Consequences of Labeling

The Consequences of Labeling

• Affects one’s master status

• Affects one’s self-image

• Affects one’s life chances

Have you ever been arrested by the police?

All Students 19.0%

Males 40.0%

Females 9.3%

reckless endangerment, DWI, public drunkennessdisorderly conduct, possession, under age drinking,

shoplifting, trespassing, PWID

Secondary Deviance

• Secondary Deviance – deviance that results from having been labeled deviant

• Internalization

• Reduced opportunities

“The Mark of a Criminal Record”Pager (2003), AJS

• Background• Over 2 million currently incarcerated in U.S.• 95% of all inmates are eventually released• Over 12 million ex-felons in the U.S.

• Roughly 8% of the working-age population

• Research Question• What are the consequences of incarceration for

the employment outcomes of black and white men?

“The Mark of a Criminal Record”Pager (2003), AJS

• Audit Methodology• Sent matched pairs of of individuals (called

“testers”) to apply for real job openings to see whether employers responded differently to applicants on the basis of race and criminal record. 350 “audits” were done.

• Four Testers, 2 black, two white• 23 years old, matched on appearance, style of

presentation, and background characteristics

“The Mark of a Criminal Record”Pager (2003), AJS

• The white and black pair took turns claiming to have a criminal record• Felony drug charge (possession with intent to

distribute cocaine), plus 18 months in prison

• The researcher counted the number of callbacks the applicant-testers got

“The Mark of a Criminal”Percent Receiving Callbacks

5

1714

34

Black White

Criminal Record No Criminal Record