densewater around the world ocean.” Prog. Oceanogr. 64:83–90


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1988/0027a/report.pdf

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1988/0027b/report.pdf

http://websig.hidrografico.pt/www/content/Documentacao/jornadas_2012/Actas2asJornadas_2012red.pdf

http://websig.hidrografico.pt/www/content/Documentacao/jornadas_2012/Actas2asJornadas_2012red.pdf


Fabres J, Tesi T, Velez J, Batista F, Lee C, et al. 2008. Seasonal and event-controlled export of organic matterfrom the shelf towards the Gulf of Lions continental slope. Cont. Shelf Res. 28:1971–83

Farran M. 2005. Catalano-Balearic Sea (NW Mediterranean): bathymetric chart and toponyms. http://www.icm.csic.es/geo/gma/MCB

Gardner WD. 1989a. Baltimore canyon as a modern conduit of sediment to the deep sea. Deep-Sea Res. A36:323–58

Gardner WD. 1989b. Periodic resuspension in Baltimore canyon focusing of internal waves. J. Geophys. Res.94:18185–94

Garfield N, Rago TA, Schnebele KJ, Collins CA. 1994. Evidence of a turbidity current in Monterey SubmarineCanyon associated with the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Cont. Shelf Res. 14:673–86

Gaudin M, Berne S, Jouanneau J-M, Palanques A, Puig P, et al. 2006a. Massive sand beds attributed to depo-sition by dense water cascades in the Bourcart canyon head, Gulf of Lions (northwestern MediterraneanSea). Mar. Geol. 234:111–28

Gaudin M, Mulder T, Cirac P, Berne S, Imbert P. 2006b. Past and present sedimentary activity in theCapbreton Canyon, southern Bay of Biscay. Geo-Mar. Lett. 26:331–46

Ge X, Li T, Zhang S, Peng M. 2010. What causes the extremely heavy rainfall in Taiwan during TyphoonMorakot 2009? Atmos. Sci. Lett. 11:46–50

Gennesseaux M, Guibout P, Lacombe H. 1971. Enregistrement de courants de turbidite dans la vallee sous-marine du Var (Alpes-Maritimes). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris D 273:2456–59

Gennesseaux M, Mauffret A, Pautot G. 1980. Les glissements sous-marins de la pente continentale nicoise etla rupture des cables en mer Ligure (Mediterranee occidentale). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris D 290:959–62

Goldfinger C, Morey AE, Nelson CH, Gutierrez-Pastor J, Johnson JE, et al. 2007. Rupture lengths andtemporal history of significant earthquakes on the offshore and north coast segments of the NorthernSan Andreas Fault based on turbidite stratigraphy. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 254:9–27

Gordon RL, Marshall NF. 1976. Submarine canyons: internal wave traps? Geophys. Res. Lett. 3:622–24Greene HG, Gardner-Taggart J, Ledbetter MT, Barminski R, Chase TE, et al. 1991. Offshore and on-

shore liquefaction at Moss Landing spit, central California: result of the October 17, 1989, Loma Prietaearthquake. Geology 19:945–49

Hale RP, Nittrouer CA, Liu JT, Keil RG, Ogston AS. 2012. Effects of a major typhoon on sediment accu-mulation in Fangliao Canyon, SW Taiwan. Mar. Geol. 326–328:116–30

Harris PT, Whiteway T. 2011. Global distribution of large submarine canyons: geomorphic differences be-tween active and passive continental margins. Mar. Geol. 285:69–86

Heezen BC, Ericson DB, Ewing M. 1954. Further evidence for a turbidity current following the 1929 GrandBanks earthquake. Deep-Sea Res. 1:193–202

Heezen BC, Ewing M. 1952. Turbidity currents and submarine slumps, and the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake.Am. J. Sci. 250:849–73

Heezen BC, Menzies RJ, Schneider ED, Ewing WM, Granelli NCL. 1964. Congo submarine canyon. AAPGBull. 48:1126–49

Heussner S, Durrieu de Madron X, Calafat A, Canals M, Carbonne J, et al. 2006. Spatial and temporalvariability of downward particle fluxes on a continental slope: Lessons from an 8-yr experiment in theGulf of Lions (NW Mediterranean). Mar. Geol. 234:63–92

Hickey BM, Baker E, Kachel NB. 1986. Suspended particle movement in and around Quinault SubmarineCanyon. Mar. Geol. 71:35–83

Hotchkiss FS, Wunsch C. 1982. Internal waves in Hudson Canyon with possible geological implications.Deep-Sea Res. A 29:415–42

Hsu S-K, Kuo J, Lo C-L, Tsai C-H, Doo W-B, et al. 2008. Turbidity currents, submarine landslides and the2006 Pingtung earthquake off SW Taiwan. Terr. Atmos. Ocean. Sci. 19:767–772

Hubbard DK. 1992. Hurricane-induced sediment transport in open-shelf tropical systems: an example fromSt. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. J. Sediment. Petrol. 62:946–60

Hughes Clarke JE, Shor AN, Piper DJW, Mayer LA. 1990. Large-scale current-induced erosion and depositionin the path of the 1929 Grand Banks turbidity current. Sedimentology 37:613–29


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.

http://www.icm.csic.es/geo/gma/MCB

http://www.icm.csic.es/geo/gma/MCB


Huh C-A, Lin H-L, Lin S, Huang Y-W. 2009. Modern accumulation rates and a budget of sediment off theGaoping (Kaoping) River, SW Taiwan: a tidal and flood dominated depositional environment around asubmarine canyon. J. Mar. Syst. 76:405–16

Inman DL. 1970. Strong currents in submarine canyons. Eos Trans. AGU 51:319 (Abstr.)Inman DL, Nordstrom CE, Flick RE. 1976. Currents in submarine canyons: an air-sea-land interaction. Annu.

Rev. Fluid Mech. 8:275–310Ivanov VV, Shapiro GI, Huthnance JM, Aleynik DL, Golovin PN. 2004. Cascades of dense water around the

world ocean. Prog. Oceanogr. 60:47–98Johnson JE, Paull CK, Normark WR, Ussler W III. 2005. Late Holocene turbidity currents in Monterey

Canyon and fan channel: implications for interpreting active margin turbidite records: Eos Trans. AGU86(Fall Meet. Suppl.):OS21A-1521 (Abstr.)

Johnson KS, Paull CK, Barry JP, Chavez FP. 2001. A decadal record of underflows from a coastal river intothe deep sea. Geology 29:1019–22

Kao SJ, Dai M, Selvaraj K, Zhai W, Cai P, et al. 2010. Cyclone-driven deep sea injection of freshwater andheat by hyperpycnal flow in the subtropics. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37:L21702

Kao SJ, Milliman JD. 2008. Water and sediment discharge from small mountainous rivers, Taiwan: the roleof lithology, episodic events, and human activities. J. Geol. 116:431–48

Killworth P. 1983. Deep convection in the world oceans. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 21:1–26Kineke GC, Woolfe KJ, Kuehl SA, Milliman JD, Dellapenna TM, Purdon RG. 2000. Sediment export from

the Sepik River, Papua New Guinea: evidence for a divergent sediment plume. Cont. Shelf Res. 20:2239–66Khripounoff A, Crassous P, Lo Bue N, Dennielou B, Silva Jacinto R. 2012. Different types of sediment

gravity flows detected in the Var submarine canyon (northwestern Mediterranean Sea). Prog. Oceanogr.106:138–53

Khripounoff A, Vangriesheim A, Babonneau N, Crassous P, Dennielou B, Savoye B. 2003. Direct observationof intense turbidity current activity in the Zaire submarine valley at 4000 m water depth. Mar. Geol.194:151–58

Khripounoff A, Vangriesheim A, Crassous P, Etoubleau J. 2009. High frequency of sediment gravity flowevents in the Var submarine canyon (Mediterranean Sea). Mar. Geol. 263:1–6

Kudrass HR, Michels KH, Wiedicke M, Suckow A. 1998. Cyclones and tides as feeders of a submarine canyonoff Bangladesh. Geology 26:715–18

Liu JT, Hung J-J, Lin H-L, Huh C-A, Lee C-L, et al. 2009. From suspended particles to strata: the fate ofterrestrial substances in the Gaoping (Kaoping) Submarine Canyon. J. Mar. Syst. 76:417–32

Liu JT, Lin H-L. 2004. Sediment dynamics in a submarine canyon: a case of river-sea interaction. Mar. Geol.207:55–81

Liu JT, Lin H-L, Hung J-J. 2006. A submarine canyon conduit under typhoon conditions off SouthernTaiwan. Deep-Sea Res. I 53:223–40

Liu JT, Wang Y-H, Lee I-H, Hsu TR. 2010. Quantifying tidal signatures of the benthic nepheloid layer inGaoping Submarine Canyon in southern Taiwan. Mar. Geol. 271:119–30

Liu JT, Wang Y-H, Yang RJ, Hsu RT, Kao S-J, et al. 2012. Cyclone-induced hyperpycnal turbidity currentsin a submarine canyon. J. Geophys. Res. 117:C04033

Martın J, Durrieu de Madron X, Puig P, Bourrin F, Palanques A, et al. 2013. Sediment transport along theCap de Creus Canyon flank during a mild, wet winter. Biogeosciences 10:3221–39

Martın J, Palanques A, Puig P. 2006. Composition and variability of downward particulate matter fluxes inthe Palamos submarine canyon (NW Mediterranean). J. Mar. Syst. 60:75–97

Martın J, Palanques A, Puig P. 2007. Near-bottom horizontal transfer of particulate matter in the PalamosSubmarine Canyon (NW Mediterranean). J. Mar. Res. 65:193–218

Martın J, Palanques A, Vitorino J, Oliveira A, de Stigter HC. 2011. Near-bottom particulate matter dynamicsin the Nazare submarine canyon under calm and stormy conditions. Deep-Sea Res. II 58:2388–400

Martın J, Puig P, Palanques A, Masque P, Garcıa-Orellana J. 2008. Effect of commercial trawling on the deepsedimentation in a Mediterranean submarine canyon. Mar. Geol. 252:150–55

Mas V, Mulder T, Dennielou B, Schmidt S, Khripounoff A, Savoye B. 2010. Multiscale spatio-temporalvariability of sedimentary deposits in the Var turbidite system (North-Western Mediterranean Sea).Mar. Geol. 275:37–52


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


Masson DG, Huvenne VAI, de Stigter HC, Arzola RG, LeBas TP. 2011. Sedimentary processes in the middleNazare Canyon. Deep-Sea Res. II 58:2369–87

Masson DG, Huvenne VAI, de Stigter HC, Wolff GA, Kiriakoulakis K, et al. 2010. Efficient burial of carbonin a submarine canyon. Geology 38:831–34

Mastbergen DR, van den Berg JH. 2003. Breaching in fine sands and the generation of sustained turbiditycurrents in submarine canyons. Sedimentology 50:625–37

MBARI (Monterey Bay Aquar. Res. Inst.). 2003. Monterey Canyon turbidity flow: caught in the act. . .again!December 17-19, 2002. http://www.mbari.org/benthic/Turbidity_Event_2002/canyon_events.html

Michels KH, Kudrass HR, Hubscher C, Suckow A, Wiedicke M. 1998. The submarine delta of the Ganges-Brahmaputra: cyclone-dominated sedimentation patterns. Mar. Geol. 149:133–54

Michels KH, Suckow A, Breitzke M, Kudrass HR, Kottke B. 2003. Sediment transport in the shelf canyon“Swatch of No Ground” (Bay of Bengal). Deep-Sea Res. II 50:1003–22

Millot CA. 1990. The Gulf of Lions’ hydrodynamic. Cont. Shelf Res. 10:885–94Mulder T, Migeon S, Savoye B, Jouanneau JM. 2001a. Twentieth century floods recorded in the deep Mediter-

ranean sediments. Geology 29:1011–114Mulder T, Savoye B, Piper DJW, Syvitski JPM. 1998. The Var submarine sedimentary system: understanding

Holocene sediment delivery processes and their importance to the geological record. In Geological Processeson Continental Margins: Sedimentation, Mass-Wasting and Stability, ed. MS Stoker, D Evans, A Cramp,pp. 145–66. Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 129. London: Geol. Soc.

Mulder T, Savoye B, Syvitski JPM. 1997. Numerical modelling of a mid-sized gravity flow: the 1979 Niceturbidity current (dynamics, processes, sediment budget and seafloor impact). Sedimentology 44:305–26

Mulder T, Weber O, Anschutz P, Jorissen FJ, Jouanneau JM. 2001b. A few months-old storm-generatedturbidite deposited in the Capbreton Canyon (Bay of Biscay, SW France). Geo-Mar. Lett. 21:149–56

Mulder T, Zaragosi S, Garlan T, Mavel J, Cremer M, et al. 2012. Present deep-submarine canyons activity inthe Bay of Biscay (NE Atlantic). Mar. Geol. 295–298:113–27

Mullenbach BL, Nittrouer CA. 2000. Rapid deposition of fluvial sediment in the Eel Canyon, northernCalifornia. Cont. Shelf Res. 20:2191–212

Mullenbach BL, Nittrouer CA. 2006. Decadal record of sediment export to the deep sea via Eel Canyon. Cont.Shelf Res. 26:2157–77

Mullenbach BL, Nittrouer CA, Puig P, Orange DL. 2004. Sediment deposition in a modern submarinecanyon: Eel Canyon, northern California. Mar. Geol. 211:101–19

Ogston AS, Drexler TM, Puig P. 2008. Sediment delivery, resuspension, and transport in two contrastingcanyon environments in the southwest Gulf of Lions. Cont. Shelf Res. 28:2000–13

Okey TA. 1997. Sediment flushing observations, earthquake slumping, and benthic community changes inMonterey Canyon head. Cont. Shelf Res. 17:877–97

Palanques A, Durrieu de Madron X, Puig P, Fabres J, Guillen J, et al. 2006a. Suspended sediment fluxesand transport processes in the Gulf of Lions submarine canyons. The role of storms and dense watercascading. Mar. Geol. 234:43–61

Palanques A, El Khatab M, Puig P, Masque P, Sanchez-Cabeza JA, Isla E. 2005a. Downward particle fluxes inthe Guadiaro submarine canyon depositional system (north-western Alboran Sea), a river flood dominatedsystem. Mar. Geol. 220:23–40

Palanques A, Garcıa-Ladona E, Gomis D, Martın J, Marcos M, et al. 2005b. General patterns of circulation,sediment fluxes and ecology of the Palamos (La Fonera) submarine canyon, northwestern Mediterranean.Prog. Oceanogr. 66:89–119

Palanques A, Guillen J, Puig P, Durrieu de Madron X. 2008. Storm-driven shelf-to-canyon suspended sedimenttransport at the southwestern Gulf of Lions. Cont. Shelf Res. 28:1947–56

Palanques A, Martın J, Puig P, Guillen J, Company JB, Sarda F. 2006b. Evidence of sediment gravity flowsinduced by trawling in the Palamos (Fonera) submarine canyon (northwestern Mediterranean). Deep-SeaRes. I 53:201–14

Palanques A, Puig P, Durrieu de Madron X, Sanchez-Vidal A, Pasqual C, et al. 2012. Sediment transport tothe deep canyons and open-slope of the western Gulf of Lions during the 2006 intense cascading andopen-sea convection period. Prog. Oceanogr. 106:1–15


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.

http://www.mbari.org/benthic/Turbidity_Event_2002/canyon_events.html


Palanques A, Puig P, Guillen J, Durrieu de Madron X, Latasa M, et al. 2011. Effects of storm events on the shelf-to-basin sediment transport in the southwestern end of the Gulf of Lions (northwestern Mediterranean).Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 11:843–50

Palanques A, Puig P, Latasa M, Scharek R. 2009. Deep sediment transport induced by storms and denseshelf-water cascading in the northwestern Mediterranean basin. Deep-Sea Res. I 56:425–34

Pasqual C, Sanchez-Vidal A, Zuniga D, Calafat A, Canals M, et al. 2010. Flux and composition of settlingparticles across the continental margin of the Gulf of Lion: the role of dense shelf water cascading.Biogeosciences 7:217–31

Paull CK, Caress DW, Lundsten E, Gwiazda R, Anderson K, et al. 2013. Anatomy of the La Jolla SubmarineCanyon system; offshore southern California. Mar. Geol. 335:16–34

Paull CK, Caress DW, Ussler W III, Lundsten E, Meiner-Johnson M. 2011. High resolution bathymetry ofthe axial channels within Monterey and Soquel submarine canyons offshore central California. Geosphere7:1077–101

Paull CK, Mitts P, Ussler W III, Keaten R, Green HG. 2005. Trail of sand in upper Monterey Canyon:offshore California. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 117:1134–45

Paull CK, Schlining B, Ussler W III, Lundsten E, Barry JP, Caress DW. 2010a. Submarine mass transportwithin Monterey Canyon: benthic disturbance controls on the distribution of chemosynthetic biolog-ical communities. In Submarine Mass Movements and Their Consequences, ed. DC Mosher, RC Shipp,L Moscardelli, JD Chaytor, CDP Baxter, et al., pp. 229–46. Dordrecht: Springer

Paull CK, Ussler W III, Caress D, Lundsten E, Covault J, et al. 2010b. Origins of large crescent-shapedbedforms within the axial channel of Monterey Canyon. Geosphere 6:755–74

Paull CK, Ussler W III, Greene HG, Keaten R, Mitts P, Barry J. 2003. Caught in the act: the 20 December2001 gravity flow event in Monterey Canyon. Geo-Mar. Lett. 22:227–32

Piper DJW, Aksu AE. 1987. The source and origin of the 1929 Grand Banks turbidity current inferred fromsediment budgets. Geo-Mar. Lett. 7:177–82

Piper DJW, Cochonat P, Morrison M. 1999. The sequence of events around the epicentre of the 1929Grand Banks earthquake: initiation of debris flows and turbidity currents inferred from sidescan sonar.Sedimentology 46:79–97

Piper DJW, Normark WR. 2009. Processes that initiate turbidity currents and their influence on turbidites:a marine geology perspective. J. Sediment. Res. 79:347–62

Piper DJW, Savoye B. 1993. Processes of Late Quaternary turbidity-current flow and deposition on the Vardeep-sea fan, north-west Mediterranean Sea. Sedimentology 40:557–82

Piper DJW, Shor AN, Clarke JEH. 1988. The 1929 “Grand Banks” earthquake, slump, and turbidity current.In Sedimentologic Consequences of Convulsive Geologic Events, ed. HE Clifton, pp. 77–92. Geol. Soc. Am.Spec. Pap. 229. Boulder, CO: Geol. Soc. Am.

Puig P, Canals M, Company JB, Martın J, Amblas D, et al. 2012. Ploughing the deep seafloor. Nature 489:286–89

Puig P, Greenan BJW, Li MZ, Prescott RH, Piper DJW. 2013. Sediment transport processes at the headof Halibut Canyon, eastern Canada margin: an interplay between internal tides and dense shelf-watercascading. Mar. Geol. 341:14–28

Puig P, Ogston AS, Mullenbach BL, Nittrouer CA, Parsons JD, Sternberg RW. 2004a. Storm-induced sedi-ment gravity flows at the head of the Eel submarine canyon, northern California margin. J. Geophys. Res.109:C03019

Puig P, Ogston AS, Mullenbach BL, Nittrouer CA, Sternberg RW. 2003. Shelf-to-canyon sediment-transportprocesses on the Eel continental margin (northern California). Mar. Geol. 193:129–49

Puig P, Palanques A. 1998a. Nepheloid structure and hydrographic control on the Barcelona continentalmargin, northwestern Mediterranean. Mar. Geol. 149:39–54

Puig P, Palanques A. 1998b. Temporal variability and composition of settling particle fluxes on the Barcelonacontinental margin (Northwestern Mediterranean). J. Mar. Res. 56:639–54

Puig P, Palanques A, Guillen J, El Khatab M. 2004b. Role of internal waves in the generation of nepheloidlayers on the northwestern Alboran slope: implications for continental margin shaping. J. Geophys. Res.109:C09011


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


Puig P, Palanques A, Orange DL, Lastras G, Canals M. 2008. Dense shelf water cascades and sedimentaryfurrow formation in the Cap de Creus Canyon, northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Cont. Shelf Res. 28:2017–30

Ribo M, Puig P, Palanques A, Lo Iacono C. 2011. Dense shelf water cascades in the Cap de Creus and Palamossubmarine canyons during winters 2007 and 2008. Mar. Geol. 284:175–88

Rogers KG, Goodbred SL Jr. 2010. Mass failures associated with the passage of a large tropical cyclone overthe Swatch of No Ground submarine canyon (Bay of Bengal). Geology 38:1051–54

Ross CB, Gardner WD, Richardson MJ, Asper VL. 2009. Currents and sediment transport in the MississippiCanyon and effects of Hurricane Georges. Cont. Shelf Res. 29:1384–96

Rumın-Caparros A, Sanchez-Vidal A, Calafat A, Canals M, Martın J, et al. 2013. External forcings, oceano-graphic processes and particle flux dynamics in Cap de Creus submarine canyon, NW MediterraneanSea. Biogeosciences 10:3493–505

Sanchez-Vidal A, Canals M, Calafat AM, Lastras G, Pedrosa-Pamies R, et al. 2012. Impacts on the deep-seaecosystem by a severe coastal storm. PLoS ONE 7:e30395

Sanchez-Vidal A, Pasqual C, Kerherve P, Calafat A, Heussner S, et al. 2008. Impact of dense shelf watercascading on the transfer of organic material to the deep western Mediterranean. Geophys. Res. Lett.35:L05605

Sanchez-Vidal A, Pasqual C, Kerherve P, Heussner S, Calafat A, et al. 2009. Across margin export of organicmatter by cascading events traced by stable isotopes, northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Limnol. Oceanogr.54:1488–500

Schmidt S, de Stigter HC, van Weering TCE. 2001. Enhanced short-term sediment deposition within theNazare Canyon, North-East Atlantic. Mar. Geol. 173:55–67

Schwing FB, Norton JG, Pilskaln CH. 1990. Earthquake and bay: response of Monterey Bay to the LomaPrieta earthquake. Eos Trans. AGU 71:250–62

Shepard FP. 1981. Submarine canyons: multiple causes and long-time persistence. AAPG Bull. 65:1062–77Shepard FP, Dill RF. 1966. Submarine Canyons and Other Sea Valleys. USA: Rand McNallyShepard FP, Dill RF. 1977. Currents in submarine canyon heads off north St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Mar.

Geol. 24:M39–45Shepard FP, Marshall NF. 1973. Storm-generated current in La Jolla Submarine Canyon, California. Mar.

Geol. 15:M19–24Shepard FP, Marshall NF, McLoughlin PA. 1974. “Internal waves” advancing along submarine canyons.

Science 183:195–98Shepard FP, Marshall NF, McLoughlin PA. 1975. Pulsating turbidity currents with relationship to high swell

and high tides. Nature 258:704–6Shepard FP, Marshall NF, McLoughlin PA, Sullivan GG. 1979. Currents in Submarine Canyons and Other

Seavalleys. Stud. Geol. 8. Tulsa, OK: Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.Shepard FP, McLoughlin PA, Marshall NF, Sullivan GG. 1977. Current-meter recordings of low-speed

turbidity currents. Geology 5:297–301Smith DP, Ruiz G, Kvitek R, Iampietro PJ. 2005. Semiannual patterns of erosion and deposition in upper

Monterey Canyon from serial multibeam bathymetry. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 117:1123–33Su C-C, Tseng J-Y, Hsu H-H, Chiang C-S, Yu H-S, et al. 2012. Records of submarine natural hazards off

SW Taiwan. In Natural Hazards in the Asia-Pacific Region, ed. JP Terry, J Goff, pp. 41–60. Geol. Soc.Spec. Publ. 361. London: Geol. Soc.

Thorbjarnarson KW, Nittrouer CA, DeMaster DJ. 1986. Accumulation of modern sediment in Quinaultsubmarine canyon. Mar. Geol. 71:107–24

Trincardi F, Foglini F, Verdicchio G, Asioli A, Correggiari A, et al. 2007. The impact of cascading currentson the Bari Canyon System, SW-Adriatic Margin (Central Mediterranean). Mar. Geol. 246:208–30

Turchetto M, Boldrin A, Langone L, Miserocchi S, Tesi T, Foglini F. 2007. Particle transport in the BariCanyon (southern Adriatic Sea). Mar. Geol. 246:231–47

Van Weering TCE, de Stigter HC, Boer W, de Haas H. 2002. Recent sediment transport and accumulationon the NW Iberian margin. Prog. Oceanogr. 52:349–71

Vangriesheim A, Khripounoff A, Crassous P. 2009. Turbidity events observed in situ along the Congo sub-marine channel. Deep-Sea Res. II 56:2208–22


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.


Walsh JP, Nittrouer CA. 2003. Contrasting styles of off-shelf sediment accumulation in New Guinea. Mar.Geol. 196:105–25

Xu JP. 2011. Measuring currents in submarine canyons: technological and scientific progress in the past30 years. Geosphere 7:868–76

Xu JP, Barry JP, Paull CK. 2013. Small-scale turbidity currents in a big submarine canyon. Geology 41:143–46Xu JP, Noble M, Eittreim SL, Rosenfeld LK, Schwing FB, Pilskaln CH. 2002. Distribution and transport of

suspended particulate matter in Monterey Canyon, California. Mar. Geol. 181:215–34Xu JP, Noble MA, Rosenfeld LK. 2004. In-situ measurements of velocity structure within turbidity currents.

Geophys. Res. Lett. 31:L09311Xu JP, Swarzenski PW, Noble M, Li A-C. 2010. Event-driven sediment flux in Hueneme and Mugu submarine

canyons, southern California. Mar. Geol. 269:74–88Xu JP, Wong FL, Kvitek R, Smith D, Paull CK. 2008. Sandwave migration in Monterey Submarine Canyon,

Central California. Mar. Geol. 248:193–212Zuniga D, Flexas MM, Sanchez-Vidal A, Coenjaerts J, Calafat A, et al. 2009. Particle fluxes dynamics in Blanes

submarine canyon (Northwestern Mediterranean). Prog. Oceanogr. 82:239–51


Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.

MA06-FrontMatter ARI 5 November 2013 14:17

Annual Review ofMarine Science

Volume 6, 2014 Contents

Shedding Light on the Sea: Andre Morel’s Legacyto Optical OceanographyDavid Antoine, Marcel Babin, Jean-Francois Berthon, Annick Bricaud,

Bernard Gentili, Hubert Loisel, Stephane Maritorena, and Dariusz Stramski � � � � � � � � � 1

Benthic Exchange and Biogeochemical Cyclingin Permeable SedimentsMarkus Huettel, Peter Berg, and Joel E. Kostka � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �23

Contemporary Sediment-Transport Processes in Submarine CanyonsPere Puig, Albert Palanques, and Jacobo Martın � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �53

El Nino Physics and El Nino PredictabilityAllan J. Clarke � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �79

Turbulence in the Upper-Ocean Mixed LayerEric A. D’Asaro � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 101

Sounds in the Ocean at 1–100 HzWilliam S.D. Wilcock, Kathleen M. Stafford, Rex K. Andrew, and Robert I. Odom � � 117

The Physics of Broadcast Spawning in Benthic InvertebratesJohn P. Crimaldi and Richard K. Zimmer � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 141

Resurrecting the Ecological Underpinnings of Ocean Plankton BloomsMichael J. Behrenfeld and Emmanuel S. Boss � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 167

Carbon Cycling and Storage in Mangrove ForestsDaniel M. Alongi � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 195

Ocean Acidification in the Coastal Zone from an Organism’sPerspective: Multiple System Parameters, Frequency Domains,and HabitatsGeorge G. Waldbusser and Joseph E. Salisbury � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 221

Climate Change Influences on Marine Infectious Diseases:Implications for Management and SocietyColleen A. Burge, C. Mark Eakin, Carolyn S. Friedman, Brett Froelich,

Paul K. Hershberger, Eileen E. Hofmann, Laura E. Petes, Katherine C. Prager,Ernesto Weil, Bette L. Willis, Susan E. Ford, and C. Drew Harvell � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 249

vi

Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.

MA06-FrontMatter ARI 5 November 2013 14:17

Microbially Mediated Transformations of Phosphorus in the Sea:New Views of an Old CycleDavid M. Karl � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 279

The Role of B Vitamins in Marine BiogeochemistrySergio A. Sanudo-Wilhelmy, Laura Gomez-Consarnau, Christopher Suffridge,

and Eric A. Webb � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 339

Hide and Seek in the Open Sea: Pelagic Camouflageand Visual CountermeasuresSonke Johnsen � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 369

Antagonistic Coevolution of Marine Planktonic Virusesand Their HostsJennifer B.H. Martiny, Lasse Riemann, Marcia F. Marston,

and Mathias Middelboe � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 393

Tropical Marginal Seas: Priority Regions for Managing MarineBiodiversity and Ecosystem FunctionA. David McKinnon, Alan Williams, Jock Young, Daniela Ceccarelli, Piers Dunstan,

Robert J.W. Brewin, Reg Watson, Richard Brinkman, Mike Cappo, Samantha Duggan,Russell Kelley, Ken Ridgway, Dhugal Lindsay, Daniel Gledhill, Trevor Hutton,and Anthony J. Richardson � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 415

Sea Ice EcosystemsKevin R. Arrigo � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 439

The Oceanography and Ecology of the Ross SeaWalker O. Smith Jr., David G. Ainley, Kevin R. Arrigo,

and Michael S. Dinniman � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 469

Errata

An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Marine Science articles may be found athttp://www.annualreviews.org/errata/marine

Contents vii

Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.

AnnuAl Reviewsit’s about time. Your time. it’s time well spent.

AnnuAl Reviews | Connect with Our expertsTel: 800.523.8635 (us/can) | Tel: 650.493.4400 | Fax: 650.424.0910 | Email: [email protected]

New From Annual Reviews:

Annual Review of Statistics and Its ApplicationVolume 1 • Online January 2014 • http://statistics.annualreviews.org

Editor: Stephen E. Fienberg, Carnegie Mellon UniversityAssociate Editors: Nancy Reid, University of Toronto

Stephen M. Stigler, University of ChicagoThe Annual Review of Statistics and Its Application aims to inform statisticians and quantitative methodologists, as well as all scientists and users of statistics about major methodological advances and the computational tools that allow for their implementation. It will include developments in the field of statistics, including theoretical statistical underpinnings of new methodology, as well as developments in specific application domains such as biostatistics and bioinformatics, economics, machine learning, psychology, sociology, and aspects of the physical sciences.

Complimentary online access to the first volume will be available until January 2015. table of contents:•What Is Statistics? Stephen E. Fienberg•A Systematic Statistical Approach to Evaluating Evidence

from Observational Studies, David Madigan, Paul E. Stang, Jesse A. Berlin, Martijn Schuemie, J. Marc Overhage, Marc A. Suchard, Bill Dumouchel, Abraham G. Hartzema, Patrick B. Ryan

•The Role of Statistics in the Discovery of a Higgs Boson, David A. van Dyk

•Brain Imaging Analysis, F. DuBois Bowman•Statistics and Climate, Peter Guttorp•Climate Simulators and Climate Projections,

Jonathan Rougier, Michael Goldstein•Probabilistic Forecasting, Tilmann Gneiting,

Matthias Katzfuss•Bayesian Computational Tools, Christian P. Robert•Bayesian Computation Via Markov Chain Monte Carlo,

Radu V. Craiu, Jeffrey S. Rosenthal•Build, Compute, Critique, Repeat: Data Analysis with Latent

Variable Models, David M. Blei•Structured Regularizers for High-Dimensional Problems:

Statistical and Computational Issues, Martin J. Wainwright

•High-Dimensional Statistics with a View Toward Applications in Biology, Peter Bühlmann, Markus Kalisch, Lukas Meier

•Next-Generation Statistical Genetics: Modeling, Penalization, and Optimization in High-Dimensional Data, Kenneth Lange, Jeanette C. Papp, Janet S. Sinsheimer, Eric M. Sobel

•Breaking Bad: Two Decades of Life-Course Data Analysis in Criminology, Developmental Psychology, and Beyond, Elena A. Erosheva, Ross L. Matsueda, Donatello Telesca

•Event History Analysis, Niels Keiding•StatisticalEvaluationofForensicDNAProfileEvidence,

Christopher D. Steele, David J. Balding•Using League Table Rankings in Public Policy Formation:

Statistical Issues, Harvey Goldstein•Statistical Ecology, Ruth King•Estimating the Number of Species in Microbial Diversity

Studies, John Bunge, Amy Willis, Fiona Walsh•Dynamic Treatment Regimes, Bibhas Chakraborty,

Susan A. Murphy•Statistics and Related Topics in Single-Molecule Biophysics,

Hong Qian, S.C. Kou•Statistics and Quantitative Risk Management for Banking

and Insurance, Paul Embrechts, Marius Hofert

Access this and all other Annual Reviews journals via your institution at www.annualreviews.org.

Ann

u. R

ev. M

arin

e. S

ci. 2

014.

6:53

-77.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

ww

w.a

nnua

lrev

iew

s.or

gby

Dal

hous

ie U

nive

rsity

on

07/1

1/14

. For

per

sona

l use

onl

y.

Documents

Contemporary Sediment-Transport Processes in Submarine Canyons