Constructing Environments

Week 1

There are 3 basic types of “shell” for a building

1. Masonry

2. Timber

3. Steel

- UC = column, often square to resist loading from all directions

- UB = I-beam which is particularly strong on one axes

- PFC = U-Beam or Channel

Types of structures:

1. Column and beam – forms a kind of skeleton around which a shell can be created

2. Mass construction

- Small module (i.e. mud/clay bricks). Useful for creating shapes and curves in a structure

- Large module (i.e. concrete slabs). Generally makes up large components of a building

Small module structures rely on the formation of bricks to resist lateral loads. For example, an

interlocking style of brick arrangement adds strength in

multiple directions.

Large module structures

- Precast concrete is more time efficient as it

allows for

1. Other tasks can be undertaken on site

while it is under construction elsewhere

2. There is no period where you need to wait

for the concrete to set where things can’t

be put in place until it’s dry.

- Pre-cast concrete also allows for better quality

control as it is produced in isolated conditions.

- ‘

Loads on Buildings

- Static loads are assumed to be applied slowly

to a structure without rapid fluctuation and

don’t change the position of their load.

(stationary structural elements are static loads)

- Live loads are comprised of any force created

by a moving thing or occupant. (Live loads may

Load Paths: this diagram shows the

projected load path a load (f) would

take if it acted directly on top of the

building as shown. Load forces take

the most direct path to the ground

have a vertical as well as a horizontal force component representative of their motion)

Elements of materials

Strength – how strong something is, whether it’s able to withstand forces without failing

Stiffness – the resistance of a material to deformation (plastic deformation)

Shape – a linear, bi-dimensional description of the appearance of an object

Material Behaviours

Materials can have both isotropic and anisotropic behaviours.

- Isotropic behavior is when a material is similarly strong under compression and tension,

whereas;

- Anisotropic is when a material is stronger under one force (compression or tension) than

the opposite force. Concrete is an anisotropic material as it’s much stronger under

compression than tension

Tension – when an external load pulls on a member, deforms by stretching

Compression – when an external load pushes in on a member, forming by shrinking or compressing

During the tutorial we created a compressive

tower to try and achieve a maximum height.

We chose a relatively dome shaped design to

achieve maximum compressive force.

Week 2

There are 4 basic types of structural systems:

1. Solid – compression is the main form of

support. Arches are very strong as they

work under compression as their main form

of support

2. Surface/shell- i.e. open house

3. Skeletal – efficient way of transferring loads,

using less material (i.e. trusses)

4. Membrane – useful for covering large areas

efficiently while staying strong under

tension

Construction System

Splits a structure into subsystems which allows ease of analysis, generally made up of 3 main

components:

1. Enclosure system – i.e. roof

2. Structural system – i.e. members, load bearing structure

3. Service system – i.e. heating and electricity supply

All 3 elements need to be taken into consideration when designing/analyzing a structure. Among

these main building considerations, it is also important to consider:

Performance requirements (i.e. comfort)

Aesthetic qualities (is it nice to live in?)

Economic Efficiency (budget, longevity of material)

Environmental impacts (generally try to reduce these)

Residential areas make up a large portion of

building areas and therefore play a key part in

environmental issues as they consume a lot of

energy.

Reduce – Reuse – Recycle

It’s important to consider the emissions both in

terms of direct emissions as well as embodied

emissions (i.e. those emissions created by the

production of a product or structure)

ESD strategies can be used to reduce emissions and

environmental impacts of a structure.

Types of Structural Systems

This is an example of how structural considerations

were taken into account in order to be more

environmentally sound

Some environmental strategies are:

- Solar energy use

- Frontal ventilation

- Water harvesting

- Night air purging

Structural Joints are of 3 types:

1. Pin joint (resists vertical and horizontal loads)

2. Roller joints (resists vertical loads)

3. Fixed joints (resists vertical loads, horizontal loads and moments about the joint)

sourcing manufacturing

Distribution & use

recovery

DESIGN

Week 3

Footings and Foundations

Foundations are the substructure of a building that

transfers loads from the footings to the ground

There are 3 types of footings:

1. Pad Footings – help to spread the load over a

wide area of ground to reduce any sinking and

add to the stability of the building

2. Raft foundation – also called a raft slab,

increasing stability by joining the individual

strips together

3. Strip footings – used when loads from a wall or

a spread of columns are spread linearly (along a

line)

Deep Foundations

Deep foundations can be used on heavy buildings or

where there are softer foundations in order to provide

more stable footing. When a building is very high it needs

to be counteracted by extending far underground to aid

in resisting lateral loading.

Retaining/Foundation Walls

Retaining and foundation walls are used when sites are excavated to create basements etc. the

pressure exerted on the wall by the earth behind needs to be considered to prevent the wall from

failing inwards.

Some sketches of the different types

of footing

Bricks

Advantages:

- Bricks can be joined by mortar

- If adequately ventilated they won’t deteriorate

- Forms a naturally compressive structure that is

good at holding high loads

Disadvantages:

- Absorbs moisture and expands over time which

requires expansion joints

- Salts and lime from the ground can be absorbed

up through the bricks

Concrete Blocks

Advantages:

- Holes in concrete blocks allow for

reinforcement to be placed and

increase the insulation that they

provide.

- Reinforcement allows the blocks to be

strong under tension as well as under

compression.

Disadvantages:

- Concrete blocks tend to shrink

overtime, whereas clay bricks expand

- Clay bricks absorb moisture from the atmosphere,

whereas cement in concrete loses

- water to the atmosphere

Above the windows you can see a

series of weep holes that were

created where a concrete slab is

placed for the second level. These

weepholes allow excess moisture to

exit the structure.

Pictured is a brick wall where you

can see marks left from the

absorbtion of salts and lime from

the ground, leaving white marks on

the walls.

Stone

3 types of stone used for construction purposes:

1. Igneous – formed when lava cools, extremely dense

2. Sedimentary – created from accumulated sediments,

not very structurally sound.

3. Metamorphic – formed when igneous or sedimentary

stone changes when subjected to pressure.

Pictured are the bluestone footings of a

building in the university of Melbourne

campus. Bluestone is an igneous rock

and is extremely strong.

Week 4

Floor Systems

Both dead and live loads are carried from the slab through the supports

- Concrete

- Timber

- Steel

Larger spacing leads to a larger span which

requires the material to be thicker in the

direction of loading or stronger.

Concrete systems; slabs are used to span

between structural supports

Steel Systems; steel is occasionally

combined with concrete slab systems to

utilize advantages from both

Timber Systems; the most common type of

system in residential construction.

Concrete

4 major elements:

Cement + Fine Aggregates + Coarse aggregates + Water

In Situ Concrete

Formwork is the material and structure used to keep fresh

concrete in its intended shape until dried.

The curing process of the concrete requires supports and

bracing

Concrete reaches 75% of its maximum compressive

strength within 7 days

Finishes:

- Sand blasted

- Caked finish

- Exposed aggregate

Here is a section of concrete that

has clearly been created in situ as

can be seen from the marks left by

the formwork

An example of some of the common elements in a

timber beam system

Reinforcements:

- Concrete is weak in tension, so steel is added to give tensile strength in the form of

mesh or bars depending on the conditions of the concrete

In Situ Concrete: when concrete is poured on site within some formwork

- Short amount of time where the concrete is considered workable

- Concrete can be placed by spraying it on a surface (shot-crete) and is held in place by a

mesh. This is useful for concreting vertical surfaces

Joints:

1. Construction joints – divide construction into smaller sections

2. Control joints – useful to ensure the concrete doesn’t crack over time during the shrinking

process.

Pre-cast concrete

Pre-cast concrete is created under more controlled conditions which allow for greater quality

control

After being cured to a sufficient strength they are taken to the site and lifted into place

The size of a pre-cast concrete slab is limited due to transport requirements both to the site and

once the slab is on site it is important to be able to move it into position without too much hassle.

Joints:

1. Contruction joints – naturally occur when one precast element meets another

2. Structural joints – the type and performance of structural connections is integral in the

buildings stability.

Week 5

Floor plan with measurements for workshop activity -

These measurements were taken from the architectural

floor plans in the reader.

Week 6

This week we brought material (cardboard and balsa) and cut it into shape throughout the tutorial in

an effort to create a skeletal model of the primary structural elements of the new sports pavilion.

It’s difficult to see in this photo, but the model consisted of two levels of structure. The

measurements our group had taken for the model appeared to be slightly skewed as we may have

taken them from a resized plan, but we managed to recreate the upper level still with some

accuracy.

Week 7

Detailing for Heat & Moisture

Basement

Require full tanking if subject to a wet environment. Tanking is when a waterproof membrane is

placed around the construction.

In dry ground it’s possible to put an agricultural drain where water is carried away from the building

and into a storm water pipe.

Walls

Attempt to put an impervious surface on the outside

Double skin wall (i.e. brick cavity)

Roofing

Water hitting roofing needs to be carried away from the building perhaps over the eaves or through

gutters and to downpipes

Detailing for Moisture

For water to penetrate into a building there must be:

1. An opening

2. Water present at the opening

3. A force to move water through the opening

Openings

Can be planned elements such as windows, doors, skylights etc.

Can be unplanned due to poor construction workmanship or deterioration of materials

Common techniques used to remove openings to prevent water penetration include:

- sealants (i.e. silicone)

- gaskets

Keeping water from openings is a commonly used strategy in construction detailing. This can be

done by grading roofs so that the water is collected in gutters and transferred to downpipes into

stormwater systems. Overlapping cladding around roof elements ensures water cannot enter.

Sloping window and door sills encourages any moisture to runoff. Sloping the ground surface away

from the walls at the base of buildings allows water to run away from the building.

During this week’s tutorial we drew detailed section of

different parts of the building and set them up to be

connected. This detail pictures an insulated wall as well as

part of the roof system where you can see a z-purlin hanging

from which a ceiling can be supported.

Here is another detail of a roof

section on the right with an

insulated wall and a z-purlin.

Week 8

Glass

Changes in glass technology have allowed for ever larger sheet sizes at a lesser cost. The changes

that enabled buildings like the RWE tower are cultural as well as technological.

Glass occurs naturally when sand is exposed to intense heat. Soda is added to reduce the melting

point and stabilized with lime when creating manmade glass.

In the 19th century architectural glass was primarily hand blown and very limited by a number of

technological factors. After a series of revolutions in glass making from the 1920s to 1950s glass

could now be mass produced in computer controlled factories.

A window frame was necessary in the Wainwright building to secure the glass, but this framing

system has been reduced to a set of point supports.

Components:

- Formers: the basic ingredient, any chemical compound that can be melted and cooled into a

glass is a former (i.e. silica)

- Fluxes: help formers to melt at lower temperatures (i.e. soda)

- Stabilizers: combine with fluxes and formers to keep the glasses integrity

Properties:

- Non permeable

- More dense than water

- Conductivity: transmits heat and light but

not electricity

- Relatively Hard

- Low ductility

- High flexibility when heated, low flexibility

when cooled

- Durable

- Highly recyclable

- High embodied energy & expensive

Glazing

Glazing reduces the heat transfer of the glass which acts as an insulator and moderates the exterior

climate. Low-e double glazing effectively absorbs radiant energy.

Types of Glass:

- Flat Glass

- Shaped glass

- Float glass

- clear float glass, cheap and breaks into

shards

- laminated glass, tends not to shatter

like clear float glass

- tempered glass, increases bending

strength, good for exposure

- Tinted glass

Openings, Doors & Windows

Doors

Aluminium doors are popularly used in construction, but the design aspect of doorframes is

generally left to the manufacturer.

Steel doors are more resistant to impacts and much stronger than aluminium but also much heavier.

Can be used for security purposes due to their durability.

Windows

Aluminium window frames are used commonly in commercial construction. Often have double

glazing rather than single glazing to give better insulation

Framing can also be made of steel but is not as common due to its expensive nature. Because steel

easily transfers heat, it also often needs a thermal break to reduce its heat transfer.

Curtain Walls:

Effectively a hybrid window and wall system, the windows are hung off the internal structure of the

building and don’t carry any building loads themselves.

This week we again set up the drawings of various details around

the classroom. In an effort to create a 3-dimensional representation

of the cross sections we transposed the drawings on an angle of 45

degrees from the original sketch and connected the sections. Here

is a detail of an overhanging roof section from the pavilion.

Glossary of Terms

Small module (i.e. mud/clay bricks). Useful for creating shapes and curves in a structure

Large module (i.e. concrete slabs). Generally makes up large components of a building

Strength – how strong something is, whether it’s able to withstand forces without failing

Stiffness – the resistance of a material to deformation (plastic deformation)

Shape – a linear, bi-dimensional description of the appearance of an object

Isotropic behavior is when a material is similarly strong under compression and tension, whereas;

Anisotropic is when a material is stronger under one force (compression or tension) than the

opposite force. Concrete is an anisotropic material as it’s much stronger under compression than

tension

Tension – when an external load pulls on a member, deforms by stretching

Compression – when an external load pushes in on a member, forming by shrinking or compressing

Enclosure system – i.e. roof

Structural system – i.e. members, load bearing structure

Service system – i.e. heating and electricity supply

Performance requirements (i.e. comfort)

Aesthetic qualities (is it nice to live in?)

Economic Efficiency (budget, longevity of material)

Environmental impacts (generally try to reduce these)

Pin joint (resists vertical and horizontal loads)

Roller joints (resists vertical loads)

Fixed joints (resists vertical loads, horizontal loads and moments about the joint)

Pad Footings – help to spread the load over a wide area of ground to reduce any sinking and add to

the stability of the building

Raft foundation – also called a raft slab, increasing stability by joining the individual strips together

Strip footings – used when loads from a wall or a spread of columns are spread linearly (along a line)

Igneous – formed when lava cools, extremely dense

Sedimentary – created from accumulated sediments, not very structurally sound.

Metamorphic – formed when igneous or sedimentary stone changes when subjected to pressure.

Concrete: Cement + Fine Aggregates + Coarse aggregates + Water

Formwork is the material and structure used to keep fresh concrete in its intended shape until dried

In Situ Concrete: when concrete is poured on site within some formwork

Pre-cast concrete is created under more controlled conditions which allow for greater quality

control

Formers: the basic ingredient, any chemical compound that can be melted and cooled into a glass is

a former (i.e. silica)

Fluxes: help formers to melt at lower temperatures (i.e. soda)

Stabilizers: combine with fluxes and formers to keep the glasses integrity

Curtain Walls: Effectively a hybrid window and wall system, the windows are hung off the internal

structure of the building and don’t carry any building loads themselves.