Connectivity: Art and Interactive Telecommunications || Cultural Implications of Integrated Media

Leonardo

Cultural Implications of Integrated MediaAuthor(s): Beverly JonesSource: Leonardo, Vol. 24, No. 2, Connectivity: Art and Interactive Telecommunications (1991),pp. 153-158Published by: The MIT PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1575286 .

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Cultural Implications of Integrated Media

Beverly Jones

The relation of the new to the old, before the assimilation is performed, is wonder.

-William James

Nicholas Negroponte's design for the MIT Media Lab logo displays the growing intersection of three areas: the broadcast and motion picture industry, the print and publishing industry, and the computer industry [ 1]. This design could also be read as a metaphor for the integration of media from separate sources: voice, sound, text, video and computer graphics-an integration of hardware, software and communications network design called an 'information system' by technologists [2].

An evolving form of telecommunications information system based on the combination of two developing technologies, fiber optic cable, to deliver communications from multiple integrated sources, and hypertext/hypermedia, a software system for information management, has the ability to handle large amounts of data while drawing on contemporary integrated communication sources that include on-demand video services, interpersonal communications, high-speed information and image communication among fax machines, work stations and computers as well as tele- metry services (such as home security and utility monitoring systems). It can utilize electronic analogue and digital computers, optical technology (lasers, fiber optics and optical digital computers) and telecommunication networks (cables and satellites). Within this system, electronic and photonic copying devices can transform works originally produced in traditional media into forms readily accessible for retrieval and manipulation by users with access to integrated media systems [3]. Potential effects of this technology are extensive for the arts, humanities, sciences and social sciences as well as for applied fields such as education, medicine, business and law. The very nature of communication, its content and many aspects of society itself will be affected as the use of this system becomes pervasive.

The form, content and conceptual basis of this new system should be examined from the standpoint of contemporary philosophical, aesthetic and critical theory to reveal truths about the role of embedded models and beliefs in technologies of communication and their effects upon the perceived nature of reality.

Embedded models and beliefs define our culture. Cultural transformation results from the amplification or delegitimation of existing models of thought-models defining the nature of reality (metaphysics), the nature of knowledge (epistemology) and the nature of value (axiology). While classical philosophers separate epistemology and axiology, contemporary theorists are concerned with their interdependence. That is, the form and content of

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communication and the underlying structures of knowledge upon which these are based have ethical and aesthetic dimensions, as do the technologies of communication. This is particularly evident in information-based technologies such as telecommunications.

COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS AND CULTURAL CHANGE: A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

ABSTRACT

The author examines an evolving form of telecommunications information system based on two developing technologies: fiber optics and related hardware as used in Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (BISDN), and hypertext/hypermedia software for management (storage, retrieval and manipulation) of large amounts of data. A proposed form of this telecommunications system is analyzed in a larger cultural and historical context using analytic techniques from the arts and humanities. Com- parisons are made with deconstructionism and transformative technology studies, to highlight shared assumptions and practices ce in .ir -idl Untr nr.ln...i: -i.;n

The advent of typography cre- in at llu sTeniy wsTe . information systems.

ated a change in technologies of communication that re- sulted in the restructuring of knowledge and ways of thought, according to Walter Ong [4]. In part this was due to changes in the form and content of symbolization. Objectivity, depersonalization and stan- dardization are implied ideals for knowledge in typographic culture. The role of visual graphic space supports these ideals: Only when readers may cite word five on line 10 of page 55 may certain educational and critical dialogues occur. Prior to the typeset book, the graphic and spatial characteristics of different editions of the same work varied widely. Typography held a key role in shaping the nature of modern logic and legitimated knowledge through stan- dardization of form. Understanding the embedment of prior architectures of thought in early typography is the key to understanding the power of knowledge structures embedded within the form and content of communication technologies.

Ong examines communication technologies as an aspect of cultural change, providing a view of history in the relationship of technology to changing noetic styles. According to Ong, in both oral and chirographic cultures, values were communicated through highly personalized and diverse manifestations of material and symbolic culture. Ong's ex- aminations of communication systems focus on the transformation of material and symbolic culture, and its resulting effect on the nature of knowledge, the form and content of information, and on larger societal change itself [5].

Beverly Jones (art educator), Department of Art Education, School of Architecture and Allied Arts, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, U.S.A.

Received 14 December 1989.

LEONARDO, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 153-158, 1991 153



Mass-produced media-print, radio, film, video and broadcast television- represent the potential amplification of a selected set of cultural constructs. While liberal thinkers may extol the democratization of culture embodied in mass media, others see the selection and imposition of cultural forms by one group on another as antithetical to democracy. For example, Michael Heim claims the contents of mass communication are available to all equally [6].

Ong's former associate, Marshall McLuhan, focuses on a Rousseauistic view of the community-binding power of speech. He sees mass media as creating a 'global village' and likens it to earlier oral culture [7].

McLuhan ignores selected information because of the conceptual frame he employs-for example, the fact that although the distribution of mass media is democratic in nature, its origins, form, content and practice are controlled by a very few, creating dis- tinct elements of centralized power. As Edward Said states, "A tiny hand- ful of large and powerful oligarchies controls about 90 percent of the world's information and communication flows" [8].

Rousseau's position, identifying 'nature' with pure unmediated speech, has been criticized by deconstructionists Christopher Norris and Jacques Derrida [9]. Norris, in Deconstruction:

Theory and Practice, points out that in Levi-Strauss's Rousseauistic theories, "writing becomes an exteriorized agency of violence and corruption, constantly menacing the communal values so closely identified with speech", but indicates that Levi-Strauss's ethno- graphic data regarding the Nambi- kwara tribe did not support this statement. Their laws, customs and social taboos had not been written down, yet they had the force of articulate prescriptions. The tribe was far from enjoying the state of idyllic communal existence that Levi-Strauss identifies with the absence of writing [10].

Ong's version of the theory of transformative technology may be the most wide-reaching in potential applications. It implies that each historical shift in the symbolization of reality brings with it a restructuring of the psyche. I would hesitate to claim that the psyche will be restructured due to the technological shifts we see occurring today; however, I believe that these shifts will cause knowledge and ways of thinking to be restructured. The developing technologies of fiber optic communication

networks and hypertext/hypermedia, by utilizing certain conventions, will amplify some constructs and call others into question. For example, disciplinary boundaries and the divisions between maker and consumer, author and reader, artist and viewer, public and private will be altered. Previously assumed hierarchies will be amplified or called into question. This is the ground for deconstructive practice.

ORIGINS OF FIBER OPTICS

COMMUNICATION

NETWORKS

In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell created the photophone, which used sun- light to transmit spoken sounds [ 11 ]. It was not until the 1950s, however, that lasers were created utilizing coherent light wave energy to transmit information. It was first suggested in 1966 that the transmission capacities of conven- tional metal cables could be equalled by a fiber optic transmission system [12]. By the mid-1970s, several authors rec- ognized in fiber optics the potential for a low-cost system that would be immune from electromagnetic interference and able to carry large amounts of data. The concept of transmitting digital data through fiber optics has also been around since that time [13]. Advan- tages of fiber optics include transmission of voice, computer data and video on the same network, at a speed and volume far surpassing copper cable while allowing intelligent networks, immensely magnified storage and the transmission of hypermedia. By 1984, contributors to the International Tele- graph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT), the organization responsible for developing Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDNs), had already suggested an optical fiber inter- face with the user. ISDNs provide users all over the world with the capability of simultaneously talking and sending digital data around the world from their work stations. The advantage of single- mode fibers over multi-mode fibers for further increases in transmission speed and capacity for growth was described in 1986 by John Bigham, a Bell en- gineer [14]. Currently both national and international fiber optic networks are in operation. The term Broadband

Integrated Services Digital Network (BISDN) was coined to describe inter- face compatibility and to imply transmission channels capable of supporting rates up to 560 megabytes per sec.

Basic research projects that rely on fiber optics are being conducted inter- nationally through various govern- ments and corporations [15]. Optical computers are seen as the basic tools of the Strategic Defense Initiative, and Bell Laboratories has had an optical computing department for several years. Robert Spinrad of Xerox predicts that photonics in the twenty-first century will be analogous to what electronics represent in this century.

In 1987 the OFC and the Sixth Inter- national Conference on Integrated Op- tics and Optical Fiber Communication held a special panel entitled "Fibers to the Home and Business-Opportuni- ties, Challenges and Timing" [ 16]. The same year the first hypertext/hypermedia conference was held in Chapel Hill, North Carolina [17].

CONCEPTUAL ORIGINS OF

HYPERTEXT/HYPERMEDIA Most frequently, the conceptual origins of hypertext are traced to 1945 when Vannevar Bush described a machine called the 'memex', which he imagined as meeting his needs in organizing vast stores of research materials [18]. The memex would be capable of storing all scientific writing (on microfilm) along with all cross references and records of previous searches and would use a rapid selector that would retrieve through indices located in the margins. Bush is cited among those who made hypertext possible. Christopher Dede defines hypertext:

Hypertext is a knowledge representation composed of nodes of information connected by links. A node might contain text, data files, graphics, images, code, animation, or a mixture of these. Nodes can be arbitrarily large or small but generally embody the equivalent of a few sentences to several pages of information; they can have multiple embedded links to other nodes. Links are associative paths between nodes; they can be as simple as a connection between an origin and a destination or can have a variety of properties. Links allow the creation of a conceptual web with complex inter- dependencies among nodes. This provides a framework for non-linear rep- resentations of knowledge [19].

Both Bush and Dede compare the architecture of hypertext to an associ- ational model of human memory. In this view, ideas are stored in the mind using techniques of association. Dede provides the following example:

154 Jones, Cultural Implications of Integrated Media



The word 'apple' conjures up botanic, gustatory, computational, corporate and theological dimensions. Imagine 'apple' as a node, with multiple links spreading out to nodes describing these alternative meanings. Such a structure is one type of semantic network, in which links are determined by the relational meanings of the node's contents [20].

David Jonassen states that cognitive principles of learning support the use of hypertext educational environments. The principles he includes are active structural networks, schema theory, web learning and generative processing. As students of cognitive science and artifi- cial intelligence may note, this vocabu- lary is now frequently used to discuss both machine and human knowledge structures [21].

Jeff Conklin notes that hypertext software includes support for multiple versions of nodes and links (this has been labeled 'versioning'), hierarchical or nonhierarchical link structures, and availability of search functions. Thus the system could accommodate many users accessing information in different ways for different purposes [22]. Dede posits:

As 'second generation' hypertext systems evolve, the range of features unique to non-linear representational approaches may expand considerably. For example, in current systems nodes and links are objects within hypertext; a next step would be the inclusion of higher order representational structures (e.g. subnetworks) as objects to be manipulated. Such composite nodes are already partially implemented in some hypertext systems [23].

When hypertext originator Ted Nel- son began his work, alphanumeric characters were the primary input- output mode for computers. As size of memory and computational speed improved, visual and auditory data storage, retrieval and manipulation became more common. Consequently others building upon the work of Nel- son coined the term hypermedia.

HYPERTEXT AND

CONVENTIONS OF

INFORMATION RETRIEVAL, INDEXING AND FORMATTING

Because the text model was originally imposed upon electronic technology, linear sequencing and hierarchical information design were characteristic of early information systems. Ted Nelson eloquently objects to linear sequencing, hierarchical document forms and

the social hierarchy, gatekeeping and repression inherent in the current mass-publishing model. In the 1960s Nelson coined the term hypertext to describe a form of non-sequential writing and, by extension, nonsequential, nonhierarchical information retrieval and perusal. For approximately 30 years he has worked to make his Project Xanadu a reality. Project Xanadu repre- sents an evolutionary model of form and underlying concepts from old to new technology. Every document in this system is electronically linked to all documents that it draws upon and to those documents that draw upon it or comment upon it. The construction of this system provides mass customiza- tion of on-demand information. This system is a single repository of information that may be organized in myriad ways and continually rearranged to meet the needs of varied individuals without losing any of its prior structures. Nelson views this repository as a utility, rendering information as "an elemental commodity, like water, telephone service, radio and television". He sees this unique project as pre- senting information in its complexity and as providing an archival standard that addresses the ideals of freedom and pluralism. Nelson has envisioned its structure as a relatively small centralized structure reliant upon the cooperative processing power of many cooperating sites run by individual owners. He envisions this information system as a "repository publishing network for anybody's documents and contents" in which "anyone may alter any piece of information without harm". This idea rests on his beliefs, not only in equal access, but in equal control of the content of information, and on an ethos of freedom and pluralism [24].

While Nelson's project began with alphanumeric text, it has expanded to include molecular modeling, seismo- graphic data, bit-mapped graphics, image synthesis and other functions now available to the applications de- signer using this system. In "Managing Immense Storage", Nelson acknow- ledges his intention to change the form of applications, which he sees presently as "balkanized, irreparably divided in function, and carved into zones of par- tial compatibility that have reached the limit of common sense and tolerability" [25]. This statement reflects Nelson's impatience with the division of knowledge into subject matter disciplines, another powerful cultural convention. This convention has affected the form

of educational institutions, library classification systems and the development of computer applications.

While Nelson is concerned with individuality and democratic access to information, others are interested in the changes in information design that are possible in a computerized environment [26]. (There are several hypertext systems under development in universities and corporate environments.) Conventions that utilize visual design to assist understanding are commonly outside one's usual range of thought when reading texts and consequently remain invisible until called into question.

Underlying conventions, such as hierarchical outlining embedded beneath text and in headings, provide assistance to readers in navigating the conceptual space of documents. The absence of these and other conventions embedded in typographic documents is evident in hypertext/hypermedia. At a 1988 conference in Eugene, Oregon, Dede noted deep problems in communication in hypertext/hypermedia environments, including disorientation, cognitive overhead, combinatorial explosion and collective communications dysfunctions. According to Dede, hypertext/hypermedia uses its own conventions to guide the design of knowledge bases: models (represen- tations of some knowledge), tours (particular paths through some model), fil- ters (intelligent interfaces which tailor a model to a particular user), guides (intelligent electronic agents that select tours and provides help) and

object-oriented hypertext links and embedded simulations (to provide a richer representational structure than possible with the typical linear en- cyclopedia) [27].

If one adds the dimension of integrated media to this list, the content and structural differences between hypertext/hypermedia systems and standard textual bases become more evident [28].

Commonly, the form, content and underlying structures of information systems are determined by experts. End users are participants in structuring only at the top level. Only with information systems such as Nelson's xanological storage systems are individual users privy to information revealing the origins and variations of all documents processed through the system. Simi- larly, only in this system may additions or revisions of a document become a legitimated part of the system [29].

Jones, Cultural Implications of Integrated Media 155



HYPERTEXT/HYPERMEDIA AND CONTEMPORARY THEORY

Theory and practice within technologies of both information systems and contemporary art and literature share topics of discourse. Treatment of language as linear sequential construction is found restrictive both by advocates of hypertext and by deconstructionists. Deconstructionists wish to throw common logical strategies and knowledge structures into question and identify them in a particular historical cultural perspective. They also wish to redeploy within systems of language, culture and representation that which had been outside. The hypertext/hypermedia conventions of including notes of users within text, physically revealing trails of thought by users and integrating disparate data (i.e. text, auditory data, graphics, animation, video and simulations) also place within a single context that which had been separated [30]. These strategies reveal information that had been delegitimated or ren- dered invisible by cultural gatekeepers and by disciplinary divisions of knowledge.

Techniques derived from deconstructionists are helpful to analyze the evolving integration of the two developing technologies of fiber optics and

hypertext/hypermedia. Derrida focuses on revealing authorizing assumptions and hidden structures of thought embedded in systems of language, culture and representation. In De l'esprit, Derrida argues that we can have no access to reality except through the structures of representation (catego- ries, concepts and codes) that make access possible, and that the best means of making this condition intelligible are in systems of language, culture and representation that have exceeded the limits of logocentric reason [31]. De- stroying the linear sequential model of text is one such means that Derrida uses. The form and content of Derrida's spatiographic deconstructive works provide powerful strategies for disrupting 'normal' ways of reading information. Nelson's nonsequential nonhierarchical hypertext structures perform a similar function. Derrida applies deconstructive readings to traditional literary and philosophical texts. In both deconstructive and hypertext documents, texts that are usually separated may be juxtaposed to create new insights. In Derrida's Glas, texts by

Hegel and Genet are juxtaposed to reveal similar authorizing assumptions regarding materiality of language and underlying gender politics [32]. In The Double Session (Dissemination), texts by Plato and Mallarme are juxtaposed to set up an exchange of questions, reflecting the visual nonlinear aspects of text that reveal a borderline of potential conflict [33].

Both Derrida's deconstructionism and Nelson's hypertext work focus on disciplinary boundaries, origins, practices and rules and are concerned with relations of individuals, institutions and authority. Both examine communication conventions within information delivery systems, focusing on how these conventions may influence behavior.

CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS

Western models of information design are inherent in the hardware and conceptual patterning as well as in the form and content of contemporary communication technologies. From my perspective, blind acceptance of presentation conventions is more distressing than the content presented in the broadcast media. For example, un- aware that one is watching televised news while viewing a shooting, one may criticize the image sequence cinemati- cally for being 'a poorly presented cop show'. Viewers have become accus- tomed to visual and technological conventions creating dramatizations that are hyperreal, i.e. more 'real' than the events they portray. As 'docu-drama' and 'info-tainment' become more common as 'news', perhaps video footage taken at a news scene will not be shown. Rather, a more convincing visual dramatization will be presented. Invisible cannons of form will become even more dominant and the questions of reality/truth and content less dominant. However, if this information were included in Nelson's xanological storage, a viewer could access both the original video footage and visual dramatization with attached comments by the reporter, editor, commentator and other viewers about these documents.

Intelligent networks, immensely magnified storage and transmission of hypermedia become possible with the hardware of Broadband Integrated Services Networks. However, if one ve- hicle (an optical fiber cable) carries all communication, including telephone, fax, television, computer data, database

queries and so forth, in a Broadband Integrated Digital Network, the potential for abuse of power becomes evident. Ironically, Nelson's concepts of individual freedom in configurations of information environments com- bined with monolithic communications connections make an ideal ground for surveillance.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Derrida's application of deconstructive readings to traditional literary and philosophical texts, and Nelson's work concerning conventions in electronic information storage and retrieval, high- lighting levels of access and alteration, must be joined to examine new forms of communications technology. Shared assumptions and practices of Derrida and Nelson include attention to relations of power inherent in design and presentation of information, extension of 'text' to include other forms of symbolic and material culture as information systems, and spatiographic juxtaposition of information that is usually separated. Conceptually and symboli- cally the juxtaposition of texts, graphics and users' trails on a single screen presents the opportunity for seeing through or deconstructing the logic of exclusion that has traditionally operated in communication systems. For example, this logic of exclusion may limit information access to an ex- clusive group and/or limit participa- tion in adding new information to those chosen by cultural gatekeepers. This is common in typographic publication, exhibition of artworks, perform- ance and recording of music, film and video, programming for broadcast television, and selection and indexing of information for public access. Nelson advocated a democratized view of inclusion, i.e. all forms of 'text', references, and any 'readers" comments and additions are at the same level of access and legitimation in an all-encompassing electronic information storage system. This system provides an ideal ground not only for freedom and equality of all participants but for electronic surveillance of their exchanges. Ironically, this system, intended to support freedom and pluralism, could be used for negation of individual freedom and privacy.

Within the fields of art and literature there is continuous theoretical discus-

156 f Jones, Cultural Implications of Integrated Media



sion involving copies, their authenticity and validity, access rights to information for use or reproduction, how the cultural legitimation (or delegitimation) of copies should be viewed, the multiple meanings of copies and so forth. Poststructuralists and deconstructionists have accelerated and amplified this discussion. Discussions are parallel to those of some hypertext designers and users regarding multiple versions of a document with commentary and referencing at the same level of access and legitimation, juxtaposition of seemingly contradictory forms of discourse within a single document, and use of these techniques to examine underlying structures and authorizing assumptions.

Artists engage in appropriation of historically legitimated artworks to change their meaning or to comment upon art institutions. The formerly simple divisions between original, reproduction and forgery have been examined as cultural information yield- ing multiple layers of interpretation. Artists comment on the form as well as the content of artistic presentation and on the relationship of art to mass production. Using intertextual references within works of art they examine practices such as framing and museum presentation. Philosophical, economic and political interpretations are present in the literature and practice of contemporary art. Theory and practice merge; and former divisions of knowledge, structure and practice are revealed as having epistemological and axiological import. Form, content, underlying structures of artistic information and modes of presentation are seen to embody models of reality, knowledge and value. These models are shared by other areas of theory and practice such as cognitive and social sciences, basic and applied mathematics, and science, including technology. Human participants and their views of knowledge, value and historical and cultural con- texts are central in importance. Gone are the former assumptions that art is intrinsically valuable.

It is into this arena that the electronic or photonic digital copy arrives. Infor- mation from formerly separated disciplines may be digitally intermingled. Transforming one type of data into another is no longer difficult. Photo- graphs have been thrown into question as legally admissible evidence because of the ease in 'versioning' digital pho- tographic data with no trace of alteration. Individuals may make 'unauthor-

ized' copies of audio cassettes, video tapes, computer software and printed pages. Questions of ownership, copyright, privacy and access to information expose former assumptions about the purveyance of information.

Ted Nelson regards copyright issues as a major concern for electronic storage media and has been most concerned with devising a strategy for electronic accounting and distribution of royalties for intellectual property rights. He believes that both electronic and photonic storage and transfer of information are not adequately addressed by current copyright legisla- tion [34].

Design of information systems for private, public or mixed use must ne- gotiate these unresolved questions, ex- amining political, economic and social implications for integrated media.

The realm of computerized information is no longer dominated by alphanumeric text. Electronic, photonic and biological research promise more and more exotic information forms and applications. These forms raise questions of knowledge and power: who may know this information exists and who may access it and use it? It is technically possible for hypertext/hypermedia systems to include developing experimental technological applications such as biological information for genetic engineering, and nanotechnology (molecular machinery for multiple applications-smaller, faster computers, bio-

chips, replicators, etc.) and so forth. However, these may evoke information systems design reminiscent of the monastic library described in Eco's Name of the Rose [35] rather than those described by Nelson.

In systems such as those described by hypermedia project leaders, 'smart' systems will filter information and structure access. These developments in technology and design of information systems raise genealogical, ethical and aesthetic questions regarding relationship of knowledge, power and value and require a series of studies focusing on borders between apparently op- posite or similar knowledge configurations. These studies should deconstruct 'invisible' architectonic structures supporting knowledge construction, il- luminating unacknowledged choices embedded within existing and planned information systems.

References and Notes

1. S. Brand, The Media Lab: Inventing the Future at MIT (New York: Viking Penguin, 1987).

2. E.J. Addeo, A. B. Dayao, A. D. Delmann and V. F. Massa, "An Experimental Multi-Media Bridging System", 1988 Conference Proceedings on Office Infor- mation Systems (New York: ACM, 1988) pp. 236-242.

3. S. B. Weinstein and P. W. Schumate, "Beyond the Telephone: New Ways to Communicate", The Futurist 13, No. 6 (1989) pp. 8-12.

4. W. Ong, Interfaces of the Word: Studies in the Evolu- tion of Consciousness and Culture (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1971).

5. W. Ong, Rhetoric, Romance and Technology: Studies in theInteraction of Expression and Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1971). See also W. Ong, Ramus, Method and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason (Cambridge, MA: Har- vard Univ. Press, 1958).

6. M. Heim, Electric Language: A Philosophical Study of Word Processing (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987) p. 67.

7. M. McLuhan, UnderstandingMedia: TheExtension of Man (London, New York: Methuen, 1986).

8. E. Said, "Opponents, Audiences, Constituencies and Community", in H. Foster, ed., The Anti-Aes- thetic (Port Townsend, WA: Bay Press, 1983) pp. 135-159.

9. C. Norris, "Deconstruction, Post Modernism and the Visual Arts", in C. Norris and A. Benjamin, eds., What Is Deconstruction ? (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988) pp. 7-31. See also C. Levi-Stratiss, Tristes Tropiques,J. and D. Weightman, trans. (Lon- don: Cape, 1974);J. Derrida, "Name, Culttire and

Writing", in Of Grammatology, G. C. Spivak, trans.

(Baltimore, MD:Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1981); F. de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, W. Baskin, trans. (London: Cape, 1974); andJ. Rous- seau, Essai sur L 'origire des Langues. Textel Integral ReproduitD'apres, L'edition A Belin de 1817 (Paris: Le Graph, 1967).

10. C. Norris, Deconstruction: Theory and Practice (London, New York: Methtien, 1986).

11. Lightwave Commtinication Technology, Semi- conductors and Semimetals, Vol. 22 (New York: Aca- demic Press, Inc., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985).

12. K C. Kao and G. A. Hockham, "Dialectric- Fiber Surface Waveguides for Optical Frequen- cies", Proceedings IEEE 133 (1966) p. 1151.

13. C. D. Chaffee, The Rewiring ofAmerica: The Fiber

Optics Revolution (New York: Academic Press, Har- cotirt Brace Jovanovich, 1988); I. Jacobs, "Light- wave Communication Passes Its First Test", Bell Laboratories Record (December 1976); "Shedding Light (Optical Communications May Be the Wave of the Future)", Barron's (11 October 1976) p. 3; J. Powell, "Fibei Optics at the Threshold of a Com- munications Revoltition", Science Digest (February 1977).

14. J. Bigham, "Deployment Strategies for Fiber in the Distribution Loop", presented at the Kessler

Marketing Intelligence Conference in Newport, Rhode Island, 1986.

15. See J. Hills, "Universal Service: Liberalization and Privatization of Telecommunications", Tele- communications Policy (June 1989) pp. 129-144; "Conference Reports: Hungary for Change, Tele- commtunications, the Economy and Society Con- ference, Buidapest, Hungary, October 1988", Tele- communications Policy (March 1989) pp. 70-71; E. Lalor, "Action for Telecommtunications Develop- ment, STAR: A European Community Program", Telecommunications Policy (June 1987) pp. 115-120; G. Lander and I. Axiotiades, "Telecommtunications and 1992," Telecommunications Policy (September 1988) pp. 212-215; K. H. Narjes, 'Toward a

European Telecommunications Community: Im-

plementing the Green Paper", Telecommunications Polirc (June 1988) pp. 106-108; M. S. Snow, "Tele- communications Literature: A Critical Review of the Economic, Technological and Public Policy Issues", Telecommunications Policy (March 1989) pp. 153-183; See also Chaffee [13] p. 175.

16. Chaffee [13] p. 228.

Jones, Cultural Implications of Integrated Media 157



17. See Hypertext '87 Papers (Chapel Hill, NC: November 1987);J. B. Smith and S. F. Weiss, eds., "Hypertext '87," Communications of theACM31, No. 7 (July 1988) (special edition devoted to selected conference papers); ACM Hypertext on Hypertext (As- sociation for Computing Machinery, 1987) (computer disk); Hypertext '89 Digest (Watertown, MA: Eastgate Systems, 1987) (computer disk).

18. V. Bush, "As We May Think", The Atlantic Monthly (August 1985) pp. 101-108.

19. C. Dede, "The Role of Hypertext in Transform- ing Information into Knowledge", Proceedings of the National Educational Computing Conference '88 (Eugene, Oregon: International Council on Com- puters for Education, 1988) pp. 95-102.

20. Dede [19]. In this passage Dede cites W. Wood's term 'semantic network' from W. Wood, "What's in a Link: Foundations for Semantic Net- works", in R.J. Brachman and H.J. Levesque, eds., Readings in Knowledge Representation (Los Altos, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 1975).

21. D. H. Jonassen, "Hypertext Principles for Text and Courseware Design", Educational Psychologist 21, No. 4, 269-292 (Fall 1986).

22. J. Conklin, "A Survey of Hypertext" (Austin, TX: MCC Technical Report STP-356-86 Microelec- tronics and Computer Technology Consortium, 1986); see alsoJ. Conklin, "Hypertext: An Introduc- tion and Survey", IEEE Computer 20, No. 9 (1987) pp. 17-41.

23. Dede [19] p. 96.

24. T. Nelson, "Getting It out of Our System", in G. Schecter, ed., Information Retrieval: A Critical View (Washington, DC: Thompson Book Co., 1967); T. Nelson, "To Strike the Lightning", Hyperage (Feb- ruary/March 1988); T. Nelson, "Managing Im- mense Storage", Byte 13, No. 1, 225-238 (1988); T. Nelson, Literary Machines Edition 87, No. 1 (San Antonio, TX: Author publication Project Xanadu, 1987).

25. Nelson [24] "Managing Immense Storage," pp. 225-238.

26. P. Whitney and C. Kent, Design in theInformation Environment (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985).

27. Dede [19] pp. 95-102.

28. K. A. Frenkel, 'The Next Generation of Inter- active Technologies", Communications of the ACM 32, No. 7, 872-881 (July 1989); G. Landow, "The

Rhetoric of Hypermedia: Some Rules for Authors", Journal of Computing in Higher Education 1, No. 1, 39-64 (1989).

29. Nelson [24].

30. E. Corcoran, "Show and Tell: Hypermedia Turns Information into Multisensory Event", Scien- tificAmerican 261, No. 1, 72-73 (July 1989).

31. J. Derrida, De l'esprit: Heidegger et le Question (Paris: Galilee, 1987).

32. J. Derrida, Glas,J. P. Leavey and R. Rand, trans. (Lincoln, NB: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1986).

33. J. Derrida, Dissemination, B. Johnson, trans. (London: Athlone Press, 1981).

34. Nelson [24] "Managing Immense Storage"; and Nelson [24] Literary Machines Edition.

35. Nelson [24] "Managing Immense Storage"; see also E. Drexler, "Publishing Hypertexts Isn't Hy- pertext Publishing", Hypertext '87 Digest (Water- town, MA: Eastgate Systems, 1987) (computer disk).

158 Jones, Cultural Implications of Integrated Media



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