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Chapter 1
Introduction
An expressway is a controlled-access highway; it is a highway that controls
entrances to it and exits from it by incorporating the design of the slip roads for entry
and exit into the design of the highway itself. An expressway may be free to use and
may not collect toll at all. Expressways are the highest class of roads in the Indian
Road Network. These are six- or eight-lane highways with controlled-access. India
has approximately 942 km expressways.
National Highway system of India consists of approximately 10,000 km
(6,200 mi) of four-laned highways, but do not fulfill the criterion expressways
because they do not have control of access. Currently, a massive is underway to
expand the highway network and the Government of India plans to add an additional
18,637 km (11,580 mi) of expressways to the network by the year 2022 [Daily News
and Analysis]. These roads will be access-controlled roads and will feature between
four and six lanes with 3,530 km (2,190 mi) km to come up by 2015. The Ministry of
Road Transport and Highways is already in the process of preparing a draft for
creation of a National Expressways Authority of India (NEAI) (Dash, 2009). Like
people, most organizations are heavily dependent on roads to distribute their goods.
The development of a wide range of transportation system in all over the
world and safety of environment from its various activities is a global challenge. The
Issue of transport activities and the environment is paradoxical in nature since
transportation conveys substantial socioeconomic benefits, but at the same time
transportation is also contribute pollutants to the environmental systems. From one
1
side, transportation activities support increasing mobility demands for people while
on the other side transport activities grow levels of environmental externalities. This
has reached a point where transportation system is a dominant source of emission of
most pollutants poses detrimental impacts on the environment adversely affect health
hazards to all living organisms including human beings (Kumar, 2013).
The transport activities release several million tons of gases each year into the
atmosphere, mostly they are toxic to living organisms (Zhu et al., 2002). These
include chemicals, gases (CO, CO2, methane, NOx, SOx, CRCs, PFCs), carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, nitrous oxide, heavy metals etc.
The emission of some of these pollutants cause climate change. Some of these gases,
particularly nitrous oxide, also participate in depleting the stratospheric ozone (O3)
layer which naturally screens the earth’s surface from ultraviolet radiation.
Vehicles on express highway are the source of pollution in the form of gases
and particulate matters (SPM and RSPM) emissions affect air quality, causing damage
to human health. Toxic air pollutants cause several diseases such as cancer,
cardiovascular, respiratory and neurological diseases in human beings (Kumar, 2013.
Carbon monoxide (CO) when inhale affects bloodstream, reduces the availability of
oxygen and can be extremely harmful to public health (Seaton et al., 1995). An
emission of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from transportation sources reduces lung function
and increases the risk of respiratory problems. The emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2)
and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the atmosphere form various acidic compounds that
when mixed in cloud water creates acid rain. Acid precipitation has detrimental
effects on the soil conditions, reduces agricultural crop yields and causes forest loss
(Pandey et al., 2008a).
2
Noise represents the general effect of irregular and chaotic sounds, that may
affect the quality of life by its unpleasant and disturbing character. Long term
exposure to noise levels above 75dB seriously hampers hearing and affects human
physical and psychological wellbeing.
Transport activities have an impact on hydrological conditions. Fuel, chemical
and other hazardous particulates (Ukpong and Moses, 2001) discarded from various
transport activities emitted heavy metals in the air, they settled down on the earth
surface, and ultimately reach to the surface water bodies (Kisku et al., 2000;
Epriewska and Bueior, 2001) and degrade their qualities (Pandey and Nautiyal, 2008).
Can contaminate rivers, lakes, wetlands and other surface water bodies
The environmental impact of transportation on soil consists of soil erosion and
soil contamination (Kumar and Pandey, 2010). Coastal transport facilities have
significant impacts on soil erosion. The removal of earth’s surface for highway
construction has led to important loss of fertile and productive soils (Sukreeyapongse
et al., 2002).
Transportation also influences natural vegetation (Pilon-Smits, 2005). The
need for construction materials and the development of land-based transportation.
Many transport routes have required draining land, thus reducing wetland areas and
driving-out water plant species.
Major transport facilities can affect the quality of urban life (Quishlaqi et al.,
2007) by creating physical barriers, increasing noise levels, generating odors,
reducing urban aesthetic and affecting the built heritage (Hadjiliadis, 1997).
3
The metals are classified as “heavy metals” if, in their standard state, they
have a specific gravity of more than 5 g/cm3. There are sixty known heavy metals.
Heavy metals can accumulate over time in soils and plants and could have a negative
influence on physiological activities of plants (e.g. photosynthesis, gaseous exchange,
and nutrient absorption), causing reductions in plant growth, dry matter accumulation
and yield (Devkota and Schmidt, 2000).
Heavy metals in the atmosphere, soil and water, some are even in traces (Cd,
Cr, Hg, As etc.) can cause serious problems to all living organisms, and their
bioaccumulation in the food chain especially can be highly dangerous to human health
(Afyoni et al., 1998; Pilon-Smits, 2005). The entry of pollutants in the environment
and their adverse effects on living beings become uncontrolled due to extensive
vegetation loss (Pandey, 2014).
Chromium is toxic to plants and does not play any role in plant metabolism
(Pandey et al., 2005). Accumulation of Cr by plants can reduce growth, induce
chlorosis in young leaves, reduce pigment content, alter enzymatic function, damage
root cells and cause ultrastructural modifications of the chloroplast and cell membrane
(Paivoke, 2002; Morales et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2007). During seed germination,
hydrolysis of proteins and starch takes place, providing amino acids and sugars (Zied,
2001).
Chromium when enter in plant parts can alter chloroplast and membrane
ultrastructure in plants (Vajpayee et al., 2001; Pandey and Gautam, 2009a,b).
Chromium can induce degradation of carotenoids in plants Choo et al., 2006). The
increase in carotenoids content may act as an antioxidant to scavenge ROS generated
as a result of Cr toxicity (Panda and Choudhury, 2004). In aquatic environments,
4
chromium will be present predominantly in a soluble form (Rout et al., 2000).
Chromium have been shown to accumulate in many aquatic species, especially in
bottom-feeding fish, such as the brown bullhead (Ictalujrus nebulosus); and in
bivalves, such as the oyster (Crassostrea virginica), the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis)
and the soft shell clam (Mya arenaria) (Scoccianti 2006; Seng and Bielefeldt, 2002).
Chromium compounds are corrosive, and allergic skin reactions readily occur
following exposure, independent of dose. Short-term exposure to high levels results in
ulceration of exposed skin and irritation of the gastrointestinal tract (Horvath et al.,
2008; Armienta et al., 2001). Chromium often accumulates in aquatic life, adding to
the danger of eating fish that may have been exposed to high levels of chromium
(Cifuentes et al., 1996; Epniewska and Bucior, 2001). Long-term occupational
exposure to airborne levels of chromium higher than the natural environment leads to
lung cancer (Akinola et al., 2008; Kumar and Pandey, 2010).
Soil and water contamination with Ni has become a worldwide problem (Guo
and Marschner, 1995). Ni is essential for plants (Brown et al., 1987; Salt et al., 1995),
but the concentration in the majority of plant species is very low (0.05-10 mg kg-1
dw.). Further, with increasing Ni pollution, excess Ni rather than a deficiency, is more
commonly found in plants (Ragsdale, 1998). Toxic effects of high concentrations of
Ni includes inhibition of mitotic activities (Madhavrao and Shresty, 2000), reductions
in plant growth (Molas, 2002) and adverse effects on fruit yield and quality
(Gajewska et al., 2006) have been observed.
Nickel is a dietary requirement for many organisms (Parida et al., 2003), but
may be toxic at higher concentrations (Pandey et al., 2009b). Metallic nickel and
some other nickel compounds are carcinogenic to mammals. The long-term exposure
5
of Ni can cause decreased body weight, heart and liver damage, and skin irritation
(Kao et al., 2008).
Nickel can accumulate in aquatic life, may adversely affect the aquatic eco-
system. Inhalation of nickel can result in chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma
and lung cancer. By ingestion, nickel has been associated with reduced body weight
and reproductive and foetotoxic effects (Mulrooney and Hausinger, 2003).
The average abundance of copper in the earth crust in 68 ppm, in soils, it is 9-
33 ppm, in streams it is 4-12 g/L; and in ground water it is <0.1 mg/l (APHA, 2005).
Copper is considered as essential trace element for plants and animals. At high
concentration, Cu can become extremely toxic causing symptoms such as chlorosis
and necrosis, stunting of plant growth, leaf discoloration and inhibition of root growth
have been reported by several workers (Chen and Kao, 1999; Marschner, 1995).
Copper is an essential substance to human life, but in high doses it can cause anemia,
liver and kidney damage, and stomach and intestinal irritation. People with Wilson’s
disease are at greater risk for health effects from overexposure to copper (Fritloff and
Greger, 2006).
Zinc occurs naturally in air, water and soil, but zinc concentrations are rising
unnaturally, due to addition of Zn through various human activities (Naaz and
Pandey, 2009), such as mining, waste combustion and effluent discharge (Pandey,
2006a, b; Pandey and Nautiyal, 2008). Some soils are heavily contaminated with zinc,
and these are to be found in areas where zinc has to be mined or refined, or were
sewage sludge from industrial areas has been used as fertilizer and vehicular exhaust
Bunzl et al., 2001).
6
Zinc is an essential element for both plants and animals (Carroll and
Lonearagan, 1968). It plays an important role in several plant metabolic processes; it
activates several enzymes and is involved in protein synthesis and carbohydrate,
nucleic acid and lipid metabolism (Cakmak and Marshner, 1993). However, like other
heavy metals (Doncheva et al., 2001) when Zn is accumulated in excess in plant
tissues, it causes alterations in vital growth processes such as photosynthesis and
chlorophyll biosynthesis and membrane integrity (Doncheva et al., 2001). An excess
of Zn have a negative effect on mineral nutrition (Baccouch et al., 1998a,b). Toxic
levels of Zn for different varieties of crop have very wide limits in growth medium
from 64 g L-1 Zn for sorghum to 2000 g L-1 Zn for cotton (Otte et al., 1995). Excess
of Zn decrease growth and development, metabolic activity and induce oxidative
damage in various plant species (Sekara et al., 2005).
The chlorophyll content of green vegetables typically exceeds the levels of
other bioactive pigments (Nagajyothi et al., 2009) such as carotenoids. Degradation of
pigments has widely been used as an indicator of pollution. Chlorophyll, the green
pigment is one of the main complex which influences photosynthesis. Decreases in
chlorophyll content under stress (pollution or temperature stress) may be attributed to
either its degradation or to reduced biosynthesis (Schutzendubel and Polle, 2002).
Carotenoids belong to a large group of compounds called terpenoids. These
compounds produce red orange, yellow and brown color in plants. They are further
divided on the basis of presence and absence of oxygen into carotenes, which have
formula C40H56, contain only C and H and xanthophylls contain oxygen along with C
and H; common xanthophyll of leaves is lutein (C40H56O2). Over 600 carotenoids
occurring in plants, fungi, bacteria and animal, including humans, are present
7
(Kenneth et al., 2000). Carotenoids content involve in photo protective functions in
photosynthesis (Kenneth et al., 2000).
Carotenoid pigments also have ecological significance. Marking flowers and
fruits colored, they play an important role in ecosystems, attracting pollen-dispersing
insects and fruit-eating animals. In humans, carotenoids normally occur in several
types of tissues, e.g., muscles, liver, eye, blood and adipose tissue (Singh and Pandey,
2011).
Proteins are made up of several nitrogen containing organic molecules called
amino acids. The amino acid is the basic unit of protein. Protein dissociates to form
amino acids and the energy produced is utilized for routine metabolic activities
(Chandra et al., 2004). Proteins are the most important constituent of plant cells both
from structural as well as functional point of view. Functionally, give rise to enzymes,
which are responsible for regulating the cellular process (Rodriguez et al., 2007).
Pollutants when enter into living organisms, degrade the structural and functional
quality of the protein.
During construction work of highway encroaches upon precious ecological
resources. The most affected ecological resources are green vegetation and sunamps,
this also disturbs the natural habitats of a lot of animals living in the catchment areas.
The activities during the construction work of highways and post construction
work some wild life away from their natural habitats, including migratory birds. Due
to the road construction work, the destruction of vegetation occurs on the acquired
land. On expresshighways, during operation, the traffic noise, traffic light at night and
vehicle emissions may cause some adverse impacts on the wild life, growth and
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flowering of plants around the road. The pollution by various chemical, heavy metals
and dust particles pollutant, the possibility of loss of biodiversity around the road is
highly possible. During the construction and operation of expresshighways a huge
amount of carbondioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen gases are
released into the atmosphere. Therefore, gases, particularly sulphur dioxide, may pose
a threat to ancient monuments which are made up of lime.
Therefore, a high risk of ecological disturbances such as degradation of soil,
water, plants, wild life etc., is possible during the construction and operational works
of expresshighway. The best practice is to undertake the environmental impact
assessment (EIA) before road is designed.
The study areas are located in Unnao district (of Uttar Pradesh state, India)
near expresshighway (NH 25) crossing the proposed Ganga expressway. The total
length of proposed Ganga expressway is 1047 km link Noida to Ballia district of Uttar
Pradesh.
Therefore, ecological studies at proposed Ganga expressway area to
environmental impact assessment (EIA) is necessary to protection of living organisms
and planning to manage transport activities eco-friendly.
9
Aims and objectives
The impact of transport activities to environmental degradation is a world
wide problem. From one side, transportation conway substantial socio-economic
benefits to the country and support increasing mobility demands for people, while on
the other side, transport activities are a major source of pollution, and degrade natural
resources (soil, water and plants). In India, about 3402 km expresshighway including
about 1047 km of Ganga expresshighway have been proposed to be completed in near
future. To reduce the negative consequences of transport activities on the
environment, an eco-friendly policy should be made after a environmental assessment
programme. Least research work is available on this aspect. Therefore, study was
undertaken to explore the situation and possible way out of the problem in following
objectives:-
Ecological studies of soil and water near the Ganga Expressway.
To find out the effect of environmental changes due to construction of Ganga
expressway on the wild species growing in the study area.
To find out the impact of the water and soil on the agricultural fields.
10
Chapter 2
Review of Literature
The transportation support the mobility demand of increasing population of
human beings and pressure of vehicles. On other side, a huge net work of
transportation system throughout the world is a dominant source of emission of most
pollutants cause biosphere pollution. During the last few decades due to
industrialization, civilization, vegetation loss due to road construction and other
anthropogenic activities resulted ecological disturbances (Singh et al., 2008), health
hazards of living organisms (Kumar and Pandey, 2010) and disruptions of natural
ecosystems (He et al., 2005; Abida et al., 2009). Due to high degree of vehicular
discharge the heavy metals are at higher concentrations, they enter the food chain
(Barman et al., 2000)through uptake and accumulation in plants (Jinfang et al., 2008)
posing a potential threat to human health. These metals can be transferred and
concentrated into plant tissues from the soil (Karbassi et al., 2006) and brought
significant reductions in plant growth (Naaz, 2012) et al., 2007).
The various pollutants emitted from transportation enters in our delicate food
web, the heavy metals are most injurious. Therefore, the elevated levels of various
pollutants and altered concentration of heavy metals in soil and water (Singh and
Pandey, 2011) is a matter of great concern to scientific workers (Moreno et al., 1994)
to save the living beings from their effects. An assessment of the environmental risk
due to soil pollution near highways with high vehicular load is of particular
importance for agriculture and non-agricultural areas, because heavy metals, which
are potentially harmful to human health (Kumar and Pandey, 2010), persist in soils for
11
a very long time (Pandey, 2006a,b) and they may enter the food chain in elevated
amounts (Kabata et al., 1999; Grzebisz et al., 2001).
2.1 Indian Expressways
An expressway is a controlled-access highway: it is a highway that controls
entrances to it and exits from it by incorporating the design of the slip roads for entry
and exit into the design of the highway itself are six or eight-lane highways with
controlled-access. Expressways and the highest class of roads in the Indian road
network. India has approximately 942 km expressways. National highway system of
India consists of approximately 10,000 km of four-lane highways that collect toll
from users but do not have control of access and cannot be called expressways.
Currently, a massive project is underway to expand the highway network and the
Government of India plans to add an additional 18,637 km (11,580 mi) of
expressways to the network by the year 2011. These roads will be access-controlled
roads and will feature between four and six lanes with 3,530 km (2,190 mi) km to
come up by 2015. The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways is already in the
process of preparing a draft for creation of a National Expressways Authority of India
(NEAI) on the lines of NHAI.
List of table 1 includes roads without access-control. Such a road cannot be
called "expressway" though the name of the road may include the word "expressway"
and may be a misnomer. Such a road should be excluded from this list. Eastern and
Western Expresshighways in Mumbai are two examples of such roads.
Ambala-Chandigarh NH is another such example as it does not have access control
for entry and exit at predetermined points. As stated above, access-control is different
from collection of toll.
12
Table 2.1: List of Expressways in India.
Sl. Expressway Name Distance State
*1. Ahmedabad Vadodara Expressway 95 km (59 mi) Gujarat
*2. Mumbai-Pune Expressway 93 km (58 mi) Maharashtra
*3. Jaipur-Kishanarh Expressway 90 km (56 ini) Rajasthan
*4. Allahabad Bypass 86 km (53 mi) Uttar Pradesh
*5. Durgapur Expressway 65 km (40 mi) West Bengal
6. Ambala-Chandigarh Expressway 35 km (22 mi) Haryana/Punjab
7. Chennai Bypass 32 km (20 mi) I Tamil Nadu
8. Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway 28 krn (17 mi) Delhi/Haryana
9. Noida-Greater Noida Expressway 24.53 km (15.24 mi) Delhi/Uttar Pradesh
10. Delhi Noida Direct Flyway 9.2 kin (5.7 mi) Delhi/Uttar Pradesh
11. Hyderabad Elevated Expressway 11.6 km (7.2 mi) Andhra Pradesh
12. Hosur Road Elevated Expressway (Bangalore)
9.985 km (6.204 mi) Karnataka
13. Kona Expressway 8 km (4.97 mi) West Bengal
14. Outer Ring Road (Hyderabad) 158 km (98 mi) Andhra Pradesh
15. Raipur-Bhilai-Durg Expressway 26 km (16 mi) Chhattisgarh
*16. Yamuna Expressway 165 kni (103) mi) Uttar Pradesh
17. Bangalore Mysore. Infrastructure Corridor
111 km (69 mi) Karnataka
18. Lucknow Amar Shaheed Path, Elevated access controlled stretch
49 km (30 mi) Uttar Pradesh
19. Mumbai Nashik Expressway 150 km (93 mi) Maharashtra
20. City of Kanpur’s Elevated Bypass 25 km (16 mi) Uttar Pradesh
21. Bangalore-Outer Ring Road 62 km (39 mi) Karnataka
22. Bangalore-Nelamangala Elevated expressway on Tumkm Road
19.5 km (12.1 mi) Karnataka
23. Eastern Freeway 22 km (14 mi) Maharashtra
Total 1,208.19 km (750.73 mi)
*- Controlled-access expresshighway (4-6 lanes)
13
Table 2.2: Proposed National Express Highways under construction.
Sl. Expressway Name Distance State
1. Western Freeway Mumbai 25-33 km (15.7mi) Maharashtra
2. Eastern Freeway Mumbai 22 km (14 mi) Maharashtra
3. Sion Panvel Expressway 25 km (16 mi) Maharashtra
4. Nagpur-Aurangabad-Mumbai Expressway
700 km (430 mi) Maharashtra
5. Kundli Manesar Palwal Expressway (KMP)
135 km (8.3 mi) Haryana
6. Delhi Eastern Peripheral Expressway
135 km (84 mi) Uttar Pradesh / Haryana
7. Pathankot Ajmer Expressway 600 km (370 mi) Punjab/ Rajasthan
8. Ganga Expressway 1,047 km (651 mi) Uttar Pradesh
9. Bamroli Althan Expressway 12 km (7.5 mi) Gujarat
10. Upper Ganga Canal Expressway
150 km (93 mi) Uttar Pradesh
11. Chennai Port Maduravoyal Expressway
19 km (12 mi) Tamil Nadu
12. Hyderabad ORR 158 km (98 mi) Andhra Pradesh
13. Raipur-Bilaspur Expressway 126 km (78 mi) Chhattisgarh
14. Ganga Expressway 21.5 km (13.4 mi) Uttar Pradesh
15. Jaipur-Delhi Expressway 235 km (16 mi) Rajasthan/Haryana/Delhi
16. Pune-Solapur Expressway 110 km (68 mi) Maharashtra
Total length of Expressways 3,401 km (2,113.86 mi)
14
2.2 Impacts of Transportation on the Environment
The issue of transport activities and the environment is paradoxical in nature
since transportation conveys substantial socioeconomic benefits, but at the same time
transportation is also contribute pollutants to the environmental systems. From one
side, transportation support increasing mobility demands for people while on the other
side transport activities grow levels of environmental externalities. This has reached a
point where transportation system is a dominant source of emission of most pollutants
poses detrimental impacts on the environment including living organisms. These
impacts are-
(i) Direct (The immediate consequence of transport activities on the
environment where the cause and effect relationship is generally clear and well
understood), (ii) Indirect (The secondary) (or tertiary) effects of transport activities on
environmental systems. They are often of higher consequence than direct impacts, but
the involved relationships are often misunderstood and difficult to establish) and (iii)
Cumulative impacts (The additive, multiplicative or synergetic consequences of
transport activities. They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect
impacts on an ecosystem, which are often unpredicted).
First, transport activities contribute among other anthropogenic and natural
causes, directly, indirectly and cumulatively to environmental problems. In some
cases, they may be a dominant factor, while in others their role is marginal and
difficult to establish.
Transport activities contribute at different geographical scales to
environmental problems, ranging from local (noise pollution and CO emissions) to
15
global (climate change), not forgetting continental / national / regional problems
(smog and acid rain effects).
2.3 Pollutants into the environment from transport activities:
Climate change
The transport activities release several million tons of gases each year into the
atmosphere (Muzyka et al., 1998) mostly which are toxic to living organisms (Zhu et
al., 2002). These include lead, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen
oxides, nitrous oxide chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), silicon
tetraflouride (SF6), benzene and volatile components, heavy metals (zinc, chrome,
copper, lead, iron and cadmium) and particulate matters (ash, dust). The emission of
some of these metals cause climate change and the role of anthropogenic factors.
Some of these gases, particularly nitrous oxide, also participate in depleting the
stratospheric ozone (O3) layer which naturally screens the earth’s surface from
ultraviolet radiation.
Air quality
Vehicles on express highway are the source of pollution in the form of gases
and particulate matters (SPM and RSPM) emissions affects air quality, causing
damage to human health (Kumar, 2012). Toxic air pollutants cause several diseases
such as with cancer, cardiovascular, respiratory and neurological diseases in human
beings. Carbon monoxide (CO) when inhale affects bloodstream, reduces the
availability of oxygen and can be extremely harmful to public health. An emission of
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from transportation sources reduces lung function and
increases the risk of respiratory problems (Sagai et al., 1996). The emissions of
16
sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the atmosphere form various
acidic compounds that when mixed in cloud water creates acid rain. Acid
precipitation has detrimental effects on the soil conditions, reduces agricultural crop
yields and causes forest loss (Pandey et al., 2008). The reduction of natural visibility
by smog has a number of adverse impacts on the life of living organisms. Particulate
emissions in the form of dust emanating from vehicle exhaust as well as from non-
exhaust sources such as vehicle and road abrasion have an impact on air quality. The
physical and chemical properties of particulates are associated with health risks
(Kumar, 2013) such as respiratory problems, skin irritations, eyes inflammations,
blood clotting and various types of allergies (Kumar, 2013).
Noise represents the general effect of irregular and chaotic sounds, that may
affect the quality of life by its unpleasant and disturbing character. Long term
exposure to noise levels above 75dB seriously hampers hearing and affects human
physical and psychological wellbeing. Transport noise emanating from the movement
of transport vehicles and the operations of ports, airports and rail yards affects human
health (Muzyka et al., 1998), through an increase in the risk of cardiovascular
diseases. Increasing noise levels have a negative impact on the urban environment
reflected in falling land values and loss of productive land uses.
Water quality
Transport activities have an impact on hydrological conditions. Fuel, chemical
and other hazardous particulates (Ukpong and Moses, 2001) discarded from various
transport activities emitted heavy metals in the air, they settled down on the earth
surface, and ultimately reach to the surface water bodies (Kisku et al., 2000;
Epriewska and Bucior, 2001) and degrade their qualities (Pandey and Nautiyal, 2008).
17
Can contaminate rivers, lakes, wetlands and other surface water bodies (Singh et al.,
2008). These contaminated surface water bodies near expresshighways, often crops at
nearby areas.
Soil quality
The environmental impact of transportation on soil consists of soil erosion and
soil contamination (Pandey, 2014). Coastal transport facilities have significant
impacts on soil erosion. The removal of earth’s surface for highway construction has
led to important loss of fertile and productive soils (Sukreeyapongse et al., 2002). Soil
contamination can occur through the use of toxic materials by the transport industry
(Sims and Sklin, 1991). Fuel and oil spills from motor vehicles are washed on road
sides and enter the soil. Heavy metals emited through human activities pollute soil
depending upon properties of the soil (Meenakshi and Pandey, 2009). Gautam and
Pandey (2008) reported effect of pollutants on loss of soil fertility. Hazardous
materials and heavy metals have been found in areas contiguous to roads (Sahu et al.
(2007).
Biodiversity
Transportation also influences natural vegetation (Pilon-Smits, 2005). The
need for construction materials and the development of land-based transportation
(Naaz, 2012). Many transport routes have required draining land, thus reducing
wetland areas and driving-out water plant species. The need to maintain road and rail
right-of-way or to stabilize slope along transport facilities has resulted in restricting
growth of certain plants or has produced changes in plants with the introduction of
new species different from those which originally grew in the areas (Hall, 2002).
18
Many animal species are becoming extinct as a result of changes in their natural
habitats and reduction of ranges (Appelo and Postma, 2005).
Land take
Transportation facilities have an impact on the urban landscape. The
development of transport infrastructure is significant features of the urban and
peri-urban built environment. Social and economic cohesion can be severed when
new transport facilities such as highway structures cut across an existing urban
community (Han et al., 2002). Arteries or transport terminals can define urban
borders and produce segregation. Major transport facilities can affect the quality of
urban life (Quishlaqi et al., 2007) by creating physical barriers, increasing noise
levels, generating odors, reducing urban aesthetic and affecting the built heritage
(Hadjiliadis, 1997).
2.4 Important pollution parameters of water
pH
All phases of water and waste water treatment and waste quality management
are pH dependent. The relative importance of these processes depends on their
composition and pH (Pandey, 2014). Cation exchange reactions and complexation to
organic matter are important in water, while specific adsorption and precipitation
become more important at near-neutral to alkaline pH values in soil (Rout and Shaw,
2001). Under acidic and reducing conditions, most heavy metal salts are most likely
to control its concentration in the soil solution (Aschman and Zasoski, 1987;
Hausinger, 1997).
19
Temperature
Temperature is an important indicator of water quality with regards to survival
of organisms. The water temperature depends on the climatic conditions and activities
in the water (Khan and Noor, 2002). Temperature affects the rate of all chemical
reactions in the water and biochemical process of living beings (Leonard et al., 2004;
Raffo et al., 2006).
Electrical conductivity
Conductivity varies both with number and types of ions in the solution, which
in turn is related to the concentration of ionized substances in the water. Most
dissolved inorganic substances in water are in the ionized form and hence contribute
to conductance. Conductivity is a capacity of water to carry an electrical current and
varies both with the number and type of ions and solution contains. Electrical
conductivity is a function of total dissolved solids (TDS) known as ionic
concentration, which determines the quality and suitability of water use for different
purposes (Hem, 1989).
Total solid
Different forms of solids are defined on the basis of method applied for their
determination. The term ‘solid’ refers to the matter either filterable or non-filtrable
than remains as residue upon evaporation and subsequent drying at a defined
temperature. Further categorization depends upon the temperature employed for
drying the ignition. Solids may affect water or effluent quality adversely in number of
ways (Pandey et al., 2011). Water with high dissolved solids may induce an
20
unfavourable physiological reaction in the transient consumer and generally are of
inferior palatability (APHA, 2005).
Residue left after the evaporation and subsequent drying in oven at specific
temperature 103-105oC of a known volume of sample are total solids. Total solids
include “total suspended solids” (TSS) and “total dissolved solids” (TDS) (APHA,
2005). Solids may affect water or effluent quality adversely in number of ways. High
total dissolved solids indicate higher level of cations and anions (Han et al., 2002).
High solids (suspended and dissolved) content in water cause salinity in water and
soil which adversely affect various biological activities of aquatic life and growth of
plants (Sharma et al., 2007).
Hardness
Water hardness is a traditional measure of the capacity of water to precipitate
soap. Hardness of water is a variable (Pandey and Nautiyal, 2008) and complex
mixture of cations and anions. It is caused by dissolved polyvalent metallic ions
(Nagajyothi et al., 2009). Hardness is determined by the EDTA method in alkaline
condition; EDTA and its sodium salts form a soluble chelated complex with certain
metal ions. Calcium and magnesium ions develop wine red colour with eriochrome
black T in aqueous solution. At this pH murexide (ammonium purpurate) indicator
forms a pink colour with Ca++ ions remain in solution. When EDTA is added Ca++ gets
complexed resulting in a change from pink to purple which indicates end point of the
reaction (APHA, 2005).
21
Chloride
The presence of chloride in natural waters can be attributed to dissolution of
salt deposits, run-off water from agricultural field and discharges of effluents from
chemical industries (Pandey, 2006). Each of these sources may result in local
contamination of both surface and ground water (Barman et al., 2000). The salty taste
produced by chloride depends on the chemical composition of the water (Chindah et
al., 2004). A concentration of 250 ml/L may be detectable in some waters containing
sodium ions. On the other hand, the typical salty taste may be absent in water
containing 1000 mg/L chloride when calcium and magnesium ions are predominant.
High chloride content may harm agricultural plants (Ahmed et al., 2006).
Heavy metals
Metals are defined as any element that has a silvery luster and is a good
conductor of heat and electricity (Doncheva et al., 2001; Du Laing et al., 2009). The
metals are classified as “heavy metals” if, in their standard state, they have a specific
gravity of more than 5 g/cm3. There are sixty known heavy metals. Heavy metals can
accumulate over time in soils and plants (Gautam and Pandey, 2008; Singh and
Pandey, 2011) and could have a negative influence on physiological activities of
plants (e.g. photosynthesis, gaseous exchange, and nutrient absorption), causing
reductions in plant growth, dry matter accumulation and yield (Devkota and Schmidt,
2000).
2.5 Environmental effects near expresshighways
22
High pollution of natural resources like soil and water (Singh and Pandey,
2011) and plant growth (Naaz and Pandey, 2009) affected due to the buildup of
soluble salts, sodium and heavy metals (Abida et al., 2009) near highways, have been
reported. As trace elements, some heavy metals (copper, iron, zinc etc.) are essential
to maintain the metabolism of the human body. However, at higher concentrations
they can lead to poisoning (MacFarlane et al., 2003). Heavy metal poisoning could
result, for instance, from drinking water contamination, high ambient air
concentrations near emission sources, or intake via the food chain (Kumar and
Pandey, 2010; Adeyeye, 2005). Heavy metals in the atmosphere, soil and water, even
in traces can cause serious problems to all living organisms (Kannaujiya and Pandey,
2013), and their bioaccumulation in the food chain especially can be highly dangerous
to human health (Afyoni et al., 1998; Pilon-Smits, 2005). The entry of pollutants in
the environment and their adverse effects on living beings become uncontrolled due to
extensive vegetation loss.
2.6 Effect of metals in plants
Heavy metals accumulate in living organisms, circulate in the trophic chain
and moreover their dangerous concentrations persist in ecosystems for a long time
(Tiller, 1989; Pandey and Sharma, 2002; Pandey and Pathak, 2006; Tlustoš et al.,
2006). For soil-plant system, heavy metal toxicity threshold is the highest permissible
content in the soil (total or bioavailable concentration) that does not pose any
phytotoxic effects or heavy metals in the edible parts of the crops does not exceed
food hygiene standards (Adema and Henzen, 1989). Plant roots participate primarily
in the heavy metal cation uptake (Lasat, 2002). The elevated concentration of heavy
metals cause disturbances in cell membrane functioning in the photosynthetic and
23
mitochondrial electron transport and in the inactivation of many enzymes active in the
basic cell metabolism regulation, which as the result leads to diminishing energy
balance and disturbances in cell mineral nutrition (Kosobrukhov et al., 2004). All
these changes in the plants leads to limited growth of roots (Gautam and Pandey,
2008), which are in direct contact with toxic substances in soil, limits adsorptive and
conductive functions of these organs and results in limited growth of the top parts
(Hara and Sonoda, 1979; Pandey et al., 2008, 2009).
The accumulation of heavy metals in vascular plants provokes significant
biochemical and physiological responses (Meenakshi and Pandey, 2009), modifying
several metabolic processes (Vangronsveld and Clijsters, 1994; Macfarlane et al.,
2003). Plants that grow in environments contaminated with traces of metals show
strategies of escape or tolerance to metal toxicity that have been selected during
evolution (Patra et al., 2004). Several plants species have developed tolerance to
metals (Hall, 2002). Interaction between heavy metals and plants are based upon
either heavy metals extraction of exclusion by plants (Keskinkan et al., 2004).
2.7 Occurrence of heavy metals in soil
In some natural soils developed from metal rich parent materials, as well as in
contaminated soils, upto 30 to 60% of heavy metals can occur in easily metals can
occur in easily unstable forms (Kosobrukhov et al., 2004). In soil, metals are found in
one or more of several “pools” of the soil, such as, metals are either dissolved in the
soil solution or occupying exchange sites in inorganic soil constituents; associated
with insoluble soil organic matter; present in the structure of secondary minerals;
and/or present in the structure of primary minerals (Sims and Sklin, 1991). Natural
and anthropogenically introduced concentrations of metals in near-surface soil can
24
vary significantly due to different physical and chemical processes operating within
soils across geographic regions (Sukreeyapongse et al., 2002). Migration of metals in
the soil is influenced by physical and chemical characteristics of each specific metal
(Gautam and Pandey, 2013) and by several environmental factors. The most
significant environmental factors appear to be (i) soil type, (ii) total organic content,
(iii) redox potential, and (iv) pH (Sukreeyapongse et al., 2002). Although, heavy
metals are generally considered to be relatively immobile in most soils, their mobility
in certain contaminated soils may exceed ordinary rates and pose a significant threat
to water quality (Ukpong and Moses, 2001). The elevated concentrations of heavy
metals in runoff contaminate surface water bodies (Mehta and Gaur, 1999). Metal
constituents of surface soil directly influence the movement of metals, especially in
sandy soils towards the ground water (Moreno et al., 1994). Heavy metals influence
ground and surface waters (Chandra et al., 2004; Boukhalfa, 2007), flora (Gautam and
Pandey, 2008; Sen and Mukherjee, 2009), animals and humans (De Vries et al.,
2007). The overall behaviour of heavy metals in soil is to be govern largely by their
sorption and desorption reactions with different soil constituents, especially clay
components (Appel and Ma, 2002). The chemical behaviour of heavy metals in soils
is controlled by a number of processes, including metal cation release from
contamination source materials (e.g., fertilizer, sludge), cation exchange and specific
adsorption onto surfaces of minerals and soil organic matter (Malkowski et al., 2002).
Oxidizing conditions generally increase the retention capacity of metals in soil
while reducing conditions will generally reduce the retention capacity of metals (Ryan
et al., 2008). Soil reduction has been shown to result in the coincident release of
metals associated with minerals that are susceptible to reductive dissolution
(Charlatchka and Cambier, 2000; Davranche and Bollinger, 2000). Toxic heavy
25
metals and micronutrients utilized as metal ions exist in the soil as species with
several types of mobility and take part in many interactions (Dowling and Doty,
2009). Depending on their solubility, heavy metals may eventually become associated
to suspended particulate matter or accumulate in the bottom sediments (Alva et al.,
2000; Pandey and Srivastava, 2002).
The soil reaction (pH) is one of the most important factors in the control of the
concentration of these metals in the soil solution (Sharma et al., 2005). Esakku et al.
(2005) proposed that under acidic conditions the phenomenon of adsorption is more
important in the control of metal bioavailability, while precipitation reactions and
complexation have greater influence under neutral and alkaline conditions.
As a general rule, the formation of complexes is favored at pH values next to
neutrality, because, under acidic conditions the legends are protonated, whereas under
alkaline conditions the metals can precipitate in the form of hydroxides (Peralta et al.,
2001). However, metals have different soil behaviours. Therefore, soil conditions play
very important role to metals availability, their absorption and effectiveness of the
toxicity through altering biochemical constituents.
26
Table 2.3: Range of tissue accumulation of heavy metals in some plants.
Heavy metals
Range of tissue accumulation
Responses Plants References
Nickel 2.7-11.0 Puckering in old leaves
Lettuce Beavington (1975)
7.8.29.3 Chlorosis in young leaves
Vegetables Sahu et al. (2007)
0.5-1.0 Normal growth Crops Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1991)
10-100 Toxicity symptoms Crops Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1991)
Chromium 0.02-14.0 Chlorosis in young leaves
Vegetables Peterson (1983)
2.47-6.83 Necrosis in older leaves
Panda and Patra (2004)
0.1-0.5 Normal growth Plants Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1991)
5-30 Toxicity symptoms in test plants
Mustard Kabata and Pendias (1991)
0.014-0.2 Smaller size Wheat grain Ouzounidou (1994)
Zinc 32.5-78.80 Puckering in old leaves
Spinach Barman et al. (2000)
20-100 Normal growth in plants
Crop plant Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1991)
100-400 Toxicity symptoms in test plants
Tomato Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1991)
Copper 52-103.3 Intervenal chlorosis Gourd Chandra et al. (2004)
2.8-21.8 Chlorosis in young leaves
Coriander Alva (2000)
9-93 Browning of leaf tips Vegetables Barman et al. (2000)
5-20 Normal growth in plants
Wheat Cobb et al. (2000)
20-30 Toxicity symptoms in test plants
Cabbage Fakayode and Onianwa (2002)
Bioaccumulation and bio-magnification are responsible for transforming
concentrations considered normal into toxic concentrations for different species of
27
biota and man (Ghoreishi and Haghighi, 2003; Gomes and Asaeda, 2009). Once the
heavy metal is mobilized in the environment, its total amount remains the same,
whatever its form, whether ion, complex or precipitate (Khan and Patra, 2007). The
assimilation of trace elements by plants varies greatly as a function of soil conditions
(Albasel and Cottenie, 1985). Toxic metallic ions penetrate cells using the same
absorption processes of essential micronutrient ions. The quantity absorbed by the
plant depends on the concentration and speciation of the metal in the soil solution,
together with its successive movement from the soil to the root surface and from the
root to the aerial part (Nath et al., 2009). The translocation of these metallic ions to
the aerial parts depends on the plant species, the metal involved and the
environmental conditions (Liao et al., 2000). Their effects depend on the oxidation
state of the metal, their concentration and the duration of exposition, and these are
more pronounced at high concentrations (Alonso et al., 2006).
Pollution with heavy metals depends on the properties of soil and on economic
activities (Meenakshi and Pandey, 2009). The content of heavy metals in plants
depends on their concentration and migration in soil. Their migration in calcareous
soil decreases as follows: Zn > Cd > Pb > Cu (Alumaa et al., 2002). Heavy metals at
elevated concentration are known to effect soil microbial population and their
associated activities, which may directly influence the soil fertility (Smith, 1996;
Hadjiliadis, 1997; Gautam and Pandey, 2008). Pollution due to heavy metals place
human health at risk (Markert et al., 2008) and it is responsible for several
environmental problems, including the decrease of microbial activity, soil fertility and
crop yields (Cobb et al., 2000; Nriagu and Pacyna, 1988).
28
2.8 Chromium
The particulate matter emitted due to transport activities may contribute metals
including Cr into the environment (Kumar and Pandey, 2010). Chromium (Cr) is the
seventh most abundant metal in the earth’s crust (Yu et al., 2004) and an important
environmental contaminant released into the atmosphere due to its huge industrial use
(Easton, 1992). Total amount of chromium release into the atmosphere from natural
sources in 43,000 tonnes / year, compared with an estimated anthropogenic load of
30,400 tonnes/year (Kotas and Stasicka, 2000). In nature, Cr exists in two different
stable oxidation states; trivalent (Cr3+) and hexavalent (Cr6+) chromium. Both Cr3+ and
Cr6+ differ in terms of mobility, bioavailability and toxicity. Cr6+ is found to be more
toxic than Cr3+ (Panda and Chaudhary, 2004). Both oxidized forms, however, have the
capacity to form complexes with other species (Barlett and James, 1979).
Chromium toxicity in plants
Chromium is toxic to plants and does not play any role in plant metabolism
(Pandey et al., 2005). Accumulation of elevated Cr concentration by plants can
reduce growth, induce chlorosis in young leaves, reduce pigment content, alter
enzymatic function, damage root cells and cause ultrastructural modifications of the
chloroplast and cell membrane (Paivoke, 2002; Morales et al., 2007; Zhang et al.,
2007). During seed germination, hydrolysis of proteins and starch takes place,
providing amino acids and sugars (Zied, 2001). Cr can affect roots of plants causing
wilting and plasmolysis in root cells (McGrath, 1982; Zayed et al., 1998a).
Chromium can also inhibit the Hill reaction, affecting both the dark and light
reaction (Zied, 2001). ROS that are common consequences of most biotic and abiotic
29
stresses are also formed as a result Cr toxicity (Panda et al., 2003). In many crop
plants like rice, wheat, and pea significant increase in ROS production with
concomitant increases in lipid peroxidation (Demirezen and Aksoy, 2004; Panda and
Patra, 2004) have been observed. High production of H2O2 and O2– radicals in plant
species exposed to Cr and the metal has been implicated in the generation of oxidative
stress (Kannan et al., 2005; Pandey et al., 2009b). Chromium can degrade proteins
(Dan et al., 2002). The amino acid cysteine in an important component of
phytochelatins (Vajpayee et al., 2001).
In aquatic environments, chromium present predominantly in a soluble form
(USEPA, 1998; Rout et al., 2000). Chromium have been shown to accumulate in
many aquatic species, especially in bottom-feeding fish, such as the brown bullhead
(Ictalujrus nebulosus); and in bivalves, such as the oyster (Crassostrea virginica), the
blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and the soft shell clam (Mya arenaria) (Scoccianti et al.,
2006; Seng and Bielefeldt, 2002).
In soil, chromium is highly unstable and mobile, since it is poorly adsorbed
onto soils under natural conditions (Pandey et al., 2008b; Sen and Mukherjee, 2009).
Effects of chromium on human health
Chromium compounds are corrosive, and allergic skin reactions readily occur
following exposure, independent of dose. Short-term exposure to high levels results in
ulceration of exposed skin and irritation of the gastrointestinal tract (Horvath et al.,
2008; Armienta et al., 2001). Chromium often accumulates in aquatic life, adding to
the danger of eating fish that may have been exposed to high levels of chromium
(Cifuentes et al., 1996; Epniewska and Bucior, 2001). Chromium is widely distributed
30
in soil, water and biological material and occurs in the range of 5 to 1000 ppm in soils
(Crawford, 1999; Devkota and Schmidt, 2000). Chromium is connected with the
glucose tolerance factor (Garg and Chandra, 1990) and is important in animal and
human nutrition for normal carbohydrate metabolism (Khan, 2007; Kimbrough,
1999). Long-term occupational exposure to airborne levels of chromium higher than
the natural environment leads to lung cancer (Akinola et al., 2008; Kumar and
Pandey, 2010).
Table 2.4: Chromium concentration in growth medium and its uptake in some plants.
Sl. No.
Cr concentration Uptake and accumulation
Crop/ plant References
1. 0, 30 mg kg-1 Cr(III) and Cr(VI)
2.8 Cr(III) and 3.14 Cr(VI) mg kg-1
Spinach Singh (2001)
4. 50, 100 and 200 AM Cr(VI)
Progressive increae with more Cr in roots than shoots
Nelumbo nucifera
Vajpayee et al. (2001)
5. 6, 12 and 24 mg L-1 Cr
Cr more in roots than shoots in A and more in shoots than roots in B
A. Dactylis glomerateB. Medicago sativa
Shanker (2005)
6. 1 mg L-1 for 10 days
Cr shoot: 44 mg kg-1 dw Smart weed Mapanda et al. (2005)
7. 0, 50 and 100 mg L-
1 Cr(III)Roots took up more than shoots and not detected in fruits
Tomato Morales et al. (2007)
8. 0-200 mg kg-1 Progressive increase with more Cr in roots than shoots
Sunflower, maize and Vicia faba
Mishra and Tripathi (2009)
9. 0, 5, 50, 150 and 300 6, 12, 24 Cr mL-1
70-90% accumulation in roots
Allium cepa Rai et al. (1995)
10. Tannery effluent 5%, 10% and 15%
High Cr removal from 10% and 15%
Swiss chard Olayinka Nwachukwu (2008)
11. 0 and 8 mg L-1 Cr 6700 mg kg-1 in roots Veronica beccabanga
Sinha et al. (2005)
12. 0, 100, 500 Cr(VI) and Cr(VI)
2.4 mg kg-1 shoot and 115.6 mg kg-1 in root sorghum A; 5.8 mg kg-1 shoot and 212 mg kg-1 in root in Sunflower
Sorghum and Sunflower
SinMishra et al. (2009)
31
2.9 Nickel
Transportation activities may also contribute Ni contamination in the
environment. Nickel (Ni) is a silvery-white, hard metal. Although it exists in several
oxidation states, the divalent ion seems to be the most important for both organic and
inorganic substances, but the trivalent form may be generated by redox reactions in
the cell (Easton, 1992; APHA, 2005). Water-insoluble nickel compounds may
dissolved in biological fluids. Particles of the same chemical entity (oxides and
sulfides) have different biological activity depending on crystalline structure and
surface properties (Eskew et al., 1984; Schutzendubel and Polle, 2002; Seregin and
Kozhevnikova, 2005).
Soil and water contamination with Ni has become a worldwide problem (Guo
and Marschner, 1995). Ni is essential for plants (Brown et al., 1987; Salt et al., 1995),
but the concentration in the majority of plant species is very low (0.05-10 mg kg-1 dw)
(Demirezen et al., 2007). TheNi pollution, excess Ni rather than a deficiency, is more
commonly found in plants (Ragsdale, 1998). Toxic effects of high concentrations of
Ni includes inhibition of mitotic activities (Madhavrao and Shresty, 2000), reductions
in plant growth and alter biochemical constituents such as chlorophylls and protein
(Molas, 2002) and adverse effects on fruit yield and quality (Gajewska et al., 2006).
Extremely high soil Ni concentrations have left some farmland unsuitable for growing
crops, fruits and vegetables (Duarte et al., 2007).
Nickel in plants
The high Ni concentrations may turn toxic to plants (Singh and Pandey, 2011;
Kao et al., 2008). There are approximately 70 species of plants that accumulate
32
extraordinarily high nickel concentrations. This may be upto 10,000 ppm (dry mass)
(Singh and Pandey, 2011). For regular plant seed 0.5-2 ppm nickel in liquid substrates
is considered toxic (Guo and Marschner, 1995). Liming of the soil may rapidly
decrease nickel uptake. Sludge containing more than 200 ppm nickel (dry mass) is not
be applicable to agricultural soils (Smejkalova et al., 2003).
Effects of nickel on human health
Nickel contamination due to transport activities may pose health hazards of
living organisms inhabiting nearby areas of road. Traces of nickel are needed by the
human body to produce red blood cells, however, in excessive amounts, can become
mildly toxic. Short term overexposure to nickel is not known to cause any health
problems, but long-term exposure can cause decreased body weight, heart and liver
damage, and skin irritation (Kao et al., 2008).
Nickel can accumulate in aquatic life, but its presence is not magnified along
food chains. The route by which nickel enters the body is very important in assessing
its impact on health. Inhalation of nickel can result in chronic bronchitis, emphysema,
and asthma and lung cancer. By ingestion, nickel has been associated with reduced
body weight and reproductive and foetotoxic effects (Mulrooney and Hausinger,
2003).
33
Table 2.5: Tissue accumulation of heavy metals by plants exposed to contaminated growth medium.
Heavy metal
Crop Tissue accumulation of heavy metal (mg kg-1) in harvestable plantMin. – Max.
References
Cu Wheat 3.8 – 6.2 Gerritse and Van Driel et al. (1984)
Maize 1.9 – 7.0Grass 6.4 – 21.5
Zn Wheat 33 – 94Maize 28 – 174Grass 0.1 – 4.3
Cu Maize, radish, Brassica napus
29.2 – 137.9 Groenenberg et al. (2003)
Wheat, coriander irrigated with industrial effluent in field (n=40)
20.2 – 13.7
Zn Spinach, brinjal 23.6-34.2 Midrarul Haq et al. (2005)
Cu Maize, radish, Brassica napus
14.7 – 18.6 Naaz (2012)
Cr Linseed 1 – 4.2 Meenakshi and Pandey (2009)
Ni Wheat, coriander irrigated with tubewell water (n=40)
10 – 16 Gautam and Pandey (2013)
2.10 Copper
Copper is the first element in Group 1B in periodic table, it has an atomic
number of 29, atomic weight of 63.54 and valences of 1 and 2. The average
abundance of copper in the earth crust in 68 ppm, in soils, it is 9-33 ppm, in streams it
is 4-12 g/L; and in ground water it is <0.1 mg/l (APHA, 2005). Copper is considered
as essential trace element for plants and animals.
The toxicity of Cu is mainly observe in acid sandy soils with low cation
exchange capacities (Xiong et al., 2006). Due to anthropogenic and geogenic factors
including transport activities, soils accumulate upto 3,200 mg kg-1 of copper in the top
layer, a quantity several times higher in vine-growing areas throughout the world
34
(Wallace and Cha, 1999). Copper is an essential micronutrient for plant growth. Most
soils contain adequate amounts of this nutrient for optimum crop yields (Yruela,
2005). Copper acts as a structural element in regulatory proteins and participates in
photosynthetic electron transport, mitochondrial respiration, oxidative stress
responses, cell wall metabolism and hormone signaling (Marschner, 1995). Cu ions
act as cofactors in many enzymes such as Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD),
cytochrome c oxidase, and amino oxidase. Thus, plants require Cu as an essential
micronutrient for normal growth and development; when this ion is not available
plants develop specific deficiency symptoms, most of which effect young leaves and
reproductive organs (Sharma, 2006).
Copper toxicity in plants
Copper at excess levels can inhibit root elongation, block and photosynthetic
electron transporter chain and degrade chlorophyll (Zyadah and Bakky, 2000). At
high concentration, Cu can become extremely toxic causing symptoms such as
chlorosis and necrosis, stunting of plant growth, leaf discoloration and inhibition of
root growth have been reported (Chen and Kao, 1999; Marschner, 1995). At the
cellular level, toxicity may result from: (i) binding to sulfhydryl groups in proteins,
thereby inhibiting enzyme activity or protein function; (ii) induction of a deficiency of
other essential ions; (iii) impaired cell transport processes; (iv) oxidative damage
(Chen and Kao, 1999). At concentrations above required for optimal growth, Cu
inhibit growth and interfere with important cellular processes such as photosynthesis
and respiration (Marschner, 1995). At excess copper levels in plants, lower content of
chlorophyll and alterations of chloroplast structure and thylakoids membrane
composition have also been reported (Lidon and Henriques, 1991). For most of the
35
crop species, the critical toxicity level of copper in the leaves is 20 to 30 mg g-1 dr. wt.
(Quartacci et al., 2000).
Copper in soil
The amount of Cu available to plants varies widely from soil to soil. Available
Cu can vary from 1 to 200 ppm (parts per million) in both mineral and organic soils as
a function of soil pH and soil texture. The finer-textured mineral soils generally
contain the highest amounts of Cu (Marschner, 1995). The lowest concentration of Cu
is associated with the organic or peat soils. Availability of Cu is related to soil pH
(Bunzl et al., 2001). As soil pH increase, the availability of this nutrient decreases
(Pandey, 2006a). Copper is not mobile in soils (Sharma, 2006). It is attracted to soil
organic matter and clay minerals (Weyens et al., 2009). The amount of available Cu is
measured by extracting the soil with a DTPA solution (Lindsay and Norwell, 1978).
Effects of copper on human health
Copper is an essential substance to human life, but in high doses it can cause
anemia, liver and kidney damage, and stomach and intestinal irritation. People with
Wilson’s disease are at greater risk for health effects from overexposure to copper
(Fritioff and Greger, 2006).
2.11 Zinc
Various anthropological activities contaminate the environment with high
concentration of Zn. Zinc is a lustrous bluish-white metal. It is found in group IIb of
the periodic table. It is brittle and crystalline at ordinary temperatures, but it becomes
ductile and malleable when heated between 110oC and 150oC. It is a fairly reactive
36
metal than will combine with oxygen and other non-metals, and react with dilute acids
to release hydrogen (APHA, 2005). Zinc is the 23rd most abundant element in the
Earth’s crust. The dominant ore is zinc blende, also known as sphalerite. World
production exceeds 7 million tonnes a year and commercially exploitable reserves
exceed 100 million tones. More than 30% of the world’s need for xinc is met by
recycling (Cezary and Singh, 2001).
Effects on plants
Zn is an essential macronutrient for plant growth but pose phytotoxic effects
when in excess in growth medium. Phytotoxicity of Zn cause decrease in crop yield
and quality and transfer into the food chain (Adriano, 2001). Zinc is an essential
element for both plants and animals (Carroll and Lonearagan, 1968). It plays an
important role in several plant metabolic processes; it activates several enzymes and is
involved in protein synthesis and carbohydrate, nucleic acid and lipid metabolism
(Cakmak and Marshner, 1993). However, like other heavy metals (Doncheva et al.,
2001) when Zn is accumulated in excess in plant tissues, it causes alterations in vital
growth processes such as photosynthesis and chlorophyll biosynthesis and membrane
integrity (Doncheva et al., 2001). An excess of Zn have a negative effect on mineral
nutrition (Baccouch et al., 1998a,b). Toxic levels of Zn for different varieties of crop
have very wide limits in growth medium from 64 g L-1 Zn for sorghum to 2000 g L-
1 Zn for cotton (Otte et al., 1995). To counteract this methabolic dysfunction caused
by Zn toxicity stress, higher plants employ defense strategies. To protect themselves
from heavy metal, plant cells must develop a mechanism by which the metal ion,
entering the cytosol of the cell, is immediately complexed and inactivated
37
(Vysloužilová et al., 2003). This protection process is mediated by phytochelatins
(Vogel-Mikus et al., 2005) and organic acids (Verma and Pandey, 2008).
Zinc in the environment
Zinc is a very common substance that occurs naturally. Many foodstuffs
contain certain concentrations of Zn. Drinking water also contains zinc, which may be
high when it is stored in metal tanks. Industrial sources or toxic waste sites may cause
the Zn amounts in drinking water to reach levels that can cause health problems
(Chapman, 1966; Deng et al., 2004). Zinc occurs naturally in air, water and soil, but
zinc concentrations are rising unnaturally, due to addition of Zn through human
activities (Naaz and Pandey, 2009), such as mining, waste combustion and effluent
discharge (Pandey, 2006a,b; Pandey and Nautiyal, 2008). Some soils are heavily
contaminated with zinc, and these are to be found in areas where zinc has to be mined
or refined, or were sewage sludge from industrial areas has been used as fertilizer
Bunzl et al., 2001).
Effect of zinc on human health
Zinc is a trace element that is essential for human health (Boon and
Soltampour, 1992). When people absorb too little zinc they can experience a loss of
appetite, decreased sense of taste and smell, slow wound healing and skin sores
(Catlett et al., 2002). Zinc-shortages can even cause birth defects. Although humans
can handle proportionally large concentrations of zinc, too much zinc can still cause
eminent health problems, such as stomach cramps, skin irritations, vomiting, nausea
and anaemia (Vousta et al., 1996). Very high levels of zinc can damage the pancreas
and disturb the protein metabolism, and cause arteriosclerosis. Extensive exposure of
38
zinc chloride can cause respiratory disorders (Vogel et al., 2005). Water is polluted
with zinc, due to the presence of large quantities of zinc in the effluent of industrial
plants (Pandey, 2004). One of the consequences is that rivers are depositing zinc-
polluted sludge on their banks. Plants often have a zinc uptake that their systems
cannot handle, due to the accumulation of zinc in soils and few plants could tolerate
that level (Verma and Pandey, 2008). Thus, plant diversity deteriorates near zinc-
disposing factories (Pandey and Nautiyal, 2008). Zinc can interrupt the activity in
soils; negatively influence the activity of microorganisms and earthworms
(Marschner, 2003).
2.12 Biochemical constituents
Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is the most ubiquitous of all natural pigments, reaching levels that
can exceed 1000 to 2000 ppm wet weight in some species, and is responsible for the
color of all green plants. considering the primary role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis
and its close association with yellow/ orange carotenoid pigments well known for
their bioactivity, these blue-green pigments have potential physiological impact
(Poskuta et al., 1996). Structurally, chlorophyll is a substituted tetrapyrole with a
centrally bound magnesium atom (Fig. 2.2). A chlorophyll molecule is a typical
porphyrin derivative possessing a cyclic tetrapyrolic structure in which one pyrole
ring is partially reduced. the tetrapyrolic nucleus contains a non ionic magnesium
atom held by two covalent and two coordinated bonds. In addition to four pyrole
rings, a fifth isocyclic ring is also present (Chandra et al., 2004). Both acid side chains
are esterified, one as methyl ester and other as phytol ester. The presence of a long
phytol tail along with the flat poryphyrin head gives the molecule an appearance
39
common to that of spatula. In chlorophyll b the methyl group at position three of
second pyrole ring of chlorophyll a is replaced by formyl group (Gajewska et al.,
2006).
The chlorophyll content of commonly consumed green vegetables typically
exceeds the levels of other bioactive pigments (Nagajyothi et al., 2009) such as
carotenoids, by upto a 5-fold margin (Table 1). This relatively high concentration
makes chlorophyll a significant contributor to the total dietary photochemical pool.
The sensitivity of natural chlorophylls to extremes in pH and temperature allows for
the formation of several distinct derivatives through processing of vegetable tissue
and human digestion (Porra et al., 1989). Degradation of pigments has widely been
used as an indicator of pollution. Chlorophyll, the green pigment is one of the main
complex which influences photosynthesis. Decreases in chlorophyll content under
stress (pollution or temperature stress) may be attributed to either its degradation or to
reduced biosynthesis (Schutzendubel and Polle, 2002).
Table 2.6: Representative chlorophyll and carotenoids content of common green vegetables.
Fruit/Vegetable tissue
Total chlorophyll content (mg g-1 fresh tissue)
Total carotenoid content (mg g-1 fresh tissue)
Green beans 52 8.6
Broccoli 79 42
Kale 1870 776
Peas 134 34
Spinach 1250 364
Nagajyothi et al. (2009), Poskuta et al. (1996), Singh et al. (2006).
40
Carotenoids
Like chlorophyll, carotenoids content occur in their natural state as protein
complexes. The ubiquitous presence of carotenoids in the photosynthetic tissue
suggests a fundamental role in the photosynthetic process (Kenneth et al., 2000).
Major role of carotenoids are protection against photodynamic destruction catalyzed
by chlorophyll absorption and transfer of light energy to chlorophyll a, act as
scavengers of free radicals and represent the antioxidative system of plants.
Carotenoids belong to a large group of compounds called terpenoids. These
compounds produce red orange, yellow and brown color in plants. They are further
divided on the basis of presence and absence of oxygen into carotenes, which have
formula C40H56, contain only C and H and xanthophylls contain oxygen along with C
and H; common xanthophyll of leaves is lutein (C40H56O2). Over 600 carotenoids
occurring in plants, fungi, bacteria and animal, including humans, are present
(Kenneth et al., 2000). Carotenoids content involve in photo protective functions in
photosynthesis (Kenneth et al., 2000). Under low light conditions, carotenoids may
act as energetic antennae, harvesting light at the wavelengths not absorbed by
chlorophylls and transferring electron excitation states towards photochemical
reaction centers. In this way, they widen the range of light used in photosynthesis
(Markert et al., 2008).
Carotenoid pigments also have ecological significance. Marking flowers and
fruits colored, they play an important role in ecosystems, attracting pollen-dispersing
insects and fruit-eating animals (Pandey et al., 2005). In humans, carotenoids
normally occur in several types of tissues, e.g., muscles, liver, eye, blood and adipose
tissue (Singh and Pandey, 2011). Currently, about 25 carotenoids and their
41
metabolites have been found in serum. Carotenoid content of plants varies from
species to species. Plants with high baseline value of carotenoids show that they are
better equipped with antioxidative system (Raffo et al., 2006).
Protein
Protein is the basic constituent of the cell. These are complex substances of
high molecular weight ranging up to several millions and contain nitrogen in addition
to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Sometimes elements like phosphorus, sulphur, iron,
zinc and iodine may also be present (Pandey et al., 2009a). However, elementary
composition of most proteins is very similar (approximate percentages are C=50-55,
H=6-8, O=20-23, N=15-18, and S=0-4). Proteins are made up of several nitrogen
containing organic molecules called amino acids i.e., proteins are polymerized forms
of organic molecules called amino acids. Thus amino acid is the basic unit of protein.
Protein dissociates to form amino acids and the energy produced is utilized for routine
metabolic activities (Chandra et al., 2004). Proteins are the most important constituent
of plant cells both from structural as well as functional point of view. Functionally,
give rise to enzymes, which are responsible for regulating the cellular process
(Rodriguez et al., 2007). Many proteins carry out enzymatic activities and are vital for
the rapid rate of biochemical reactions in the cell. Proteins are hydrogen ion buffers
and structural component of cell. Heavy metals contamination reduces protein content
in plants have been reported by several workers (Pandey et al., 2009; Sharma, 2006).
2.13 Some important parameters for Environmental Impact Assessment:
The transport activities contribute various pollutants such as gases (Kumar and
Pandey, 2010), heavy metals (Singh and Pandey, 2011; Pandey, 2008) and various
42
chemicals (Fakayode, 2005) in to the environment. The construction work of
highways develop uneven areas cause water erosion, which make soil unfertile. Due
to the loss of vegetation due construction of expresshighways affect local climate
change (Abida et al., 2009). Heavy metals and pollutants emitted from transportation
activities entered into food web and damage the ecosystem. The polluted environment
due to transportation activities may cause loss of biodiversity, change the conditions
of soil and water, affect the growth and metabolism of plants, ultimately affect the life
of human beings, directly or indirectly.
2.14 Study area
Study areas selected for the study were located near expresshighway (NH 25)
at proposed Ganga expresshighway area in Unnao district of Utter Pradesh state
(India). The expresshighway (NH 25) link Lucknow to Kanpur district (80 km
distance). At this expresshighway study sites were selected to Environmental Impact
Assessment to observe the ecological conditions after long operation of
expresshighway (NH 25) for prediction of future ecological conditions after
completion of proposed Ganga expressway.
43
Chapter 3
Materials and Methods
3.1 Cleaning of glasswares
All glasswares used for analysis including pipettes, conical flasks, burettes,
volumetric flaks were soaked overnight in diluted nitric acid (1:1) rinsed properly
with deionised water and oven dried prior to analysis.
Table 3.1: Locations of study area near Express highway (NH 25) in Unnao district.
Sites Locations Distance from highway
I Krishnapuram (500 m before Ganga river) 0 - 50 m
II Dal Narayanpur 4.5 – 5 km
III Sakalpur Nari 0 – 50 m
IV Banthar 5 – 5.5 km
3.2 Soil samples collection
Soil samples were collected from Unnao district (260 48’N latitude and 800
43’E longitude) from various study sites (I-IV) near expresshighway (NH 25) in
proposed Ganga expressway area. The composite soils of Unnao district were
collected following the method of Piper (1969) and used for physico-chemical studies.
From study areas, surface soil (0-25 cm) was collected in an area of 20 x 20 m having
level surface and soil of uniform texture. Before collection of the soil, it was ensured
that the selected area had received no manure/fertilizer and does not have any
industrial contamination. After scraping top 1 cm soil layer to remove surface
vegetation, the areas were dug upto 25 cm depth. The collected composite soil was
allowed to dry for a day. The soil was thoroughly mixed, filed in alkathene lined
gunny bags and transported to the laboratory.
44
3.2.1 Soil samples preparation
The bulk soil samples collected from the different study sites of Unnao district
were air dried on alkathene sheet in shade for 2-3 days. After air drying, the soil clods
were broken with clean wooden mallet and made free from the plant remains. The soil
was thoroughly pulverized and stored in alkathene lined jute gunny bag. Composite
soil were analysed for important physico-chemical properties (texture, bulk density,
pH, electrical conductance, organic matter and heavy some potentially toxic metals).
The methods of analysis are briefly summarized below.
3.3 Soil analysis
Soil texture
Weighing paper was placed on the pan of the balance and weighed. Data were
used to subtract the mass of the paper for all soil measurements arranged the soil
sieves so that the largest screen size is on the top (sieve 1), followed by decreasing
screen size to the bottom. Balance was set to 100 g plus the mass of weighing paper.
Weighed the mass of soil that has been broken up into loose particles. Soil sample
was placed into sieve 1 and after shaking weighed, separately. The relative percent of
sand, silt, and clay in the soil sample was determined as follows:
% Sand = Mass of sand / Total soil mass x 100
% Silt = Mass of silt / Total soil mass x 100
% Clay = Mass of clay / Total soil mass x 100
45
Bulk density
A preweighed 50 cc glass bottle was filled with dried soil and the bottle was
tapped 15 to 20 times. The weight of the soil was determined by subtracting the
weight of the empty bottle. The volume of the bottle in the sample was measured and
bulk density was calculated as flows:
W2-W1
Bulk density (g cc-1) = V
Where:
W2 = g weight of empty bottle (50cc)
W1 = g weight of bottle + soil
V = volume of water filling the bottle
pH
Pre-weighted oven dried soil sample (10 g) was taken in a clean and dry test
tube. A pinch of barium sulphate and 25 ml distilled water (free of CO2) was added
(soil : water 1:2.5). Then shaken vigorously for 5 minutes and then for 15 minutes.
The test tubes are left as such for 1 hour to allow the soil to settle down. A small
amount of clear supernatant was taken in watch glass. Its pH was tested with the pH
meter. The electrode of pH-meter was standardized with the pH 4.0, 7.0 and 9.2
buffer solutions.
Electrical conductivity
The electrical conductivity of water extract of soil from 1:2.5 soil : water
suspension was determined with the help of electrical conductivity meter in mS/cm.
46
Organic matter
The soil organic matter of the samples was analyzed by the Walkley Black
method (Piper, 1969). This method involved wet oxidation by a mixture of 1 N
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) solution and concentrated sulfuric acid. After 30
minutes, excess K2Cr2O7 was potentiometrically back-titrated with ferrous ammonium
sulfate (FAS) using diphenylamine as indicator. The reduced dichromate produced
during reaction with the soil is considered to be equivalent to the total organic carbon
content in the soil.
0.003 100Organic carbon (%) = {10-(10XS/B)}x x
0.77 W
Where:
S = ml FAS used for titration of sample
B = ml FAS used for titration of blank
Organic matter (%) 1.72 4x Organic carbon (%)
Calcium and Magnesium
Calcium
Calcium content was determined by vercenate method described by Piper
(1969). Saturated soil extract (Soil and water ratio 1:2.5) was taken (5 ml) in a conical
flask and made final volume 25 ml by adding distilled water. Added 5% NaOH (5
drops) into solution and shaken. Added 50 mg ammonium purpurate as an indicator.
Colour of the solution turned orange red. The solution titrated against versenate (0.01
M). At end point, solution turned purple colour.
47
Magnesium
Saturated soil extract (5 ml) was taken in a conical flask and diluted with
distilled water to make final volume 25 ml. Added 10 drops of buffer
(NH4Cl+NH4OH) and shaken. About 3-4 drops of Erichrome black-T indicator was
added into the solution. Titrated the solution against versenate (0.01M). At the end
point, solution turned greenish-blue colour.
Calcium content calculated as follows:
Versenate used (ml) X Strength of versenate X1000Ca (meq./100g soil) = -----------------------------------------------------------------
Volume of saturated soil extract (ml)
Versenate used (ml) X Strength of versenate X 1000Ca+Mg (meq./100g soil) = --------------------------------------------------------------
Volume of saturated soil extract taken (ml)
Mg (meq./100 g soil) = (Ca+Mg) – Ca
Available phosphorus
Available phosphorus content was determined by Olsen’s method (1954) as
described by Piper (1969). For extraction of soil 0.5N sodium bicarbonate (pH 8.5)
was used as extractant. 2.5g soil was taken in a conical flask with 50 ml 0.5N sodium
bicarbonate solution (pH 8.5). After shaking, the solution was filtered with Whatman
filter paper No. 1 and collected the filtrate in test tube. Taken 10 ml of filtrate
(equivalent to 500 mg soil). For blank, in another test tube 10 ml 0.5 N sodium
bicarbonate was taken. In test tubes, added 2-3 drops of para-nitrophenol and shaken
the solution. The solution turned yellow. Then, added 5N sulphuric acid drop by drop
till the disappearance of yellow colour and counted the number of drops of sulphuric
48
acid for the disappearance of yellow colour. Add the same no. of sulphuric acid in to
the test tube having soil sample and shaken. Added 4 ml Murphy Reileye’ reagent and
shaken. Final volume was made 25 ml with the help of distilled water. Measured the
O.D. of the solution by colorimeter using red filter (660 nm). Compared the O.D. of
samples with standard calibration graph of phosphorus.
Calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate in soil samples determined by methods as described by
Piper (1969). Oven dried 5g soil was taken in 100 ml 0.5 N HCl and after shaking
extract was obtained. In a conical flask, taken 20 ml of aliquot, added 1 ml
bromothymol blue and titrated the solution with 0.5 N NaOH. At end point, blue
colour appeared. Calcium carbonate content calculated as follows:
CaCO3 (%) = (Blank titration - Actual titration) X 2.5
Heavy metal analysis (soil)
Lindsay Norwell (1978) method was used for determining trace elements in soil.
DTPA (dithylenetriaminepentaacetic acid) extracting solution: The DTPA
extraction solution was prepared to contain 0.005 M, DTPA, 0.01 M CaCl2, 0.1 M
TEA (triethanolamine), and was adjusted to pH 7.30. For preparing 4 liters of this
solution 59.68 g of reagent grade TEA, 7.868 of DTPA
(diethylenetriamenepentaacetic acid), and 5.88 g of CaCl2.2H2O were dissolved in
approximately 200 ml of deionised water. Allowed sufficient time for the DTPA to
dissolve, and diluted to approximately 3.5 liters. Adjusted the pH to 7.30±0.05 with 1
N HCl, diluted to 4 liters and mixed well. This solution was stable for several months.
49
Procedure
Air dried soil (20 g) was weighed and ground to pass a 2 mm sieve (nylon)
into a 125 ml Erlenmeyer flask. Added 40 ml of DTPA extracting solution. Covered
each flask with stretchable parafilm and secured uprights on a reciprocating shaker.
Shaken at a speed of about 176 cycles/ minute for 2 hours. Filtered by gravity through
Whatman filter paper No. 42. Analysed the filtrates for Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr and Cd by
atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer Aanalyst 700).
Carbonate and Bicarbonate ions
Taken 10 ml of saturated soil extract (Soil and Water 1:2:5 ratio) in conical
flask. Added 5 drops of phenolphthalein indicator and shaken (appearance of pink
colour indicated presence of carbonate). Solution was titrated with 0.1N sulphuric
acid till the solution becomes colourless, note the burette reading (A) Add 5 drops of
methyl red indicator in the above conical flask for determination of bicarbonate and
shaken. The solution was titrated with 0.1N sulphuric acid till the colour changed
from yellow to rose red. Recorded the burette reading (B).
2A X Normality of H2SO4
CO3- (meq/l) = X 1000
Volume of water sample taken (ml)
B-2A X Normality of H2SO4
HCO3- (meq/l) = X 1000
Volume of water sample taken (ml)
Where:
A = The burette reading for carbonate using phenolphthaline indicator.
B = The burette reading for bicarbonate using methyl red indicator.
50
3.4 Analysis of water samples
The surface and ground water samples were collected from four study sites
and analysed followed the standard methods (APHA, 2005). The characterization of
water was accomplished by laboratory testing of pH, conductivity, hardness, chloride,
solids carbonate, bicarbonate, calcium and magnesium and some potentially toxic
heavy metals (Cu, Cr, Ni, Fe, Cd and Zn).
pH
pH was measured by immersing the electrode of pH meter (Systronics) in the
sample after calibrating the instrument with standard with pH solutions of 4.0, 7.0 and
9.2, respectively.
Conductivity
Conductivity was measured by immersing the electrode of electrical
conductivity meter (systronics) in the sample and the result expressed as µS/cm.
Total solids
Known volume of water sample in a beaker ignited to constant weight (W1).
Evaporated the sample to dryness at 103-1050C for 24 hours for total solid estimation.
Beaker was cooled in desiccators and weighed (W2).
The total solids are expressed as:
W2-W1
Total solids (mg l-1) = x 1000 Sample (ml)
51
Where:
W1= initial weight of beaker
W2= final weight of beaker
Known volume of water sample in a beaker ignited to constant weight (W1).
Ignited the beaker for 15-20 minutes in oven maintained at 180±50C with filtered
known amount of sample for estimation of total dissolved solids. Beaker was cooler in
desiccators, in a dry atmosphere and final weight (W3) was estimated.
W3-W2
Total dissolved solids (mg l-1) = x 1000 Sample (ml)
Where: W1 = initial weight of beaker
W3 = final weight of beaker
Chloride
Procedure
Well mixed sample (50 ml) adjusted to pH 7-8 was taken and added 1.0 ml
K2CrO4. Titrated with standard AgNO3 solution till AgCrO4 starts precipitating as pale
red precipitate. Standardized AgNO3 against standard NaCl. For better accuracy
titrated distilled water (50 ml) in the same way to establish reagent blank. A blank of
0.2 to 0.3 ml in usual.
(A – B) x N x 35.45 x 1000Chloride (mg l-1) as Cl– =
Sample (ml)
Where:
A = ml AgNO3 required for sample
52
B = ml AgNO3 required for blank
N = Normality of AgNO3 used
Total hardness
Well mixed sample (50 ml) in porcelain dish or conical flask. To this added 1-
2 ml buffer solution followed by 1 ml inhibitor. This was followed by addition of a
pinch of Eriochrome black T and titrate with standard EDTA (0.01 M) till wine red
colour changes to blue, noted down the volume of EDTA required (A). A reagent
blank was also runned simultaneously. Noted the volume of EDTA (B). Calculated
volume of EDTA required by sample, C = (A – B).
C x D x 1000Total hardness (mg l-1) as CaCO3 =
Sample (ml)
Where:
C = Volume of EDTA required by sample
B = mg CaCO3 equivalent to 1 ml EDTA titrant
Carbonate and Bicarbonate ions
Carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water samples were determined using
phenolphthalein and methyl orange indicators, respectively. When pink colour of
water sample with phenolphthalein disappeared, it was an indicative of half of the
neutralization of carbonate resulting in the formation of bicarbonate. At this stage
methyl red indicator was added and solution titrated with H2SO4 (0.1 N) till solution
turned from yellow to rose red indicated value of bicarbonates.
53
Known volume of water sample taken in a conical flask and added 5 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator and shaken solution turned pink colour titrated with H2SO4
(0.1 N) till the end point colourless. Noted the burette reading (4 ml). Thereafter, 5
drops of methyl red indicator added to this solution and titrated with 0.1 N H2SO4 till
the end point from yellow to rose red colour. Carbonate and bicarbonate ions
calculated as follows:
2A X Normality of H2SO4
CO3- (meq/l) = X 1000
Volume of water sample taken (ml)
B-2A X Normality of H2SO4
HCO3- (meq/l) = X 1000
Volume of water sample taken (ml)
Where:
A = The burette reading for carbonate using phenolphthaline indicator.
B = The burette reading for bicarbonate using methyl red indicator.
Biochemical parameters
Chlorophyll
Leaves of harvested wild plants collected from different study sites were
crushed finely in pestle and mortar in 10 ml cold 80% acetone centrifuged at 1000
rpm of 20 minutes in centrifuged tubes. Later supernatant was transferred to glass
tubes and volume was made 10 ml by adding 80% cold acetone. Absorbance of the
supernatant for chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids was taken at wavelengths
663.6, 646.6, 510.0 and 480.0 nm, respectively in spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer
54
Lambda 40, USA). Chlorophyll a and b were calculated on leaf fresh weight basis,
according to formula given by Porra et al. (1989) and the results were expressed on
fresh weight basis in mg g-1.
12.25 (663.6) – 2.55 (A646.6)Chlorophyll a = x V
D x W x 1000
20.31 (646.6) – 4.91 (A663.6)Chlorophyll b = x V
D x W x 1000
17.76 (646.6) – 7.34 (A663.6)Total chlorophyll = x V
D x W x 1000
Where:
D = Distance of light path
W = Weight (g)
V = Volume (ml)
Carotenoids
Carotenoids content was calculated on leaf fresh weight basis according to
formula:
7.6 (480) – 1.49 (A510)Carotenoids = x V
D x W x 1000
55
Where:
D = Distance of light path
W = Weight (g)
V = Volume (ml)
Protein
Protein content was estimated by method of Lowry et al. (1951). Four reagents
were used in this process (Reagent A, B, C, D):
Reagent A: Sodium potassium tartrate (2%)
Reagent B: Copper sulphate (1%)
Reagent C: Alkaline copper solution [Reagent A (50 ml) + Reagent B (1 ml)]
Reagent D: Folin Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent.
Plant material (250 mg) was crushed in 5 ml of trichloro acetic acid and
centrifuged at 10000 rpm for 10 minutes. After decanting the supernatant, pellet was
washed with 5 ml of 1 N NaOH twice, again centrifuged in 1 N NaOH and final
supernatant was collected. Reagent C (1.0 ml) was added to final supernatant (0.5 ml)
and kept for 10-15 minutes at 30oC. Reagent D was added finally and thoroughly
mixed. After 30 min absorbance was recorded at 750 nm (Perking Elmer Lambda 40,
USA). Bovine serum albumin was used as standard.
Heavy metal analysis
The concentration of heavy metals in different plant parts (roots and shoots)
was determined in oven dried plant parts by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
56
(AAnylist Perkin Elmer 700, USA). Wet digestion of plant samples was carried out in
nitric acid: perchloric acid (HNO3 : HClO4) (3:1 v/v) by heating till insepeint dryness.
These evaporated samples were diluted, filtered with Whatman No. 42 and finally
volume was made upto 25 ml with distilled water and analyzed for heavy metals (Zn,
Cu, Ni and Cr) respectively in Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAnylist
Perkin Elmer 700, USA). Concentration of heavy metals in plant tissue is expressed
as g g-1 dry weight.
Reading (ppm) x Volume (ml)Metal content (g g-1 dw.) =
Weight (g)
3.6 Study of vegetation
The qualitative and quantitative study of vegetation was carried out near
expresshighway (NH 25) in proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
Qualitative study (Phytosociological method) was made by simple listing of the plant
species in the year 2009, 2010 and 2011 in pre and post monsoon period. List of the
plant species has been given in the chapter 4. The quantitative study was carried out
following the quadrate method with respect to density, frequency and abundance of
the wild plant species was growing near the study sites (I-IV).
Quadrate method
The numerical data of plant species in the study sites were calculated to find
out density, frequency and abundance of the species following quadrate method as
described by Sharma (2012).
57
The procedure was employed to count all the individual plant species on
several quadrates of known size (1M X 1m). The sampling unit of quadrate was an
area of 1m2. All the wild plant species in the study sites were recognized
taxonomically. The sampling area of the quadrate was find out by ‘species-area-curve
method’. quadrates were laid down by random sampling procedures. After the record
of various plant species in a chart form, the values of density, frequency and
abundance were determined as follows:
Total number of individuals of the speciesDensity (per m2) = Total number of quadrates studied
Number of quadrates in which species has occurredFrequency (%) = x 100
Total number of quadrates studied
Total number of individuals of the species in quadrates studiedAbundance (per m2) = Total number of quadrates in which species has occurred
3.7 Statistical analysis of data
All experiments were conducted in three replicates (n=3) for each parameter.
The data presented in the thesis represent mean of three replicates. The data were
statistically analysed using student ‘t’ test of significance for all the parameters.
58
Chapter 4
Results
Contents
Page no.
4.1: Field observations and vegetational studies. 60 - 76
4.1.1 Express highway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
60 - 61
4.1.2 Proposed Ganga express highway. 61 - 62
4.1.3 Study sites near expresshighway (NH 25) in Unnao district
63 - 63
4.1.4 Soil and water bodies. 63 - 64
4.1.5 Study of flora near express highway (NH 25) in Unnao district.
64 - 65
4.1.6 Quantitative analysis of plants by quadrate method 66 - 75
4.2 Biochemical constituents and tissue concentration of heavy metals in wild plant species near expresshighway (NH 25).
76 - 90
4.2.1 Tissue concentration of heavy metals.
4.2.2 Biochemical constituents in plants.
4.3 Physico-chemical properties of soils at various sites of express highway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao districts (U.P. state).
91 - 94
4.4 Analysis of surface and ground waters qualities at various locations of expresshighway (NH 25) at the area of proposed Ganga express-highway area (Unnao district).
95 - 106
59
4.1 Experiment
Field observations and vegetational studies near expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
The predicted environmental risk due to proposed Ganga expressway and their
adverse effects on soil, water and plants and loss of biodiversity, this study was
carried out. Field study was carried out for present environmental conditions near
expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district, U.P.
state, India. The study areas (Table 3.1) were selected at the proposed Ganga
expressway area to observe the changes in the environment conditions at present after
a long service given by expresshighway (NH 25) for transportation and prediction of
environmental conditions, when proposed Ganga expresshighway will be completed
and open for public use for transportation. The study on environmental impact
assessment (EIA) may be helpful to make planning for proposed Ganga expressway
eco-friendly
4.1.1 Express highway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
In India, about 3402 km expresshighways in different states of India have been
proposed to complete in near future. Ganga expresshighway has been proposed by
U.P. Government, of about 1045 km from district Greater Noida to district Balia.
Allahabad
Lucknow Unnao Kanpur 185 km 53 km 35 km 208 km
Jhansi
4.1 Map showing the distance from Lucknow – Kanpur Ganga expressway (NH 25).
60
Expresshighway (NH 25) a four laned highway linked Lucknow to Kanpur
city (about 80 km length) passing through the Unnao district in Uttar Pradesh state
(India). The study sites were selected near the expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed
Ganga expressway area in Unnao district, just before the Ganga River. The ecological
studies (field observations and analysis of soil, water and plants) were carried out in
this area at various locations (Table 4.1.2).
4.1.2 Proposed Ganga expresshighway
The various locations and related informations were observed regarding the
study area. The Ganga expresshighway aimed to construct a 1047 km access
controlled eight-lane express way running along the Ganga River in Unnao district.
This proposed expressway will connect Greater Noida to Balia district. The proposed
Ganga expressway has been divided in to four sectors (Table 4.1.1).
Table 4.1.1: Distance and link of proposed Ganga expressway.
Route Links Length (km)
Greater Noida to Fatehgarh via Bulandshaher Farrukhabad 253
Fatehgarh to Dalmau (Raibareli) Unnao 305
Dalmau to Aurai (Bhadohi) Mirzapur 211
Aurai to Balia Varanasi / Ghazipur 278
The motivation to construct Ganga expressway was to mitigate flood problem in near
by areas of river Ganga to large population and number of villages along river, to
decongest the increasing traffic on the existing network of roads, reduction in
accidents, employment opportunity to people, development of local industry and
development of tourism. The Uttar Pradesh government awarded the Ganga
61
expressway contract to ‘Jaypee Infratech Pvt. Ltd. This project will require 26374
hectares of land from farmers. The environmental risk was that, this project may pose
a large part of Uttar Pradesh to environmental hazards.
The risk of environmental degradation and disturbances of ecological system
including biodiversity of living organisms was observed to be possible due to
construction and various activities including transportation on the Ganga expressway.
The risk of environmental problems was observed, these were:
Construction of the embankment would also required large amount of soil,
which would be dug from the nearby agricultural field. This will create dug
out holes, where rain water will collect permanently, promote water born
diseases.
Construction of expressway may cause unpredictable damage to trees, crops
and wet lands.
Due to industrial set up along the express way will dump all their industrial
effluents and garbage directly into the surface water bodies and other
component of ecosystem. This may lead the pollution problem in the
environment.
The various types of pollutants will be emitted from expressway transport
activities such as various chemicals, gases and heavy metals. In future, these
pollutants may damage the growth of plants by disturbances in their metabolic
activities, and health hazards to various living organisms around express
highway
62
4.1.3 Study sites near expresshighway (NH 25) in Unnao district
Study sites were selected at proposed Ganga expressway area near (0-50 m)
and about 5 km away from the NH 25 (Lucknow – Kanpur expresshighway). NH 25
expressway in Unnao district was selected for ecological studies because it is used for
a long time for transportation and cross the area of proposed Ganga expressway. Sites
I (Krishnapuram about 500 m from river Ganga) and III (Sakalpur Nari) were study
areas located just near (0 – 50 m) to express way, and all the studies on soil, water and
plants were carried out at these sites and compared with the sites II (Dal Narayanpur)
and IV (Banthar) situated about 5 km away from the expresshighway.
Table 4.1.2: Locations of study area near Express highway (NH 25) in Unnao district.
Sites Locations Distance from highway
I Krishnapuram (500 m before Ganga river) 0 - 50 m
II Dal Narayanpur 4.5 – 5 km
III Sakalpur Nari 0 – 50 m
IV Banthar 5 – 5.5 km
4.1.4 Soil and water bodies
The land area near expresshighway (NH 25) at location I (Krishnapuram) and
III (Sakalpur Nari) was uneven, most of the area was observed eroded land. The
plants grown at these sites (I and III) were poor in growth and land area occupied with
scarced vegetation as compared to vegetation at sites II and IV (about 5 km away
from the expresshighway). Water accumulation in different sizes of the pits was
observed near the expresshighway (NH 25) were dug-up during the road construction
(NH 25). The area just near to road observed (0 – 100 m) was uneven showed 10-15
m depth from highway, and at elevated areas a large number of channels ranged with
63
various widths were observed. These channels formed due to the flow of high velocity
run-off rain water which would cut and carried soil particles away from its original
place. Also, due to the uneven area and a large number of pits areas were observed as
eroded soil which supported poor vegetation at growth. Some area near express
highway (NH 25) was observed to use for agricultural purposes, but growing wild
plants as well as crops growth indicated very poor fertility of the soil through their
poor growth. Major portion of the land was observed barren, grazing animals were
using the land for grazing and drinking the water from accumulated water in pits near
the expresshighway (NH 25). The texture of the soil was sandy in nature with touch in
between the finger. The accumulated water in pits near expresshighway (NH 25) was
looking polluted, dirty (very poor transparency) and blackish in colour with decaying
smell.
4.1.5: Study of flora near Express highway (NH 25) in Unnao district
The flora observed near expresshighway (NH 25) was of various taxonomic
groups and varying in size showed a wide range of plant diversity. The wild plant
species observed in the year 2009, 2010 and 2011 in pre-monsoon period are listed in
Table 4.1.3 and 4.1.4 and Post-monsoon period are listed in Table 4.1.5 and 4.1.6. In
the middle line area of the road mainly planted with Nerium indica, Thevetia
peruviana and Bougainvillea etc. The leaves of these plants were highly dusted and
coated with black coloured smoke particles. Whereas, plants were washed with rain
water and appeared new born leaves observed during post-monsoon period. Also,
during pre-monsoon period plants were looking slow growing and leaves appeared
necrotic. A large variety of other wild species were observed near the road; these were
Parthenium, Croton, Ageratum, Sida, Amaranthus, Argimone mexicana,Casia,
64
Achyranthus etc. These wildly growing species showed very poor growth, leaves were
small, chlorotic and necrotic and all plants showed stunted growth observed at sites I
and III as compared to the same plants growing at sites II and IV (about 5 km away
from the expresshighway). The vegetation observed at site I and III was scarce and
poor as compared the sites away from the expresshighway (Site II and Site IV). Some
winter crops grown at study sites were wheat, mustard, pea, potato, radish etc.
observed during post-monsoon season (in year 2009, 2010 and 2011). The agricultural
field was scattered near the expresshighway with poor growth observed at site I and
III. Whereas, crop plants grown at site II and IV were healthy and with proper looking
growth as compared to plants at site I and III were observed. The some common
visible symptoms observed in plants at all the study sites were stunted plant growth,
reduced size of leaf lamina, poor shoot length and branching, chlorosis and necrosis
of young leaves and yellowing and dryness in older leaves. These symptoms were
more severe at site I and III as compared to site II and IV. The uniform and
continuous agricultural fields with healthy crops were observed at site II and IV.
Some wild plants frequently grown and found healthy at site II and IV, but very lesser
in number at site I and III, these plant species were Catheranthus roseus, Stelaria
media, Lindenbergia, Eclipta, Ocimum sanctum, Oxalis, Solanum nigram etc. The
appearance of these plants were healthy with normal leaves at site II and IV, while
very poor in growth, scattered / rare and abnormal shape and size of leaves observed
at site I and III.
In post monsoon period, in the year 2009, 2010 and 20011 wild plants grow
near express highway (NH 25) were observed and listed at sites I to IV (Table 4.1.5
and 4.1.6). In the visible field observation at location I and III; growth of wild species
near the highway (NH 25) was very poor, their leaves were small, necrotic and
65
showed yellowing; stem was thin, weak, poorly branched, and shoot length was also
reduced as compared to those plants who observed at locations II and IV.
4.1.6: Quantitative analysis of vegetation near Express highway (NH 25) by quadrate method.
Vegetational study was carried out during Post-monsoon period (October –
November) at site I, II, III and IV near and about 5 km away distance from the
express- highway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expresshighway area in district Unnao.
Among the wild plant species studied the density, frequency and abundance was
found to be poor at site I and III as compared to sites II and IV (Table 4.1.6, 4.1.7,
4.1.8 and 4.1.9).
Vegetational study at site I and III near to expresshighway (NH 25)
Quantitatively, Croton species showed maximum density (7/m2) and
frequency (100%) at site I. Other wild species showed elevated density and frequency
were Parthenium (density 6.5/m2 and frequency 75%), Phyllanthus (density 3.8/m2
and frequency 100%), Sida (density 5/m2 and frequency 75%) and Argimone
mexicana (density 3.5/m2 and frequency 50%). The dominancy of species at site I was
observed in order Croton > Parthenium > Sida > Phyllanthus > Argimone > Abutilon
> Ageratum > Tridax > Malvastrum > Calotropis > Ameranthus > Acasia with
respect to density and frequency. The Acacia, Amaranthus and Solanum nigram
showed least dominancy as compared with density, frequency and abundance among
other wild species studied at site I.
Among the 15 wild species studied near Express highway (NH 25) in
proposed Ganga Express way area, the most dominate species (Parthenium density
7.0/m2 and frequency 100%) and least dominant species (Gnephallium, density
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0.75/m2 and frequency 25%) were observed. Other wild species dominated over the
study area were Sida, Phyllanthus, Croton and Solanum species. Maximum density,
Frequency and abundance was observed 7/m2, 100% and 8/m2, respectively, minimum
values of these parameters were 0.25/m2, 25 and 2/m2 respectively were observed. The
dominancy of the wild species with respect to their density was observed in order
Parthenium > Ageratum > Croton > Sida > Phyllanthus > Amaranthus > Argimone
> Solanum study showed some dominant species in the area were Parthenium,
Ageratum and Croton.
Quantitative study of vegetation at site II and IV about 5 km away from Express highway (NH 25), during October to November.
Quantitatively, Majus species showed maximum density (20/m2) and
frequency (75%) at site II. Whereas, croton showed maximum density (12/m2) and
frequency (100%) at site IV. Comparatively, higer density and frequency showing
species were Oxalis (11.3/m2), Eclipta (10/m2), Stelaria (12.5/m2) and Parthenium
(8.8/m2) observed at site II; and Oxalis (20/m2), Parthenium (11.3/m2), Eclipta
(12.5/m2) and croton (12/m2) were observed at site IV. The most abundant species
grown at site II and IV were Eclipta, Oxalis and Majus (> 20/m2). At site II, low value
of density and frequency showed by Cassia (density, 1.5/m2) and frequency 25%) and
Ocimum species (density 0.3/m2 and frequency 25%). At site IV, the least value of
density and frequency showed by Ocimum (density, 0.5/m2) and frequency 25%) and
Solanum (density, 2.5/m2 and frequency 25%), were observed.
Comparatively, most of the species were not observed during the study at site I
and III, most of them were Solanum, Ocimum, Stelaria and Majus species. While,
these species were abundant with more density and frequency at site II and IV. All the
67
wild species studied near the expresshighway (NH 25) at site I and III showed low
density and frequency value as compared to site II and IV (about 5 km away from the
expresshighway).
Table 4.1.3: Field observations of common wild plants at site I and III just near to expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway are in Unnao district (pre-monsoon period).
Sl. No. Name of plants FamilyYear of study
2009 2010 2011
1. Sida sp. Malvaceae
2. Phyllanthus sp. Ambliferae
3. Parthenium sp. Compositae
4. Calotropis sp. Euphorbiaceae NF
5. Ageratum sp. Compositae
6. Abutilon sp. Malvaceae NF
7. Argimone mexicana sp. Papavaraceae NF
8. Launeae sp. Compositae NF
9. Amarnathus sp. Amaranthaceae
10. Achyranthus sp. Achyranthaceae
11. Acacia nelotica sp. Fabaceae
12. Ricinus communis sp. Euphorbiaceae
13. Croton sp. Euphorbiaceae
14. Euphorbia hirta sp. Euphorbiaceae NF NF
NF – not found during the observation; - observed.
68
Table 4.1.4: Field observations of common wild plants at site II and IV about 5 km away to expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway are in Unnao district (pre-monsoon period).
Sl. No. Name of plants FamilyYear of study
2009 2010 2011
1. Sida sp. Malvaceae
2. Phyllanthus sp. Ambliferae
3. Parthenium sp. Compositae
4. Calotropis sp. Euphorbiaceae NF
5. Ageratum sp. Compositae
6. Abutilon sp. Malvaceae NF
7. Argimone mexicana sp. Papavaraceae NF
8. Launeae sp. Compositae NF
9. Amarnathus sp. Amaranthaceae
10. Achyranthus sp. Achyranthaceae
11. Acacia nelotica sp. Fabaceae
12. Ricinus communis sp. Euphorbiaceae
13. Croton sp. Euphorbiaceae
14. Euphorbia hirta sp. Euphorbiaceae NF NF
15. Achlypha sp. Euphorbiaceae
16. Eclipta sp. Euphorbiaceae
17. Ocimum sp. Labiatae
18. Lindenbergia sp. Scrophulariaceae
19. Majus sp. Scrophulariaceae
20. Salanum sp. Solanaceae
NF – not found during the observation; - observed.
69
Table 4.1.5: Field observations of common wild plants at site I and III (Krishnapuram) (Sakalpur Nari) just near by areas of Lucknow – Kanpur express highway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district: (post-monsoon period).
Sl. No. Name of plants Family
Year of study
2009 2010 2011
1. Parthenium sp. Compositae √ √ √
2. Calotropis sp. Euphorbiaceae √ √ √
3. Ageratum sp. Compositae √ √ √
4. Achyranthus sp. Achyrantheceae √ √ √
5. Croton sp. Euphorbiaceae √ √ √
6. Solamum nigra sp. Solanaceae √ √ √
7. Amaranthus sp. Amaranthaceae √ √ √
8. Sida sp. Malvaceae √ √ √
9. Abutilon sp. Malvaceae √ √ √
10. Catherenthus roseus sp. Apocynaceae √ √ √
11. Argimone mexicana sp. Papavaraceae √ √ √
12. Malvestrum sp. Malvaceae √ √ √
13. Casia occidentalis sp. Ceasalpiniaceae √ √ √
14. Launeae sp. Compositae √ F √
15. Phyllanthus nurii sp. Umbliferae √ √ √
NF- not found during the observation; - observed
70
Table 4.1.6: Field observations of common wild plants species at site II and IV (Dal Narain Pur) 5 km away from Lucknow – Kanpur expresshighway (NH 25): (post-monsoon period).
Sl. No. Name of plants Family
Year of study
2009 2010 2011
1. Parthenium sp. Compositae √ √ √
2. Phyllanthus nurii sp. Umbliferae √ √ √
3. Achlypha sp. Euphorbiaceae √ √ √
4. Euphorbia hirta sp. Euphorbiaceae √ √ √
5. Eclipta sp. Euphorbiaceae √ √ √
6. Amaranthus spinosus sp. Amaranthaceae √ √ √
7. Ocimum sanctum sp. Labiatae N √ √
8. Catheranthus roseus sp. Apacynaceae √ √ √
9. Ageratum sp. Compositae √ √ √
10. Vernonia sp. Compositae √ √ √
11. Tridax sp. Compositae √ N √
12. Malvestrum sp. Malvaceae √ √ √
13. Sida sp. Malvaceae √ √ √
14. Lindenbergia sp. Scrophulariaceae √ √ NF
15. Abutilon sp. Malvaceae √ √ √
16. Achyranthus sp. Achyranthaceae √ √ √
17. Cassia occidentalis sp. Ceaselbiniaceae √ √ √
18. Canabis sativus sp. Canabinaceae √ √ √
19. Majus rugosus sp. Scrophulareaceae √ √ √
20. Croton sp. Euphorbiacea √ √ √
21. Salanum nigram sp. Solanaceae √ √ √
22. Gnephallium sp. Compositae √ √ √
23. Argimon mexicana sp. Papavaraceae √ √ √
NF- not found during the observation; - observed
71
Table 4.1.7: Quantitative analysis of vegetation: density (per m2), frequency (%) and abundance (per m2) of wild plants near Lucknow-Kanpur expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area (Unnao) at site I during post-monsoon period
Sl. No.
Plants Total quadrates studied
Total number of individual species
Quadrates in which species has occurred
Density /m2
Fre-quency %
Abun-dance /m2
1. Sida sp. 4 20 3 5 75 6.7
2. Calotropis sp. 4 7 2 1.7 50 3.5
3. Parthenium sp. 4 26 3 6.5 75 8.6
4. Achyranthus sp. 4 6 1 1.5 25 6
5. Croton sp. 4 28 4 7 100 7
6. Ageratum sp. 4 12 2 3 50 6
7. Solanum sp. 4 1 1 0.25 25 4
8. Tridax sp. 4 10 2 2.5 50 5
9. Catherenthus sp. 4 6 2 1.5 50 3
10. Argimon sp. 4 14 2 3.5 50 2
11. Abutilon sp. 4 8 3 2 75 4
12. Ameranthus sp. 4 6 2 1.5 50 3
13. Malvestrum sp. 4 10 2 2.5 50 5
14. Phyllanthus sp. 4 15 4 3.8 100 3.8
15. Acassia sp. 4 2 1 0.5 25 2
72
Table 4.1.8: Quantitative analysis of vegetation by quadrate method near expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga Expressway area (Unnao district) at site II during post monsoon period, 2010).
Sl. No.
Plants Total quadrates studied
Total number of individual species
Quadrates in which species has occurred
Density /m2
Fre-quency %
Abun-dance /m2
1. Parthenium sp. 4 35 4 8.8 100 8.8
2. Phyllanthus sp. 4 24 4 6 100 6.0
3. Eclipta sp. 4 40 2 10 50 20.0
4. Tridax sp. 4 18 3 4.5 75 6.0
5. Achlypha sp. 4 12 3 3 75 4.0
6. Euphorbia hirta sp. 4 25 4 6.3 100 6.3
7. Ageratum sp. 4 30 2 7.5 50 15.0
8. Vernonia sp. 4 20 4 5 100 5.0
9. Oxalis sp. 4 45 2 11.3 50 22.5
10. Sida sp. 4 25 2 6.3 50 12.5
11. Malvestrum sp. 4 10 2 2.5 50 5.0
12. Achyranthus sp. 4 7 2 1.8 50 3.5
13. Amaranthus sp. 4 6 3 1.5 75 2.0
14. Majus sp. 4 80 2 20 75 40.0
15. Cassia sp. 4 6 1 1.5 25 6.0
16. Canabis sp. 4 4 3 1 75 1.3
17. Croton sp. 4 18 4 4.5 100 4.5
18. Gnephallium sp. 4 15 3 3.8 75 5.0
19. Argimone sp. 4 8 2 2 50 4.0
20. Abutilon sp. 4 6 3 1.5 75 2.0
21. Stelaria sp. 4 50 3 12.5 75 16.3
22. Ocimum sp. 4 1 1 0.3 25 1.0
23. Solanum sp. 4 7 2 1.8 50 3.5
73
Table 4.1.9: Quantitative analysis of vegetation by quadrate method near Express highway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expresshighway (Unnao district) at site III (during post-monsoon period, 2010).
Sl. No.
Plant name Total quadrates studied
Total number of individual species
Quadrates in which species has occurred
Density /m2
Fre-quency %
Abun-dance /m2
1. Sida sp. 4 15 4 3.8 100 3.8
2. Calotropis sp. 4 12 2 3 50 6
3. Parthenium sp. 4 28 4 7 100 7
4. Achyranthus sp. 4 27 4 1.8 100 7
5. Croton sp. 4 18 4 4.5 100 6
6. Ageratum sp. 4 24 3 6 75 8
7. Solanum sp. 4 14 2 3 50 7
8. Malvestrum sp. 4 6 2 1.5 50 3
9. Catherenthus sp. 4 8 2 2 50 4
10. Argimon sp. 4 12 4 3 75 3
11. Abutilon sp. 4 1 1 0.25 25 4
12. Ameranthus sp. 4 12 2 3 50 6
13. Malvestrum sp. 4 4 2 1 50 2
14. Gnephallium sp. 4 3 1 0.75 25 3
15. Phyllanthus sp. 4 12 3 3 75 4
74
Table 4.1.10: Quantitative analysis of vegetation by quadrate method at site IV near expresshighway (NH 25) in proposed Ganga Expressway area, Unnao district during post-monsoon period, 2010.
Sl. No.
Plants Total quadrates studied
Total number of individual species
Quadrates in which species has occurred
Density /m2
Fre-quency %
Abun-dance /m2
1. Parthenium sp. 4 45 4 11.3 100 11.3
2. Phyllanthus sp. 4 30 4 7.5 100 7.5
3. Eclipta sp. 4 50 3 12.5 75 16.7
4. Tridax sp. 4 20 2 5 50 10
5. Achlypha sp. 4 15 3 3.5 75 5
6. Euphorbia sp. 4 20 2 5 50 10
7. Ageratum sp. 4 40 4 10 100 10
8. Vernonia sp. 4 30 2 7.5 50 15
9. Oxalis sp. 4 80 4 20 100 20
10. Sida sp. 4 18 2 4.5 50 9
11. Malvestrum sp. 4 15 2 3.8 50 7.5
12. Achyranthus sp. 4 10 1 2.5 25 10
13. Amaranthus sp. 4 10 2 2.5 50 5
14. Majus sp. 4 60 3 15 75 20
15. Cassia sp. 4 10 1 2.5 25 10
16. Canabis sp. 4 8 2 2 50 4
17. Croton sp. 4 48 4 12 100 12
18. Gnephallium sp. 4 20 2 5 50 10
19. Argimone sp. 4 12 1 3 25 12
20. Abutilon sp. 4 8 1 2 25 8
21. Stelaria sp. 4 40 3 10 75 13
22. Ocimum sp. 4 2 1 0.5 25 2
23. Solanum sp. 4 10 1 2.5 25 10
75
4.2: Experiment
Biochemical constituents and tissue concentration of heavy metals in wild plant species near expresshighway (NH 25).
Assessment of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Fe, Cd, Cr and Ni) accumulation and
some biochemical constituents such as pigments (chlorophyll a, b, total chlorophyll
and carotenoids) and protein contents were determined out in some wild plants
(Nerium, Bougainvillea and Croton). Plants were collected from nearby areas of
expresshighway – NH 25 (0 to 10 m) exposed continuously to the vehicular
environment; and same plant species were also collected from about 5 km away (site
II and site IV). These wild plant species analyzed for metals accumulation in their
tissues and for some biochemical constituents. Data are presented in tables (4.2.1A,
4.2.1B, 4.2.2A, 4.2.2B, 4.2.3 and 4.2.4). Plants were observed in Pre-monsoon as well
as post-monsoon period in the year 2011).
4.2.1: Tissue concentration of heavy metals
4.2.1A: Heavy metals accumulation in plants just near to expresshighway (site I and III)
Wild plants estimated for heavy metals accumulation in pre-monsoon period
are presented in table 4.2.1A. These plants showed elevated levels of metal
accumulation. The range of heavy metals accumulation was found to be 2.5 to 35.6 µg
g-1 dry weight. These plants accumulated some toxic metals (such as Cd and Cr)
which are not essential to the plant growth. The wild plants showed accumulated
heavy metals at site I and III ranged from 0.5 to 125.6 µg g -1 dry weight. Maximum
accumulation of Fe in wild plants was observed in both post and pre-monsoon period
76
(3.8 to 125.6 µg g-1 dry weight). The accumulation of most of the metals in wild
plants was higher at post-monsoon period as compared to pre-monsoon period.
Zinc
Wild plants accumulated high content of Zn at sites I and III grown near (0-10
m) expresshighway observed in pre and post-monsoon period, ranged from 7.8 to 35.5
µg g-1 dry weight. Maximum accumulation of Zn was found in Bougainvillea 35.5 µg
g-1 dr. wt. in pre-monsoon and 28.0 µg g-1 dr. wt. in post-monsoon period were
observed at site I and III. The order of accumulation of Zn in wild plants was
Bougainvillea > Calotropis > Croton > Parthenium > Ageratum > Euphorbia >
Nerium in pre-monsoon and Bougainvillea > Parthenium > Calotrops > Nerium >
Ageratum in post-monsoon were observed. The accumulation of Zn did not followed
any regular pattern in between plants, and showed variable concentrations at different
sites under different conditions of environment.
Copper
A high accumulation of copper (Cu) was determined in wild plants near
express highway (NH 25) at site I and site III. The accumulation of Cu was ranged
from 3.8 to 25 µg g-1 dr. wt. observed in pre-monsoon period, and from 3.3 to 15.4 µg
g-1 dr. wt. in post-monsoon period. Maximum accumulation of Cu was found in
Calotropis. In pre-monsoon period the order of Cu accumulation was Calotropis >
Parthenium > Bougainvillea > Nerium > Ageratum > Croton > Euphorbia, whereas
in post-monsoon period the order of Cu accumulation was Croton > Ageratum >
Calotropis > Parthenium > Bougainvillea > Nerium > Euphorbia. The least
77
accumulation of Cu was determined in Euphorbia species grown near expresshighway
(NH 25).
Iron
Iron accumulation in wild plants was found highest as compared to other
metals studied at site I and III just near to ( 0 – 10 m) express highway (NH 25).
Maximum tissue concentration of iron (Fe) was determined in Calotropis. The
accumulation of iron was determined in post-monsoon period: Calotropis > Nerium >
Croton > Euphorbia > Bougainvillea > Ageratum > Parthenium and at pre-monsoon
period: Calotropis > Nerium > Croton > Euphorbia > Parthenium > Ageratum.
Least accumulation of iron was determined in Ageratum species observed in pre and
post-monsoon period both. The tissue concentration of iron was ranged from 56 to
125.6 µg g-1 dr. wt. in post-monsoon period and from 9.8 to 112.8 µg g-1 dr. wt. in pre-
monsoon in wild plants grown near express highway (NH 25) iat proposed Ganga
expressway area in Unnao district.
Cadmium
Cadmium (Cd) concentrations in wild plants determined in the range of 6.5 to
22.5 µg g-1 dr. wt. in pre-monsoon period. Croton, Parthenium and Bougainvillea
showed higher accumulation of Cd. Comparatively, low accumulation of Cd was
determined in Nerium, Euphorbia, Croton and Calotropis. In post-monsoon period,
the concentration of cadmium in plants was low ranged from 0.2 to 16.5 µg g-1 dr. wt.
78
Chromium
Chromium accumulation in wild plants grown near the express highway (NH
25) was ranged from 2.5 to 16.6 µg g-1 dr. wt. in pre-monsoon period; and from 0.5 to
12.6 µg g-1 dr. wt. in post-monsoon period. Bougainvillea, croton and Parthenium
showed higher accumulation of Cr as compared to other plants studied. In post-
monsoon period the accumulation of Cr was lower than in the pre-monsoon period.
The order of accumulation of chromium in wild plants near expressway was
Bougainvillea > Croton > Nerium > Parthenium > Ageratum and Euphorbia,
observed in pre-monsoon period.
Nickel
A high accumulation of nickel (Ni) was quantified in wild plants at site I and
III near expresshighway (NH 25). In pre-monsoon period, the nickel concentration of
wild plants ranged from 6.3 to 27.6 µg g-1 dr. wt. In post-monsoon period, Ni content
ranged from 1.8 to 15.6 µg g-1 dr. wt. The accumulation of Ni was low in post-
monsoon period than the pre-monsoon period. The plants showed high accumulation
of Ni were Ageratum, Bougainvillea and Nerium; whereas Euphorbia, Croton,
Parthenium and Calotropis showed low Ni content in their tissues.
4.2.1B: Heavy metals accumulation in plants about 5 km away from the express highway (NH 25) at site II and site IV.
Accumulation of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Fe, Cd, Cr and Ni) are presented in
table 4.2.1B. The wild plants studied and determined for heavy metal accumulation
showed Zn, Cu and Fe, but most of them showed not detectable (ND) range of
cadmium, chromium and nickel, observed in pre and post-monsoon period.
79
Zinc
Wild plants showed accumulation of Zn ranged from 2.4 to 12.5 µg g-1 dr. wt.
in pre-monsoon period; and from 11.8 to 20.5 µg Zn g-1 dr. wt. at post-monsoon
period. The higher accumulation of Zn was observed in Nerium, Euphorbia,
Calotropis and Ageratum and Croton ranged from 17.6 to 20.5 µg Zn g-1 dr. wt. at
post-monsoon period (Table 4.2.2B). The most of the Zn-accumulator plants at sites II
and IV showed lower value of accumulation as compared to plants at sites I and III.
Copper
Wild plants collected from sites II and IV showed accumulation of Cu ranged
from 6.7 to 16 µg Cu g-1 dr. wt. at post-monsoon period; and 1.5 to 14.8 µg Cu g-1 dr.
wt. in pre-monsoon period. Maximum of Cu is observed in Euphorbia, Parthenium,
Ageratum and Calotropis. The accumulation of Cu content in wild plants was higher
at sites II and IV as compared to sites I and III. Maximum 16 µg Cu g -1 dr. wt. was
found in Calotropis plant, while least accumulation of Cu was found in Parthenium
and Croton.
Iron
Some plants collected from sites II and IV showed high content of
accumulation of iron (Fe). Comparatively, Fe accumulation in plants was higher at
post-monsoon period as compared to pre-monsoon period. The Fe content in plant
tissues ranged from 15.5 to 55.6 µg Fe g-1 dr. wt. determined at post-monsoon period;
and 4.2 to 22.8 µg Fe g-1 dr. wt. in pre-monsoon period. Maximum accumulation of
Fe determined in Euphorbia, Parthenium and Bougainvillea (22.8 to 55.6 µg Fe g-1 dr.
wt.). The accumulation of Fe in wild plant species at sites I and III was found higher
80
(maximum 125.6 µg Fe g-1 dr. wt.) as compared to plants grown at about 5 km away
from the expresshighway (NH 25) at sites II and IV. At sites II and IV, the order of
accumulation of Fe was Euphorbia > Bougainvillea > Parthenium > Calotropis >
Croton > Ageratum observed at post-monsoon period.
Cadmium
Some plants showed cadmium (Cd) accumulation at sites II and IV observed
in pre and post-monsoon period ranged from 0.1 to 6 µg Cd g -1 dr. wt. while, a large
no. of plants showed not detectable level of Cd. These plants were Euphorbia,
Calotropis, Parthenium, Ageratum and Croton, observed at post-monsoon period.
These wild plants showed accumulation of Cd, the tissue concentration was low at site
II and IV as compared to sites I and III.
Chromium
Most of the plants showed chromium (Cr) at not detectable level. Only some
plants accumulated Cr up to 2.4 µg Cr g-1 dr. wt., observed at post and pre-monsoon
period. As compared to sites I and III, Cr accumulation in plants at sites II and IV was
determined very much low and in some plants found not detectable.
Nickel
At sites II and IV, the accumulation of nickel (Ni) in wild plants was low as
compared to sites I and III. In some plants Ni content was not detectable. The tissue
concentration of Ni determined in some plants was ranged from 1.6 to 6.8 µg Ni g-1
dr. wt. at post-monsoon period, and 0.8 to 3.5 µg Ni g-1 dr. wt. at pre-monsoon period,
were observed.
81
Table 4.2.1A: Heavy metals accumulation in wild plant species at various locations near (0-10 M) express highway (NH 25) in proposed Ganga expressway area (Unnao district) at Pre-monsoon period (2011).
Sites Plants
Heavy metals (µg g-1 dry weight)
Zn Cu Fe Cd Cr Ni
I Euphorbia sp. 20.4±1.0* 4.7±0.5* 25.8±1.5* 7.1±0.1 1.2±0.1 6.8±0.1*
Croton sp. 26.5±0.5* 3.8±0.2 75.0±0.5 8.2±0.1 12.4±0.1 11.6±0.2*
Nerium sp. 15.8±0.5 8.7±0.1* 98.6±0.5** 10.8±0.1 9.5±0.1 16.2±0.1
Bougenvellia sp. 35.5±0.6 9.4±0.5 19.8± 15.5±0.1 16.6±0.1 17.2±0.1**
Ageratum sp. 20.5±0.2 7.2±0.2 25.6±1.5 16.0±0.1* 14.8±0.2 6.3±0.5
Parthenium sp. 21.5±0.5* 14.8±0.1** 26.5±1.5 17.5±0.5 15.2±0.1 8.3±0.2
Calotropis sp. 30.0±0.5 21.5±1.0* 14.8±0.5** 7.0±0.1 7.3±0.1* 13.7±0.2
III Euphorbia sp. 12.6±0.5 6.5±0.1 35.6±0.5 9.6±0.2 2.5±0.3* 7.6±0.1*
Croton sp. 10.5±1.0* 5.2±1.0 46.7±1.5 22.5±0.5 15.6±0.1 9.8±0.1
Nerium sp. 8.0±1.0 10.5±0.5 60.8±1.2 6.9±0.5 15.7±0.1 18.8±0.1*
Bougenvellia sp. 25.5±0.5* 12.4±0.5 25.0±1.0* 8.6±1.0 10.2±0.5* 20.5±0.5
Ageratum sp. 12.0±1.0** 8.5±0.5* 9.8±0.1 6.5±0.1 5.5±0.1 27.6±0.2*
Parthenium sp. 7.50.5 18.5±0.5** 12.2±0.1 10.4±0.1 7.2±0.5* 6.8±0.2
Calotropis sp. 18.6±1.5 25.0±1.0 112.6±0.5** 7.5±0.1 12.5±0.1 8.6±0.1
82
Table 4.2.1B: Heavy metals accumulation in wild plant species at various locations about 5 km away from the express highway (NH 25) in proposed Ganga expressway area (Unnao district, U.P.) at Pre-monsoon period (2011).
Sites PlantsHeavy metals (µg g-1 dry weight)
Zn Cu Fe Cd Cr Ni
II Euphorbia sp. 12.5±2.0 14.8±1.0 16.5±1.5** 0.8±0.5 ND 2.1±0.1*
Croton sp. 10.5±1.0 4.5±1.0 14.2±1.5 4.2±0.5* ND 0.8±0.1
Nerium sp. 6.0±0.1* 2.5±0.1* 10.5±1.0 2.9±0.2 0.6±0.1 2.5±0.1
Bougenvellia sp. 9.5±0.5 2.0±0.5 22.8±1.0 6.0±0.5 ND 3.5±0.1
Ageratum sp. 2.4±0.1 6.5±0.1 20.5±1.0 ND 1.2±0.1 2.0±0.1
Parthenium sp. 5.4±0.1 2.3±0.1 15.6±0.5 ND ND ND
Calotropis sp. 6.5±0.5 1.5±0.1 10.2±0.1 ND 2.4±0.1 3.5±0.1
IV Euphorbia sp. 5.8±0.2 2.8±0.1** 8.6±0.2 ND ND 1.8±0.1
Croton sp. 8.6±0.5 7.6±0.2* 6.5±0.1 1.5±0.1 0.8±0.1 2.0±0.1
Nerium sp. 6.7±0.1 5.2±0.2 5.6±0.2 2.1±0.1 ND ND
Bougenvellia sp. 7.2±0.2* 3.8±0.1* 5.2±0.1 ND ND ND
Ageratum sp. 5.5±0.2 4.5±0.1 4.2±0.1 ND ND 0.8±0.1
Parthenium sp. 5.2±0.2 10.5±0.5* 10.2±0.5 ND ND 1.5±0.1
Calotropis sp. 2.5±0.1 4.6±0.2 8.6±0.1** 1.0±0.1 1.5±0.1 ND
ND- not detectable; ± - S.E. (n=3); * - value significant at 0.05 level and **- value significant at 0.01 level.
83
Table 4.2.2A: Heavy metals accumulation in wild plant species at various locations just near to express highway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area (Unnao district, U.P.) at Post-monsoon period (2011).
Sites PlantsHeavy metals (Mg g-1 dry weight)
Zn Cu Fe Cd Cr Ni
I Euphorbia sp. 7.8±0.3 4.5±0.2* 80.4±5.5 0.2±0.1* 8.0±0.1* 2.5±0.5
Croton sp. 15.8±0.8 11.4±0.6 110.5±15.6 11.5±0.1 4.0±0.1 5.6±0.5
Nerium sp. 17.3±1.0 7.8±0.5 118.1±18.5 16.5±0.1* 0.6±0.1 10.8±1.0
Bougainvillea sp. 28.0±0.5 12.5±1.0 56.8±3.5 10.8 5.8±1.0 15.6±1.0
Ageratum sp. 15.8±0.7* 9.1±0.4 71.2±5.5* 1.9±0.1 5.8±0.1 13.5±0.5*
Parthenium sp. 22.6±0.5 11.4±0.6 125.6±25.5 8.0±0.05 1.8±0.1 1.8±0.1
Calotropis sp. 18.5±0.7* 3.3±0.5* 88.3±12.5** 0.5±0.01 1.5±0.1 6.5±0.1*
III Euphorbia sp. 8.6±0.2 11.4±0.4 95.7±10.0 11.5±0.5 6.5±0.1 5.6±0.5
Croton sp. 9.8±0.8 15.4±0.7 113.7±8.6* 14.0±0.1 0.5±0.1 4.5±0.2*
Nerium sp. 11.8±0.5* 9.8±0.6 98.0±7.5** 8.6±0.1 1.5±0.1 8.6±0.2
Bougainvillea sp. 21.6±0.8 8.1±0.7 92.4±10.5 11.0±0.05 12.0±0.1 10.9±0.2
Ageratum sp. 16.5±0.8* 15.5±0.5 75.8±8.5 12.5±0.1 4.0±0.1 12.5±0.5
Parthenium sp. 18.5±0.7* 12.07±0.8 73.6±5.5* 6.1±0.1* 12.6±0.1 6.8±0.5
Calotropis sp. 22.2±0.6* 14.1±0.6 125.6±12.5** 2.0±0. 1 0.8±0.2 8.5±0.1*
84
Table 4.2.2B: Heavy metals accumulation in wild plant species at various locations about 5 km away from the express highway (NH 25) in proposed Ganga expressway area (Unnao district, U.P.) at Post-monsoon period (2011).
Sites PlantsHeavy metals (µg g-1 dry weight)
Zn Cu Fe Cd Cr Ni
II Euphorbia sp. 18.6±1.5* 12.5±2.0 55.6±5.0 0.08±0.1 ND ND
Croton sp. 15.8±1.5 8.2±1.0 46.5±2.5** ND 1.0±0.1 2.5±0.5
Nerium sp. 20.5±2.0* 9.7±1.0 30.3±1.5* ND 0.8±0.1 1.8±0.2
Bougainvillea sp. 13.3±1.0 11.5±1.0* 55.5±5.0* 0.05±0.1 0.5±0.1 2.5±0.1
Ageratum sp. 12.1±1.0 15.8±1.0 30.5±2.5 ND ND ND
Parthenium sp. 14.6±2.0* 6.7±1.0 41.8±3.8 ND 0.5±0.1 5.0±0.1
Calotropis sp. 15.8±1.5 8.8±0.5 51.1±2.8 ND ND 6.8±0.5
IV Euphorbia sp. 11.8±1.0* 14.4±1.6 40.4±5.0* ND ND ND
Croton sp. 12.4±1.5 6.3±1.0 30.5±2.5 0.09±0.01 ND 1.6±0.1
Nerium sp. 11.8±1.0* 10.7±1.0 15.5±1.5* 0.06±0.01 ND 8.5±0.5
Bougainvillea sp. 14.6±0.8 13.5±1.5 38.6±2.5 ND ND 10.5±0.5
Ageratum sp. 19.4±2.0* 15.0±1.8 45.5±5.0** ND ND ND
Parthenium sp. 14.5±1.5* 9.2±0.8 50.6±2.5** ND ND 6.0±0.1
Calotropis sp. 17.6±1.5 16.1±1.5 41.8±3.8** ND ND 2.4±0.1
ND- not detectable; ± - S.E. value; * - value significant at 0.05 level and **- value significant at 0.01 level.
85
4.2.2 Biochemical responses of wild plant species.
Pigments
Pigments content (chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll and carotenoids) in
leaves of Nerium, Bougainvillea and Croton were estimated, grown at various sites of
expressway (NH 25). The chlorophyll ‘a’ content in leaves was ranged from 0.18 to
0.60 mg g-1 fr. wt. at sites I and III; and from 0.31 to 0.98 at sites II and IV.
Chlorophyll ‘a’ content in plants studied was high at site II and IV as compared to
sites I and III. Maximum chlorophyll ‘a’ content was determined in Croton leaves as
compared to Nerium and Bougainvillea leaves.
Chlorophyll ,b, content in leaves was ranged from 0.56 to 1.45 mg g-1 fr. wt. at
site I and III; and from 0.35 to 1.12 mg g -1 fr. wt. at site II and IV. The value of
chlorophyll ‘b’ content was estimated more in plants grown just near to
expresshighway (NH 25) as compared to plants away from the expresshighway
determined in pre-monsoon period (Table 4.2.3). Chlorophyll ‘a’ and ‘b’ contents was
determined higher in plants (test plants) at post-monsoon period as compared to pre-
monsoon period. The chlorophyll a content in leaves at post-monsoon period ranged
from 0.48 to 1.70 mg g-1 fr. wt. at site I and III, and 0.55 to 1.45 mg g-1 fr. wt. at site II
and IV. Total chlorophyll content estimated in wild plant species ranged from 1.0 to
2.59 mg g-1 fr. wt. at site I and III; and 1.14 to 2.93 mg g -1 fr. wt. at site II and IV,
were observed in pre-monsoon period. At post-monsoon period, total chlorophyll
content ranged from 1.6 to 2.3 mg g-1 fr. wt. at site I; and III and from 1.5 to 2.8 mg g -
1 fr. wt. at site II and IV, were observed. The total chlorophyll content was found to
elevated at post-monsoon period as compared to pre-monsoon period. The elevated
total chlorophyll content (>2 mg g-1 fr. wt.) was observed in Croton sps. at site I and
86
III, whereas in Nerium, Bougainvillea and Croton at site II, observed at post-monsoon
period. In over all studies, Croton species showed maximum chlorophyll content as
compared to other wild species studied. Wild plants grown just near to express
highway (NH 25) compared with wild plants grown at about 5 km away from the
express highway (NH 25) did not showed a regular pattern of total chlorophyll
content in their leaf tissues (Table 4.2.3).
Carotenoids content showed higher value at site I and III in Croton (from 0.89
to 1.25 mg g-1 fr. wt.) than other species studied in pre-monsoon period. Whereas,
differences in carotenoids content, plants were not significant at different locations of
express highway (NH 25). The carotenoids content ranged from 0.84 to 1.25 at site I
and III; and from 0.65 to 1.12 mg g-1 fr. wt. at site II and IV were observed at pre-
monsoon period. At post-monsoon period carotenoids content slightly increased as
compared to the estimation in pre-monsoon period. Maximum 1.25 mg g-1 fr. wt. in
Croton in pre-monsoon period, and 1.65 mg g-1 fr. wt. in Croton in post-monsoon
period were observed. In most of the cases, carotenoids content did not show any
regular pattern at different sites (I to IV) near express highway (NH 25).
Total protein contents estimated and data presented in the Table 4.2.2. In all
over studies, protein content in wild species were more at site I and III (0-10 m from
express way as compared to site II and IV (about 5 km away from the expressway).
At sites I and III, total protein content in leaves of Croton, Bougainvillea and Nerium
ranged from 416 to 6.8 µ g g-1 fr. wt.; and at sites II and IV from 398 to 560 µ g g -1 fr.
wt. were observed at pre-monsoon period. Protein content showed higher values in
plants determined in post-monsoon period as compared the values at pre-monsoon
period. The elevated levels in protein content (above 650 µ g g-1 fr. wt.) was observed
780.5 µg g-1 fr. wt. in Nerium at site IV, 665 µg g-1 fr. wt. in Nerium at site III and 651
87
µg g-1 fr. wt. in croton at site IV, were observed at post-monsoon period. Also, protein
content was found to be higher at sites I and III as compared to sites II and IV. Least
value of protein content 398 µ g g-1 fr. wt. in Bougainvillea in pre-monsoon and410
µg g-1 fr. wt. in Bougainvillea in post-monsoon period was determined. Therefore, in
most of the cases Bougainvillea plants showed low value of carotenoids and protein
content in their tissues as compared to Croton and Nerium.
88
Table 4.2.3: Biochemical constituents (carotenoids (mg g-1 fresh weight) and protein contents (µg g-1 fresh weight)) in wild plant species grown at various locations near express highway (NH 25) in proposed Ganga expressway area (Unnao district) observed at pre-monsoon and post-monsoon period (2011).
Sites PlantsPre-monsoon Post-monsoon
Carotenoids Protein Carotenoids Protein
I Nerium sp. 0.84±0.1* 415.9±0.2 0.92±0.3 488.6±2.1*
Bougainvillea sp. 0.89±0.5 536.3±0.1 0.85±0.2 610.2±5.6*
Croton sp. 1.25±0.1 525.9±5.5 1.12±0.1* 600.0±20.8
II Nerium sp. 0.85±0.1* 428.5±11.4 0.94±0.5 490.8±3.9**
Bougainvillea sp. 0.65±0.1 398.0±10.5 0.80±0.5 410.5±15.5
Crotom sp. 0.89±0.2 475.8±10.0** 1.5±0.2 525.5±20.5
III Nerium sp. 1.12±0.2* 576.8±15.5 0.98±0.5* 665.6±20.8**
Bougainvillea sp. 0.98±0.1 608.2±10.0 1.10±0.2 598.8±20.0
Croton sp. 1.15±0.2 510.8±10.5 1.50±0.5 475.6±18.5
IV Nerium sp. 0.95±0.2 560.0±15.0 1.54±0.5* 780.5±35.5
Bougainvillea sp. 0.76±0.1 480.5±8.5* 1.12±0.2 610.8±28.5
Croton sp. 0.98±0.1 498.0±10.0 1.65±0.1* 650.5±30.6
± - S.E. value; * - value significant at 0.05 level and **- value significant at 0.01 level. Site I and III – near (0-10 m) express highway and Site II and IV – away (about 5 km) from the express highway.
89
Table 4.2.4: Biochemical constituents (chlorophylls content mg g-1 fresh weight) in wild plants species grown at various locations near expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area (Unnao district) at pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season (2011).
Sites PlantsPre-monsoon Post-monsoon
Chl. a Chl. b Total Chl. Chl. a Chl. b Total Chl.
I Nerium sp. 0.39±0.1* 0.72±0.1* 1.0±0.1 0.56±0.2 0.97±0.5* 1.86±0.5**
Bougainvillea sp. 0.31±0.1 0.56±0.1 2.2±0.1 0.42±0.1 0.48±0.2 1.60±0.2
Croton sp. 0.51±0.1 0.92±0.2 2.59±0.5 0.72±0.1 1.20±0.2 2.32±0.5
II Nerium sp. 0.46±0.1 0.85±0.1 2.53±0.5 0.62±0.2** 0.78±0.2 2.65±0.5
Bougainvillea sp. 0.31±0.1 0.57±0.1 2.93±0.5 0.48±0.1 0.75±0.2* 2.76±0.5
Crotom sp. 0.75±0.1 0.35±0.1 2.15±0.1 0.43±0.5 0.55±0.2* 2.25±0.5
III Nerium sp. 0.62±0.1 1.45±0.2 1.34±0.2 0.85±0.1 1.30±0.5 1.65±0.5
Bougainvillea sp. 0.18±0.1 1.0±0.1 1.60±0.2 0.66±0.1 1.25±0.5* 1.86±0.5*
Croton sp. 0.60±0.1* 1.45±0.2** 1.69±0.2 0.92±0.2 1.70±0.5* 2.25±0.5
IV Nerium sp. 0.57±0.1 1.10±0.1 1.29±0.1 0.76±0.2 1.45±0.2 1.89±0.2**
Bougainvillea sp. 0.68±0.2 0.98±0.2 1.42±0.1 0.86±0.1 0.90±0.5 1.68±0.5
Croton sp. 0.98±0.1 1.12±0.1* 1.14±0.1 0.77±0.2 1.30±0.2* 1.50±0.1**
± - S.E. value; * - value significant at 0.05 level and **- value significant at 0.01 level. Site I and III – near (0-10 m) express highway and Site II and IV – away (about 5 km) from the express highway.
90
4.3: Experiment
Physico-chemical properties of soils at various sites near expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area (Unnao district).
A composite soil sample was collected from each study sites in the year 2011-
12 (at three periodical times). The site I and III was located just near to express
highway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district of U.P. state
(India), and site II and IV was located at about 5 km away from the expresshighway
(NH 25). These composite soils were sampled, prepared and analyzed for their
physical (texture and density) and chemical (pH, E.C., Ca, Mg, Carbonate,
bicarbonate, chloride, phosphorus and DTPA extractable available Zn, Cu, and Fe
contents) properties. Data are presented in Table 4.3.1 and 4.3.2.
4.3.1: Physico-chemical properties of soils at sites I and III.
The site I and III located just near (0-50 m) to express highway (NH 25) in
Unnao district, data are presented in table 4.3.1. The soil pH was moderately to highly
alkaline in range (7.5-8.6). At on average data soil in close vicinity to expressway
(NH 25) was moderately alkaline in reaction (pH < 0.0). Electrical conductance was
high ranged from 1.5 to 1.8 mS/cm. Soil was sandy loam with low organic matter
content (average 0.2 to 0.25%) and calcareous in nature. Calcium content in soil at
site I and III was determined <6.0 meq./100 g soil; and magnesium content showed
the value 12.5 to 15.6 meq./100 g soil. The presence of carbonate and bicarbonate
ions was observed in the soil near the expressway, average carbonate ions 0.4; and
bicarbonate ions 0.3 meq./l) were determined. At these sites (site I and III) iron
content in soil showed high values. The Fe content ranged 150-280 µg g-1 soil at site I,
and 60 to 86 µg g-1 soil at site II were observed. The DTPA extractable zinc and
copper determined 0.58-0.81 ppm Zn and 0.15 to 0.26 ppm Cu, respectively in the
91
soil collected from site I and III. Near express highway, soil contained high content of
chromium (Cr) and nickel (ranged from 0.12 to 0.15 ppm Ni, and 0.04 to 0.13 ppm
Cr).
4.3.2 Physico-chemical properties of soil at site II and IV
The soils from site II and IV (located at about 5 km away from the express
highway (NH 25). The soils of these sites were sandy to silty loam in texture and
alkaline in pH. The soil pH was moderately alkaline (pH < 8.0) at site II and IV. Also,
soil showed high value of E.C. (1.28 to 1.36 mS/cm), calcium carbonate (1.32 to
1.46%) with low bulk density (Table 4.3.2). The value of calcium (2.8 to 3.2
meq./100 g soil) and magnesium (8.5 to 9.8 meq./100 g soil) observed in soil at site II
and IV. The high value of carbonate and bicarbonate ions were observed 0.5 to 0.8
and 0.36 to 0.6 meq./l, respectively. The phosphorus content in soil also determined in
soils (<50 µ g g-1 soil). Iron content in soil ranged minimum 60 and maximum 280 µ g
g-1 soils at site II and IV. The Zn content (0.8 to 1.35 ppm) was high as compare to Cu
(0.52 to 0.40 ppm) content in soil. A very low concentrations of Ni was observed (up
to 0.12 ppm), whereas at some places the Ni concentration was not detectable in
range. The Cr content in all the soil samples was found not detectable in the samples
of sites II and IV, while determined at site I and III.
Comparatively, E.C. value in soil at site I and III was high (1.8 mS/cm) as
compared to site II and IV (1.3 mS/cm). At all the study sites, soil texture was
determined sandy loam to silty loam. Organic matter content was two to three times
more at site II and IV (< 0.3%) as compared to site I and III (> 0.81%). There was no
major difference was observed in calcium carbonate content in soil at all study sites.
Calcium and magnesium content was higher in soils near expresshighway (NH 25) as
compared to soils away from the expresshighway at study sites. Carbonate and
92
bicarbonate ions are present high in soils at sites I and III as compared to sites II and
IV. Iron and phosphorus content is essential for plant growth, these nutrients
determined is soil was higher at site I and III as compared to site II and IV. Zinc and
Cu content also showed similar results as by Fe and P. Whereas, Ni and Cr content
was less at sites II and IV as compared to sites I and III located near expresshighway
(NH 25).
Table 4.3.1: Physico-chemical properties of soils collected from various sites just near to express highway - NH 25 (0-50 m) at proposed Ganga expressway area (Unnao district).
ParametersSite I Site III
Min. Max. Average Min. Max. Average
pH (1: 2.5, soil: water ratio) 7.9 8.6 7.8 7.5 8.0 7.6
E.C. (mS/cm) 1.2 2.1 1.8 1.0 1.8 1.5
Texture Sandy loam Sandy loam
Bulk density (g/m3) 1.2 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.6
Organic matter (%) 0.16 0.36 0.25 0.18 0.29 0.20
Calcium carbonate (%) 1.21 1.45 1.28 0.96 1.5 1.35
Calcium (meq./100 g soil) 3.8 5.5 4.5 2.9 42 3.8
Magnesium (meq./100 g soil) 12.5 16.5 14.5 13.8 18.0 15.6
Phosphorus (µg/g) 14.8 28.0 19.5 20.0 30.0 27.5
Carbonate (meq./l) 0.4 0.6 0.45 0.2 0.6 0.4
Bicarbonate (meq./l) 0.1 0.3 0.20 0.15 0.4 0.30
Iron (ppm) 150.0 280.0 110.0 60.0 86.0 70.0
Available zinc (ppm) 0.42 0.86 0.58 0.38 89 0.81
Available copper (ppm) 0.08 0.25 0.15 0.1 0.36 0.26
Nickel (ppm) 0.08 0.15 0.12 0.06 0.18 0.12
Chromium (ppm) 0.006 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.16 0.12
93
Table 4.3.2: Physico-chemical properties of soils collected from various sites about 5 km away from express highway (NH-25) at proposed Ganga expressway area, Unnao district.
ParametersSite II Site IV
Min. Max. Average Min. Max. Average
pH (1: 2.5, soil: water ratio) 7.2 7.9 7.5 7.4 8.5 7.8
E.C. (mS/cm) 0.73 1.6 1.28 0.93 1.78 1.36
Texture Sandy loam Sandy loam
Bulk density (g/m3) 0.98 1.2 1.0 0.88 1.3 0.90
Organic matter (%) 0.46 1.34 1.15 0.69 1.60 0.83
Calcium carbonate (%) 0.72 3.6 1.46 1.29 1.50 1.32
Calcium (meq./100 g soil) 2.5 4.8 3.2 2.0 4.2 2.8
Magnesium (meq./100 g soil) 7.8 10.5 8.5 5.6 13.8 9.8
Carbonate (meq./l) 0.3 1.5 0.5 0.5 1.2 0.8
Bicarbonate (meq./l) 0.2 0.6 0.36 0.08 0.9 0.6
Phosphorus (µg/g) 6.0 20.0 18.0 12.0 25.0 18.5
Iron (ppm) 40 60 55 60 80 75
Available zinc (ppm) 0.58 1.4 0.8 0.75 1.86 1.35
Available copper (ppm) 0.28 0.8 0.52 0.31 0.58 0.40
Nickel (ppm) ND 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.12 0.08
Chromium (ppm) ND ND ND ND ND ND
ND - not detectable.
94
4.4: Experiment
Physico-chemical properties of surface and ground waters near expresshighway (NH 25) at various study sites at proposed Ganga expressway area, (Unnao district).
Physico-chemical properties of surface water and ground water was analysed
and data presented in Tables (4.4.1A, 4.4.1B, 4.4.2A, 4.4.2B, 4.4.3A, 4.4.3B, 4.4.4A
and 4.2.4B). The samples of surface water and ground water were collected around 10
am for 15 consecutive days during the summer season (April to June, 2011). These
collected samples were analyzed for pH, E.C., solids, hardness, chloride, carbonate,
bicarbonate, calcium and some potentially toxic heavy metals content (Cr, Fe, Ni and
Zn), following the standard methods described in Chapter-3. The surface water and
ground waters were collected near the expresshighway (0 – 50 m, site I and III) and
about 5 km away from the Express highway (site II and III).
4.4.1 Physico-chemical properties of surface water
At site I and III, surface waters were alkaline in reaction (pH>8.5), showed
high value of electrical conductance (>10.5 mS/cm) and contained high solids
content. At site I, the value of total solids was about three times more (7760 mg/l)
than the site III (2500 mg/l). Hardness of water estimated as CaCO3 showed
maximum value 430 and 450 mg/l at site I and III, respectively. Surface water was
more hard with respect to presence of CaCO3 at site III as compared to site I. The
chloride (363 mg/l) and carbonate (0.5 meq./l) content was found to higher at site I
than site III (chloride 220 mg/l and carbonate nil) in surface waters. Both the sites I
and III was located just near to expresshighway (NH 25) showed higher values of
bicarbonate (9.0 meq./l at site I and 6.5 meq./l at site III). The value of calcium
content in water was found in the range of 50-66.8 mg/l at study sites I and III
95
adjacent (0-50 m) to expresshighway (NH 25). Some potentially toxic heavy metals
(Cr, Fe, Ni and Zn) also showed high values ranged from 0.35 ppm to 40.5 ppm in
surface water samples near the expresshighway (0-50 m distance). The concentration
of these metals was observed in the order Fe>Zn>Ni>Cr.
Table 4.4.1A : Physico-chemical properties of surface water near expresshighway (NH 25) at site I at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
ParametersValue ISI Standards
(1999)*Minimum Maximum Average
pH 8.4 8.9 8.5 5.5-8.0
EC (mS/cm) 10.30 12.56 11.28 -
Total solids (mg/l) 6560 7760 7110 2000
Hardness (mg/l) 290 430 360 600
Chloride (mg/l) 580 760 680 600
Carbonate (meq./l) 0.4 0.6 0.5 -
Bicarbonate (meq./l) 6.5 10.5 9.0 -
Iron (ppm) 28.6 40.5 33.2 0.5
Calcium (mg/l) 51.30 66.8 55.5 <0.05
Chromium (mg/l) 0.35 0.48 0.45 0.05
Nickel (mg/l) 0.55 0.78 0.65 <0.01
Zinc (mg/l) 5.0 6.5 5.5 5-15
* Indian Standard Institution: Discharge limit of polluted water in surface water bodies.
96
Table 4.4.1B: Physico-chemical properties of ground water near expresshighway (NH 25) at site I at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
ParametersValue ISI Standards
(1999)*Minimum Maximum Average
pH 7.6 8.2 7.8 5.0-8.0
EC (mS/cm) 0.4 1.8 0.8 -
Total solids (mg/l) 1540 1850 1625 2000
Hardness (mg/l) 186 295 160 600
Chloride (mg/l) 52.54 65.5 60.5 600
Carbonate (meq./l) Nil nil nil -
Bicarbonate (meq./l) 4.0 6.0 4.5 -
Iron (ppm) 20.0 28.0 25.0 5.0
Calcium (mg/l) 36.0 46.5 42.8 -
Chromium (mg/l) 0.008 0.002 0.01 <0.05
Nickel (mg/l) 0.081 0.096 0.088 <0.01
Zinc (mg/l) 2.5 6.5 4.8 5-15
* Indian Standard Institution: Discharge limit of polluted water in surface water bodies.
97
The surface waters collected from sites II and IV (about 5 km away from the
expresshighway (NH 25) were in alkaline range (pH 7.5 to 8.6). The electrical
conductance was measured in the range of 7.5 to 5.0 mS/cm, also showed high values.
But, pH and E.C. values of surface waters at site II and IV was much lower as
compared to site I and III. At these study sites (II and IV), the maximum average
value of total solids, hardness and chloride were observed 185, 110 and 95.5 mg/l,
respectively. The presence of bicarbonate in water samples was observed in surface
waters on both the sites II and IV, the carbonate content was found nil at these sites.
The value of bicarbonate content was higher at site II (maximum 12.5 meq./l) as
compared to site IV (maximum 0.8 meq./l) in surface waters. Surface waters away
from the expresshighway showed high value of calcium as compared to site I and III
(which was near the express highway). Surface waters at site II and IV also contained
heavy metals content (Cr, Zn, Fe and Ni), although concentration was much lower
than in surface waters of site I and III. Maximum value of heavy metals in surface
waters at site II and IV was observed in the range 0.01 to 18.6 mg/l. The
concentration of heavy metals was found in the order Fe>Zn>Ni>Cr.
The surface waters analyzed for some pollution parameters at site I and III
(near to the Express highway) compared with surface waters naturally collected in pits
at site II and IV (about 5 km away from the Express highway (NH 25). Surface waters
near Express highway (NH 25) was more alkaline (pH>8.5) with high electrical
conductance (>12 mS/cm), contained high value of solids (>7760 mg/l) and heavy
metals (ranged 0.46 to 28 ppm) as compared to surface waters collected about 5 km
away from the expresshighway. Chloride content at its elevated levels cause salinity
to the water, it was also high (>200 mg/l) at site I and III as compared to II and IV.
98
The heavy metals such as iron, nickel, zinc and chromium contents was also showed
higher concentration in surface waters at site I and III than the sites II and IV.
4.4.2: Physico-chemical properties of ground water
The ground water quality was estimated at sites I to IV, and data presented in
the Table 4.4.1B, 4.4.2B, 4.2.3B and 4.2.4B). The ground watrers at site I and III (Just
near (0-50 m) to expresshighway (NH 25) was alkaline in range (pH>7.0). Also
showed high E.C. value (ranged 0.8-3.6 mS/cm), total solids (ranged 1250-1625
mg/l), hardness (ranged 65-90 mg/l) and chloride values (ranged 60.5 to 80 mg/l). The
value of hardness, chloride and total solids was higher at site I as compared to site III.
Whereas, the value of chloride in ground water was higher at site III than the site I.
Carbonate content was determined nil at sites I and III, whereas showed presence of
bicarbonate (ranged 1.8 to 4.5 meq./l). The value of bicarbonate was more in ground
water at site I as compared to site III. The ground water also contained elevated
content of heavy metals ranged 0.025 to 28 mg/l, observed at both sites I and III just
near expressway. Maximum value of Fe was observed 25 ppm at site I and 12.5 ppm
at site III. The average value of heavy metals was found in order Fe>Zn>Ni>Cr in
ground water.
99
Table 4.4.2A: Physico-chemical properties of surface water about 5 km away from the expresshighway (NH 25) at site II in proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
ParametersValue ISI Standards
(1999)*Minimum Maximum Average
pH 8.5 9.5 8.6 5.5-8.0
EC( mS/cm) 6.0 8.5 7.5 -
Total solids (mg/l) 1500 2450 1850 2000
Hardness (mg/l) 102 125 110 600
Chloride (mg/l) 92.3 113.0 95.5 1000
Carbonate (meq./l) Nil nil nil -
Bicarbonate (meq./l) 7.0 12.5 10.5 -
Iron (ppm) 12.0 22.5 18.6 -
Calcium (mg/l) 35.0 70.0 56.8 -
Chromium (mg/l) 0.06 0.15 0.08 0.05
Nickel (mg/l) 0.05 0.25 0.10 <0.01
Zinc (mg/l) 0.48 0.56 0.50 5-15
* Indian Standard Institution: Discharge limit of polluted water in surface water bodies.
100
Table 4.4.2B: Physico-chemical properties of ground water about 5 km away from the express-highway (NH 25) at site II at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
ParametersValue ISI Standards
(1999)*Minimum Maximum Average
pH 7.6 7.8 7.8 5.0-8.0
EC (mS/cm) 0.6 1.3 0.8 -
Total solids (mg/l) 440 618 565 2000
Hardness (mg/l) 130 145 140 600
Chloride (mg/l) 5.6 9.5 6.8 600
Carbonate (meq./l) 0.6 0.8 0.6 -
Bicarbonate (meq./l) 2.4 4.2 3.8 -
Iron (ppm) 1.8 4.6 2.1 0.5
Calcium (mg/l) 18.43 20.4 19.2 -
Chromium (mg/l) Nil 0.064 0.003 <0.05
Nickel (mg/l) 0.028 0.028 0.065 <0.01
Zinc (mg/l) 1.8 6.2 3.25 5-15
* Indian Standard Institution: Discharge limit of polluted water in surface water bodies.
101
The physico-chemical properties of ground water collected from about 5 km
away from expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao
district presented in Table 4.4.2B and 4.4.4B. The ground water moderately alkaline
(pH 7.6-7.8) and showed high value of E.C., bicarbonate and solids at site I. Hardness
value was found within limit of prescribed standard value ISI (1974). The heavy
metals was found below the prescribed limit of Central Pollution Control Board
adopted ISI (1974) value. Whereas, nickel and chromium contents showed higher
values at certain places than the prescribed standard norms. The heavy metals was
found in the order Fe>Zn>Ni>Cr.
Ground water quality at site IV was also found not suitable with respect to
some parameters such as E.C., total solids, and chromium content. At this site water
was alkaline (slightly) contained high content of solids (800-1200 mg/l) and chloride
(8 to 12 meq./l). Carbonate content was nil in ground water at site IV. Also water
contained some heavy metals such as iron (2.8 to 3.5 ppm), chromium (0.004 to 0.009
ppm), nickel (0.011 to 0.05 ppm) and zinc (5 to 8.2 ppm) contents in ground water.
The average range of heavy metals was observed in order Fe>Zn>Ni>Cr. At site II
carbonate content was present from 0.6 to 0.8 meq./l, whereas found nil at site IV.
The heavy metals content was more at site II as compared to site IV, while these
ground waters were not affected with activities of expresshighway( NH 25).
The parameters of ground water quality were compared from sites I and III
(just near expresshighway) to sites II and IV (about 5 km away from the Expressway).
Ground water at all studied sites were alkaline in nature but alkalinity was more at site
III (Table 4.4.3B) than sites II and IV. Other values such as total solids, E.C.,
hardness, chloride and calcium contents was higher at sites I and III as compared to
102
sites II and IV. Heavy metals content (Fe, Zn, Ni and Cr) in ground water was found
also very high at sites I and III than the sites II and IV.
Table 4.4.3A: Physico-chemical properties of surface water near expresshighway (NH 25) at site III at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
ParametersValue ISI Standards
(1999)*Minimum Maximum Average
pH 7.2 7.6 7.4 5.5-8.0
EC (mS/cm) 8.0 13.5 13.5 -
Total solids (mg/l) 2100 2800 2500 2000
Hardness (mg/l) 320 800 710 600
Chloride (mg/l) 185 265 220 600
Carbonate (meq./l) Nil Nil nil -
Bicarbonate (meq./l) 5.6 8.0 6.5 -
Iron (ppm) 20 28 21 0.5
Calcium (mg/l) 50.10 60.5 55.0 -
Chromium (mg/l) 0.46 0.50 0.48 <0.05
Nickel (mg/l) 0.48 0.69 0.50 <0.01
Zinc (mg/l) 2.8 4.6 3.71 5-15
* Indian Standard Institution: Discharge limit of polluted water in surface water bodies.
103
Table 4.4.3B: Physico-chemical properties of ground water near expresshighway (NH 25) at location III at proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
ParametersValue ISI Standards
(1999)*Minimum Maximum Average
pH 8.0 8.5 8.2 5.0-8.0
EC (mS/cm) 3.5 4.0 3.6 -
Total solids (mg/l) 950 1800 1250 2000
Hardness (mg/l) 42 80 65 600
Chloride (mg/l) 60 110 80 600
Carbonate (meq./l) Nil Nil nil -
Bicarbonate (meq./l) 1.6 2.5 1.8 -
Iron (ppm) 10 0.15 12.5 0.5
Calcium (mg/l) 26.45 30.0 28.0 -
Chromium (mg/l) 0.045 0.052 0.040 <0.05
Nickel (mg/l) 0.038 0.059 0.048 <0.01
Zinc (mg/l) 5.4 6.5 5.5 5-15
* Indian Standard Institution: Discharge limit of polluted water in surface water bodies.
104
Table 4.4.4A: Physico-chemical properties of surface water about 5 km away from expresshighway (NH 25) at site IV in proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
ParametersValue ISI Standards
(1999)*Minimum Maximum Average
pH 7.8 8.2 7.5 5.0-8.0
EC (mS/cm) 4.5 6.5 5.0 -
Total solids (mg/l) 1500 2200 180 2000
Hardness (mg/l) 80 120 18.0 600
Chloride (mg/l) 17 20 18.0 600
Carbonate (meq./l) Nil nil nil -
Bicarbonate (meq./l) 0.4 0.8 .06 -
Iron (ppm) 15 10 8.0 0.50
Calcium (mg/l) 20.8 40.6 32.8 -
Chromium (mg/l) 0.068 0.25 0.056 <0.05
Nickel (mg/l) 0.328 0.859 0.560 <0.01
Zinc (mg/l) 1.2 5.8 3.2 5-15
* Indian Standard Institution: Discharge limit of polluted water in surface water bodies.
105
Table 4.4.4B: Physico-chemical properties of ground water about 5 km away from expresshighway (NH 25) at site IV in proposed Ganga expressway area in Unnao district.
ParametersValue ISI Standards
(1999)*Minimum Maximum Average
pH 7.2 7.9 7.5 5.0-8.0
EC (mS/cm) 1.4 2.8 1.8 -
Total solids (mg/l) 800 1200 850 2000
Hardness (mg/l) 30 60 40 600
Chloride (mg/l) 8 12 9.5 600
Carbonate (meq./l) Nil nil nil -
Bicarbonate (meq./l) 0.24 2.4 1.8 -
Iron (mg/l) 2.8 3.5 2.8 0.5
Calcium (mg/l) 2.6 4.0 3.2 -
Chromium (mg/l) 0.004 0.009 0.005 <0.05
Nickel (mg/l) 0.011 0.05 0.03 <0.01
Zinc (mg/l) 5.0 8.2 6.0 5-15
* Indian Standard Institution: Discharge limit of polluted water in surface water bodies
106
Chapter 5
Discussion
The study was undertaken to find out the current status of environment (soil,
water and plants) in the area under the vicinity of expresshighway (NH 25) used for
transportation since 20 years. This highway (NH 25) is crossing the proposed Ganga
expressway area (Unnao district) just before (about 500 m) the Ganga river (in
Kanpur district). Therefore, study showed a high risk of ecological disturbances due
to transportation. In the study area, the pollution in Ganga river due to industrial
activities have been reported (Singh and Pandey, 2011; Sinha and Pandey, 2003).
Also, in the vicinity of industrial setup in Unnao district, the accumulation of heavy
metals in soil and plants has been reported (Sahu et al., 2007). The accumulation of
these pollutants in environment pose detrimental effects on living organisms (Baker,
1990; Barman et al., 2001). They enter into food web and biomagnified cause
ecological disturbances (Basta et al., 2005).
The field observation results 4.1 and 4.1.4, showed valuable importance of
transportation as in consonance with Kumar (2012). On the other hand, adverse
effects of operations of express highway on soil, water and plants in nearby areas
described earlier (Kumar, 2012) to adverse effects of transportation on the
environment. Observations showed that the proposed Ganga expressway will run
through the area of a large agricultural field they may be affected with transport
activities in future (Kumar and Pandey, 2010). The proposed Ganga expressway area
may also be develop uneven and degraded due to the construction work near the
expresshighway (NH 25). Due to the construction work, a large nearby areas of
Ganga expressway may be converted into a unfertile land (Adeyeye, 2005). The
107
chance of soil erosion increased in uneven area, which make it eroded and unfertile
(Brady and Weil, 1996), as in this study a large uneven area observed with a large
number of different sizes of pits at expresshighway (NH 25). These eroded land
supported poor vegetation could be due to the loss of macro (Brady, 1996) and
micronutrients (Sharma, 2006). The development of poor vegetation in the study areas
due to the deficiency of minerals and soil conditions was also found in accord with
Pandey (2014), Gimmler et al. (2002) and Marschner (2003). The animals and human
beings living near the expresshighway (NH 25) was observed, they may be under
danger of health due to pollutants emitted from transport activities (Kumar, 2012).
The heavy metals from the automobile exhaust accumulate in living organisms and
pose health risk have been observed (Bunzl et al., 2001; Cobb et al., 2000). The poor
growth of wild plant species as well as crop plants could be due to the loss of soil
fertility (Adeyeye, 2005; Alumaa et al., 2002) and pollutants emitted due to transport
activities (Barman et al., 2000). Observations (Results 4.1.4) showed poor vegetation
and crop growth with uneven land at site I and III. The most of the pits near express
highway (NH 25) were filled with water, and grazing animals were using this water
for drinking. These waters in pits accumulated by run-off water and drainage of
human activities near expresshighway (NH 25), use of these water may pose health
hazards to grazing animals (Albasel and Cotteme, 1985). Contamination of water
bodies might lead to a change in their trophic structure and render them unsuitable for
aquatic life (Vajpayee et al., 2001).
The leaves of plants in the study area were highly dusted and coated with
black coloured smoke particles. These appearance was mainly due to the settled dust
particles on the leaves as well as due to exposure of emitted pollutants from the light
and heavy vehicles on the expresshighway (NH 25) as observed earlier by Rogge et
108
al. (1993). The wild plants near the expresshighway (NH 25) were poor in growth,
leaves were small in size, chlorotic and necrotic, comparatively the wild plants away
from the expresshighway (NH 25) showed better growth. These visible effects could
be developed due to continuous exposure of automobile exhaust to the plants near the
road (Kumar, 2012) and toxicity of air born pollutants to the plants (Mckenzie et al.,
2005). The dust particles and smokes coated leaves alter exposure of light intensity
may interfere the photosynthetic activity by interrupting the light incidence on leaf
surface, a cause of low growth (Sharma, 2006; Pandey and Sharma, 2002). The
scattered agricultural crops with poor growth and adverse visible effects were
observed in study area were compared to properly growing crops away from the
expresshighway (NH 25). These poor growth parameters of crops observed, could be
attributed by the poor fertility of soil near expresshighway (Sharma, 2012) and poor
nutritional status of the soil (Brady and Weil, 1996). The crops showed poor growth
may also be due to the polluted water accumulated in pits near expresshighway (NH
25) and their use for irrigation of these crops, in accord with some workers (Barma et
al., 2001). These results also in consonance with observations of several other
workers (Pandey, 2004; Pandey and Nautiyal, 2008; Toze, 2006).
In experiment 4.2, the accumulation of some important heavy metals in some
commonly growing wild plant species was determined, their concentrations in tissues
alter metabolic activities have been reported (Rodriguez et al.,2007). Also, some
important biochemical constituents (chlorophylls and protein contents) were
determined in wild plants (Nerium, Bougainvillea and Croton). The status of these
biochemical constituents are indicative of plant health has been reported ( Poskuta et
al., 1996). The wild plants just near (0-50m) to expresshighway (NH 25) showed
higher concentration of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Fe, Cd, Cr and Ni) accumulation than
109
the plants away from the transportation activities it could be due to the continuous
exposure of pollutants loaded with these heavy metals discharged by the vehicles
(Kumar, 2012), plants in exposure with automobile exhaust near road side accumulate
elevated levels of heavy metals such as Fe, Cd, Pb, Cr and Ni have also been reported
(Kumar and Pandey, 2010; Pandey, 2006a). Some accumulated metals in wild plants,
are essential elements (Zn, Cu, Fe and Ni) promoted growth and metabolic activities
in plants (Sharma, 2006). But some metals are not essential to plant growth (Cd and
Cr), the metals pose adverse effects on growth and metabolism of plants even at low
concentrations described earlier (Guo and Marschner, 1995). A high accumulation of
heavy metals in plants have been reported either through exposure of automobile
exhaust (Kumar, 2010) or pollution in soil near highways (Albasel and Cotteme,
1985) and irrigation with polluted water (Scancar et al., 2000; Schmidt, 2003). The
accumulation of heavy metals in plants depend on various factors (Adriano, 2001).
Due to the accumulation of heavy metals in plants from a long time may pose risk of
loss of biodiversity (Sharma, 2012).
Maximum accumulation of Fe in wild plants studied was observed, it could be
due to higher Fe content in air and soil near expresshighway (NH 25). Similar results
also reported the pollution by some workers due to transport activities (Vousta et al.,
1996; Kumar and Pandey, 2010). Accumulation of Cr, Cd and Ni at high
concentration in plants may leads various physiological disorders (Deng et al., 2004;
Khan, 2007). These metals if accumulated in food crops may pose health hazards to
plants (He et al., 2005) and animals (O’Dell et al., 1996). Wild plants used to
determination of biochemical constituents showed low chlorophylls content (0.18 to
0.6 mg g-1 fresh weight) at site I and III just near to expresshighway (NH 25), while at
sites II and III (away from expresshighway NH25, about 5 km) showed increased
110
chlorophylls (a and b) content. The decrease in chlorophylls content in wild species
near expresshighway (NH 25) could be due to effect of pollutants by automobile
exhaust (Kumar, 2012), or could be due to the phytotoxicity of elevated heavy metals
accumulation in plants (Chatterjee and Chatterji, 2000; Poskuta et al., 1996). The
decrease in chlorophylls content (a, b, and total chlorophyll) in wild plants may lead
photosynthetic disorder and growth (Pandey and Gautam, 2009b) and cause failure of
defence system as reported earlier (Pandey and Pathak, 2006). The high accumulation
of toxic metals inhibited seed germination may cause loss of biodiversity (Pandey,
2008). The chlorophyll ‘b’ content was more in plants as compared to chlorophyll ‘a’
The chlorophylls content was determined more in plants in post monsoon period, it
could be due to availability and accumulation of some essential elements which
promoted more sysnthesis of pigments in post monsoon period (Brown et al., 1987;
Pandey et al., 2008). The carotenoids content in plants may also an indicative of
antioxidative responses (Pandey and Gautam, 2009b). The total chlorophyll content
was not found much decreased at study sites, it could be due to the concentration of
essential elememts in plants responsible for synthesis of chlorophyll a (Pandey et al.,
2008b), carotenoids content showed higher values at site I and III near to
expresshighway (NH 25), than in plants at site II and IV. The result of study could be
due to environmental conditions and heavy metals content to strengthen defence
system (Baccouch et al., 1998a; Cakamak, 1993). Total protein contents estimated
and data presented in the Table 4.2.2. Protein content in wild plant species shoed
higher values near (0.50 m) expresshighway than in plants away from the
expresshighway (NH 25). The increase in protein content could be attributed due to
the availability of essential elements to the plants (Samantarary et al., 1998) or could
be due to the protein synthesized in response to heavy metals stress conditions
111
(Sharma, 2006; Schutzendubel and Polle, 2002). Plants adapted themselves to stress
conditions by the production of specific proteins has been reported (Peterson, 1983).
Heavy metals when accumulated in plants they form metallo-protein (Naaz and
Pandey, 2010).
In experiment 4.3, physico-chemical properties of soils at various study sites
at expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga expressway area (Unnao) were
determined. The soil pH was moderately alkaline with high range of electrical
conductance at site I and III, these conditions of soil make it unsuitable for crop
growth (Crawford, 1999), only some salt tolerant plants can grow in such soils (Dey
et al., 2009). Soil was sandy with low organic matter content it could be due to the
soil erosion on uneven area near the expresshighway (NH 25) at site I and III, as
described by Brady and Weil (1996). The presence of carbonate ions may pose
sodicity in the soil and presence of bicarbonate cause salinity and alkalinity to the
soil, contributed the high alkaline pH and high E.C. value in study soil. The results in
accord with Sharma (2012) and Brady and Weil (1996). The iron content was found
higher in soils near expresshighway (NH 25) as compared to the soil away from the
expresshighway (NH 25), it could be due to the transportation activities released high
content of Fe in to the environment (Kumar and Pandey, 2010; Gerritse and Dneel,
1984). A high concentration of heavy metals (nickel and chromium) in soil at site I
and III could attributed phytotoxic effects in plants (Foy et al., 1978). Low levels of
Ni along with Zn and Cu may induce plant growth has been reported (Gerendas et al.,
1999; Nath et al., 2009). Therefore, the physico-chemical properties of soil which
showed high content of available heavy metals near the expresshighway make the soil
unfit for plant growth (Foy et al., 1978). These degradation in soil may be due to the
112
construction work and transportation activities of expresshighway (NH 25)
(Marschner, 2003; Sharma, 2012; Kumar and Pandey, 2010).
In experiment 4.4, physico-chemical properties of surface and ground water at
various study sites near expresshighway (NH 25) have been analysed. At site I and III
the surface and ground water showed alkaline pH value was more than the site II and
IV. A high level of solids (dissolved and suspended solids) determined in surface
water at all study sides. The value of most pollution parameters was more in surface
and ground waters collected from just near to the expresshighway (NH 25) as
compared to the waters away (about 5 km) from the expresshighway (NH 25). High
value of total solids may cause salinity in water and also in soil after their long
irrigational use (Pandey, 2006a).
The high level of solids in waters could be due to the high content of salts such
as sodium chloride, and other inorganic salts present in the soil near surface water
bodes (Karbassi et al., 2006) and pollutants emitted from transportation vehicles
(Sharma, 2012). The heavy metals content was very high at site I and III, while low at
sites II and IV. These elevated contents of heavy metals in water could be due to the
automobile exhaust (Kumar and Pandey, 2010) or/and due to the activity of human
population living near the road side (Kumar, 2012). If the surface waters contain
elevated levels of heavy metals, pose a chance to pollute ground water, particularly, in
the area where soil is coarse textured (Brar et al., 2000). The low levels of heavy
metals content (Zn and Cr) was determined in ground water at site II and IV, but Fe
and Ni content was found to be high above ISI (1999) standard prescribed the
discharge limit of waste waters in inland surface water. These could be due to their
concentration in soil and their percolation in ground water (Blowes, 2002; Kannan,
2005). The heavy metals content such as Fe, Cr, and Ni content was high in surface
113
waters and also the concentration of Fe and Ni was higher in ground water at site I
and III, the values were higher than the ISI (1999) standards.
The plants irrigated with such contaminated waters (surface water as well as
ground water) accumulate high content of heavy metals (Ensley, 2000; Kao et al.,
2008) have been reported. These metals enter in food web and ultimately it affects
health of animals and human beings (Kumar, 2012). Elevated concentration of Ni and
Cr in aquatic plants (Pandey et al., 2008) and crop plants (Naaz and Pandey, 2010;
Deng et al., 2004), adversely effect metabolites and metabolic activities have also
been reported. A particular critical concentration of Zn, Fe and Ni, specific to plant
species, are essential to plant growth (Gautam and Pandey, 2008) cause positive
effects to increase biomolecules content (Kumar and Pandey, 2010) and enzymes
activity (Gajewska et al., 2006) in plants.
The physico-chemical properties estimated, showed the presence of
bicarbonate in almost all samples of surface and ground water. The presence of
carbonate observed only at site I in surface water. The presence of these ions along
with chloride ions pose risk to make water sodic and saline (Toze, 2006). The ground
water showed alkaline pH range, high solids and presence of carbonate and
bicarbonate ions, it could be attributed due to their leaching from surface waters to
ground water (Boukhalfa, 2007). The results was also in consonance with Kannan et
al. (2005). The long term use of such saline waters pose salinity into soil (Aijamal et
al., 2000) which adversely affects nutrients uptake and plant growth (Upadhyay et al.,
2012). The ground water as well as surface waters near (0-50 m) expresshighway
(NH 25) showed higher values of pollution parameters than the water samples
collected away from the transport activities, results also in accord with Blowes (2002)
and Kumar (2012). At sites I and III near expresshighway (NH 25), the maximum
114
content of Fe and Ni was observed in soil and water both and observed beyond the
limit of ISI standards. The presence of these metals including Cr and Ni may
contaminate environment, biomagnified through accumulation in vegetables and may
pose human health risk (Barman et al., 2000; Bunzl et al., 2001; Fritloff and Greger,
2006; Kumar, 2012). Therefore, transport activities and construction work of
expresshighways may pose risk to environmental degradation including degradation
of soil, water and plants. These results also indicated that, the proposed Ganga
expressway in this area and nearby areas of its total length may pose environmental
degradation and vegetational loss as earlier also described and supported various
observations (Hussainj et al., 2001; Nriagu and Pacynaj, 1988; Horvath, 2008) in
other countries.
115
Chapter 6
Summary
The issue to the environmental impacts of transportation’ is a great concern to
the sociologist, economist and environmentalist throughout the world. Transport
activities conveys substantial socio-economic benefits to the country, but at the same
time transport activities also contribute a huge loss of natural resources (soil, water
and living organisms) and degradation of environmental system. From one side,
transportation activities support increasing mobility demands for people, while on the
other side, transport activities associated with growing levels of environmental
externalities. It has been very clear that, the transportation is a major source of
pollution cause impacts on the environment.
In India, about 3402 km expresshighway including Ganga expressway in
different states have been proposed to complete in near future. Transport activities
contribute among other anthropogenic and natural causes, directly, indirectly and
cumulative to environmental problems. Also, contribute at different geographical
scales to environmental problems, ranging from local (such as noise pollution and CO
emissions and global (climate change and green house effect). The regional to
continental problems are smog and acid rain effects. Therefore, the environmental
impacts of the net work, traffic and modes, technology, economic process (industrial
and other activities) sustaining the transport system, must be considered to make the
policies. Without environmental impact assessment, the various problems have led to
much controversy in environment policy and in the role of transportation.
Therefore, study was undertaken to assessment of environmental problems on
soil, water and plants due to transport activities at expresshighway (NH 25) in district
116
Unnao of U.P. state under the proposed Ganga expressway area. The study was aimed
to predict the possible environmental problems in the area from the proposed Ganga
expressway through the study near expresshighway (NH 25) taken as a standard in the
same area.
In experiment 4.1, vegetational studies and field observations were carried out.
The vegetation studies near the transport activities at site I and III (expresshighway,
NH 25), quantitative as well as qualitative were studied. The study of these sites (I
and III) compared with study of sites II and IV away from the expresshighway (NH
25). The study of land and water bodies also observed at these study sites. The Ganga
expressway has been proposed by U.P. Government of about 1047 km from district
Greater Noida to district Balia. The study areas were located at expresshighway (NH
25) in Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh state (India) of about 35 km distance from
Unnao to Kanpur district (just before Ganga river), this expresshighway is already in
working since 20 years. The proposed Ganga expressway passing through this area
needs evaluation to predict extent of environmental problems after completion and
operations of proposed Ganga expressway. The motivation to construct Ganga
expressway to mitigate flood problems in nearby areas of Ganga to large population
and number of villages along river, to decongest the increasing traffic, to reduction in
accidents, development of local industry and development of tourism, In the same
area, at the express highway (NH 25) the land was uneven and eroded. The land in
study areas just near expresshighway (NH 25), observed unfertile and unproductive
on the basis of vegetational studies. The growth and distribution of wild plants was
found poor near the expresshighway (NH 25) as compared to wild plants away from
the expresshighway (NH 25). The prominent species growing in the vicinity of
expressway (NH 25) and away from the transportation activities were Croton,
117
Nerium, Parthenium, Bougainvillea, Sida, Euphorbia sps. etc. The density, frequency
and abundance level of wild plants was less near expresshighway (NH 25) as
compared to wild plants away from the road. The maximum density of wild plants
Parthenium (6.5/m2) at site I, and Majus (15/m2) and Parthenium (11.3/m2) at site IV
were observed. The other dominant species with respect to density. at site I and III
were Croton (4.5/m2), Phyllanthus (3/m2), Ageratum (6/m2) and Sida (3.8/m2) were
observed (Table 4.1.6 to 4.1.9). The land away from the expressway was (NH 25)
leveled and showed proper growth of crop plants. Whereas, crop growth was poor in
area near to expresshighway (NH 25). The texture of soil was sandy loam, and land
area near road side showed a large number of pits filled with or without water. The
water accumulated in these pits were drinking by grazing animals was observed.
In experiment 4.2 accumulations of some potentially toxic heavy metals (Zn,
Cu, Fe, Cd, Cr and Ni) was determined in wild species collected from different study
sites. The accumulation of Zn and Cu was found under the critical limits of toxicity in
plants just near to expresshighway (NH 25). These limits were 7.8 to 28 µg g -1 dr. wt.
for Zn and 3.3 to 15.4 µg g-1 dr. wt. for Cu. These heavy metals are essential to
promote plant growth and metabolism. Whereas, a high content of heavy metals such
as Cd and Cr was determined in wild plants ranged 0.2 to 16.5 µg g-1 dr. wt. for Cd
and 0.6 to 12.6 µg g-1 dr. wt. for Cr. These metals may pose toxic effects in plants and
animals even at its low concentrations. Maxcimum concentration of Fe (56 to 125.6
µg g-1 dr. wt.) determined in wild plant species at post monsoon period exposed to
pollutants near NH 25. The concentration of Ni was excess (upto 13.5 µg g-1 dr. wt.) in
some plants. The Bougainvillea, Parthenium, Croton and Nerium accumulated
elevated concentration of Ni, Cd and Fe as compared to other plant species studied. In
most of the cases, tissue accumulation of heavy metals was found more in post-
118
monsoon period as compared to pre-monsoon period. At study sites away from the
epresshighway, the accumulation of heavy metals was very low, even some heavy
metals was not detectable, in wild plant species. Some biochemical constituents
(chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll, carotenoids and protein contents) determined
in wild plant species grown just near (0-50 m) and away (about 5 km) from the
expressway (NH 25). At all the sites, chlorophyll ‘a’ content was found low as
compared to chlorophyll ‘b’. Total chlorophyll content was found in normal range
(from 1.0 to 2.59 mg g-1 fr. wt. in leaves). The variations in pigments content was not
found at a regular pattern, because soil conditions or other factors, rather than
transportation factors, may be involved. The, pigments content was determined more
in leaves at post-monsoon period as compared to pre-monsoon period. The
carotenoids and protein contents showed slightly higher values at site I and III as
compared to site II and IV in pre-monsoon period. A high values of protein content
was estimated at site III and IV as compared to I and II, observed at post monsoon
period.
In experiment 4.3, physico-chemical properties of soils analysed at various
study sites of expresshighway (NH 25). The soil was alkaline in reaction (pH > 7.6)
with high electrical conductance at each study sites. Most of the soil properties
determined showed poor fertility of the land at all study sites. Comparatively, sites ( I
and III) just near expresshighway (NH 25) was found more degraded with respect to
soil texture, topography, pH, electrical conductance, presence of carbonate,
bicarbonate and chloride ions and high content of potentially toxic heavy metals such
as Fe, Cd, Cr and Ni than sites (II and IV) away from the road side. The calcium
carbonate content was found high at all study sites (I to IV) at 1.28 to 1.46%. The
calcium and magnesium content determined high at site I and III (maximum 4.5
119
meq./100g soil Ca and 15.6 meq./100 g soil Mg) than the sites II and IV (maximum
3.2 meq./100g soil Ca and 9.8 meq./100g soil of Mg). A high content of Fe (upto 210
ppm) in soil just near to expresshighway was determined, it was comparatively low
(upto 75 ppm) at sites II and IV. At sites I and III, the maximum heavy metals content
(available Zn, 0.8; Cu, 0.26; Ni, 0.12 and Cr, 0.13 ppm) determined in soil. At sites II
and IV, the maximum heavy metals content (available Zn, 1.35; Cu, 0.52; Ni, 0.08
ppm and Cr, not detectable in the soil) was observed.
In experiment 4.4, various physico-chemical properties of surface and ground
water were determined at sites I to IV at expresshighway (NH 25) at proposed Ganga
expressway in Unnao district collected during April to June, 2011. The quality of
water determined in surface as well as ground water to study the impact of
transportation . The water quality was determined and found more degraded at site I
and III (just near to expresshighway, NH 25 in Unnao district). The surface and
ground waters at all the study sites were alkaline in pH (pH 8.4 to 8.9 in surface
water; and 7.6 to 8.2 in ground water ). The pH values (8.6 at site II and 7.5 at site
IV in surface water) and (7.8 at site I and 7.5 at site III in surface water) were
determined. The values of total solids were found high at all study sites, but solids
content was more in waters at sites I and III. Most of the values of total solids were
under the permissible limits of ISI (1999) standards, but at some places at sites I and
III the limit was above the values of ISI standards.
At sites I and III, the water (surface and ground water) was more hard than the
waters from sites II and IV. At site III, the value of hardness (710 mg/l) was higher
than the ISI standard, while at other study sites hardness was low with prescribed ISI
standard value (600 mg/l). The minimum value of hardness observed at site IV (40
mg/l) in ground water. At all study sites, the carbonate ions was not detectable except
120
at site II in ground water. The carbonate ions were present in waters at all study sites.
Maximum 10.5 meq./l bicarbonate ions were determined in surface water at site II.
The presence of calcium determined in surface and ground water, showed its higher
values at all sites. The maximum calcium content (56.8 mg/l) was determined in
surface water at site II. Maximum value of hardness (42.8 mg/l) in ground water was
determined at site I. The presence of calcium carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride ions
make water unsuitable for drinking, bathing as well as irrigational purposes. After
prolonged application, such water may create salanity to the soil which pose adverse
effects on plant growth.
In surface and ground water, a high concentration of heavy metals (Fe, Cr, Ni
and Zn) was determined. The iron content showed maximum value (21-25 ppm) in
surface water at site I and III, the value was observed above the prescribed ISI (1999)
standard. The maximum content of Ni (0.6 ppm in surface water and 0.09 ppm in
ground water at site I), Cr (0.5 ppm in surface water and 0.09 ppm in ground water at
site I) was determined. In some water samples the value of Ni and Cr was found
higher as compare to ISI standards. The presence of these heavy metals in waters and
their use for various purposes may pose risk to their entry in to food web. Therefoe,
water quality was not found in good quality in these study areas.
Conclusion
Therefore study concluded that, the ecological effects of transport activities on
expresshighway (NH 25) may be indicative on ecological adverse effects, in future,
when proposed Ganga expressway will be in operation. The findings of ecological
studies on expresshighway (NH 25) were:
The land was eroded, uneven and poor fertile, which supported poor growth
and distribution of plant vegetation.
121
A high content of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Fe, Ni and Cr) was determined in soil
just near to expresshighway (NH 25). The accumulation of metals was found
in order Fe>Zn>Ni>Cr in soil.
Wild plants near expresshighway (NH 25) accumulated elevated levels of
heavy metals were observed in the order Fe>Zn>Ni>Cr>Cd. The maximum
accumulation of heavy metals in wild plants determined 125.6 to 28.0 µg g-1
dr. wt.
The surface and ground water quality were also found deteriorated at various
study sites. Presence of some potentially toxic heavy metals such as Cd, Ni
and Cr were also observed in water.
122
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