10

CChhaapptteerr –– IIII

CONCEPTS AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part deals with different

concepts related to the study. Second part presents the review of past studies related to

the study. Reviews are categorized into aspects of health and environmental aspect and

cost and technology.

2.1 CONCEPTS

Types of Sewage: As per the record of the Tiruchirappalli Municipal Corporation the

following types of sewage are described.

Barn Sewage: The sewage from water closets, sinks and urinals and a mixture

of sewage with any other drainages of waste waters.

Combined Sewage: A combination of sanitary sewage and surface or storm

water with of without industrial wastes.

Dilute or weak sewage: Sewage contains less than 150ppm of suspended solids

and BOD.

Fresh sewage: sewage of recent origin containing dissolved oxygen at the point

of examination.

House Sewage: domestic sewage mainly derived from dwellings, business

centres, and institutions. It is also know as sanitary sewage.

Industrial sewage: sewage in which industrial wastes predcminate.

Municipal Sewage: Generally includes both domestic sewage and industrial

sewage or trade wastes.

Raw Sewage: Raw sewage is the name given to untreated sewage.

Sanitary sewage: sewage containing human excrements, domestic sewage with

strom and surface water excluded, sewage discharging from the sanitary

conveniences of dwellings, public buildings, Institutions etc. and waste of a

community.

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Septic sewage: sewage undergoing putrefaction under anaerobic conditions,

this given foul odour.

Sewage: The organic waste and wastewater that comes from homes, farms and

businesses.

Strom sewage: Strom water derived from run-off during and immediately

following rains.

Sullage: wastewater from bathroom, lavatory basins, Kitchen, sinks, street and

roof washing etc.

Type of Sewers

An Intercepting sewer: An intercepting sewer is one that cuts transversely a

number of other sewers to intercept DWT with or without a determined quantity

if storm water from a combined system.

Branch Sewer: Sewer which receives sewage from a relatively small area

usually a few laterals and discharge into a main sewer.

Combined Sewer: Sewer that receives storm water, surface run-off and sewage.

Common Sewer: A sewer in which all abutters have equal rights.

Depressed sewer: A section of sewer constructed lower that adjacent section to

pass beneath an obstacle or obstruction. This is synonymous with siphon or

inverted siphon.

Lateral or Lateral Sewer: Sewer discharging into another sewer having no

other common tributary to it.

Main or trunk sewer: a sewer that receives sewage from many tributary

branches and sewers, serving as an outlet for a large territory.

Outfall Sewer: Sewer which receives the discharge from the collecting system

and conduct the discharge to a treatment plant of to the point of final disposal.

Relieve Sewer: Relieve Sewer is one that has been built to relive an existing

sewer of inadequate capacity.

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Rider Sewer: Sewer running parallel to a main sewer and connected to the

main sewer at one or more points. It runs at a higher level that the main sewer. It

collects the sewage from the house and discharge into the main sewer.

Sanitary Sewer: A Sewer intended to carry sanitary sewage.

Separate sewage: Sewer intended to carry only sanitary sewage and dry

weather flow (the normal flow in a sewer during dry weather). It is normally

taken as the average daily waste. Consumption of the locality.

Strom Sewer or Strom water Drain or storm water channel: a sewer which

carries storm water and surface water, street water and other waste water or

drainage but excludes sewage and industrial wastes.

Sub-main Sewer: An arbitrary term used for relatively large branch sewer.

Algae: Simple rootless plants that grow in bodies of water in relative proportion

to the amount of nutrients available.

Algal Bloom: An unusual, sudden or excessive abundance of algae. Algal

blooms can adversely affect water quality and aquatic life adversely.

Aquatic Life: A beneficial use the waterbody provides is a suitable habitat for

survival and reproduction of desirable fish, shellfish, and other aquatic

organisms.

Aquifer: An underground layer of sand, gravel or rock that stores or conveys

water below the surface of the soil.

Bacteria, Fecal Coliform and Fecal Streptococcus: Rod-shaped bacteria

usually found in the intestinal tracts of animals, including humans. Their

presence in water indicates recent contamination by human or animal feces.

These bacteria are obviously not harmful to animals or humans, but they do

indicate that sewage contamination has occurred and suggests the presence of

disease-causing bacteria and viruses such as E. Coli, Salmonella, and

Cryptosporidium. The presence of fecal coliform and fecal streptococcus

bacteria in water is affected by several environmental factors, including

sunlight, nutrient levels, temperature, amount and character of sediment,

predation by other organisms, flow, and amount of runoff.

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Bacteria: Bacteria are a group of microscopic, single-celled organisms. They

may have spherical, rodlike, or spiral shapes. They inhabit virtually all

environments, including soil, water, organic matter, and the bodies of

multicellular animals.

Fecal Coliform Bacteria (FC): A group of bacteria found in the intestinal tract

of humans and animals, and also found in soil. While harmless in themselves,

coliform bacteria are commonly used as indicators of the presence of

pathogenic organisms and other disease-causing bacteria, such as those that

cause typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis A and cholera. Measured in number of

bacteria per 100 milliliters of water.

Biological Oxygen Demand: The amount of oxygen required by aerobic

microorganisms to decompose the organic matter in sample of water. Used as a

measure of the degree of water pollution.

Contamination: To make impure or unsafe by contact with potentially harmful

substances.

Escherichia coli (E. Coli): A subgroup of fecal coliform bacteria present in the

intestinal tracts and feces of warm-blooded animals. It is used as an indicator of

the potential presence of pathogens. There are many different strains of E. coli

that are classified into more than 170 serogroups. Although most strains of

E. coli are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals,

the E. coli O157:H7 strain produces a powerful toxin and can cause severe

illness.

Effluent: Liquid flowing out of a system, such as a discharge of liquid waste

from a factory or water leaving a sewage treatment plant.

Eutrophication: The aging process by which lakes are fertilized with nutrients.

Natural eutrophication will very gradually change the character of a lake.

Cultural eutrophication is the accelerated aging of a lake as a result of human

activities marked by excessive input of fertlizers, pesticides, organic matter in

the form of domestic sewage etc.

Ground Water: Underground water in an aquifer, used for drinking water in 75

percent of Minnesota households. The subsurface water supply in the saturated

zone below the level of the water table.

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Organism: A living body made up of cells, tissues and organs.

Percolation: Movement of water through soil layers of materials.

Pesticide: A chemical substance used to kill or control pests, such as weeds,

insects, fungus, mites, algae, rodents and other undesirable agents.

pH Scale: A measure of acidity, with 7 being neutral. Numbers under 7 are

acidic and numbers over 7 are alkaline.

Phosphate: An essential nutrient containing phosphorus and oxygen. Phosphate

is often a critical nutrient in lake eutrophication management.

Plume: The path and form taken by contaminated ground water as it moves

from the source.

Pollution Prevention: Eliminating or reducing at the source the use, generation

or release of toxic pollutants, hazardous substances and hazardous wastes.

Pollution: The contamination of soil, water or air by the discharge of

potentially harmful substances.

Population: Aggregate of individuals of a biological species that are

geographically isolated from other members of the species and are actually or

potentially interbreeding.

Recycle: The process of collecting materials from the waste stream and

separating them by type, remaking them into new products, and marketing and

reusing the materials as new products.

Reuse: The use of a product more than once in its same form for the same or

different purpose.

Runoff: That portion of precipitation or irrigation water that flows off a field or

paved area and enters surface water.

Seepage: Percolation of water through the soil from unlined canals, ditches,

laterals, watercourses, or water storage facilities.

Sewage: The organic waste and wastewater that comes from homes, farms and

businesses.

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Soil: The top layer of the earth's surface, composed primarily of rock, minerals

and decomposed matter from dead plants or animals.

Concept used for treatment

Screening: Large solids (plastics, rag, woody material) are removed first by

mechanical screens. Traditionally, screening was used to remove only large solid

material (> 25-30mm) in order to protect downstream operations. Nowadays, much

finer screens (6mm mesh) are commonly employed to remove smaller inert solids. The

material retained (screenings) is usually washed to remove faecal matter and then

compressed for disposal to landfill or to an incinerator.

Grit removal: At the next preliminary stage, fine mineral matter (grit and sand),

originating mainly from road runoff, is allowed to deposit in long channels or circular

traps. The retained solids are removed and usually sent to landfill for disposal.

Primary sedimentation: The sewage passes into large sedimentation tanks to provide

a quiescent settlement period of about 8 hours. Most of the solids settle to the bottom of

the tanks and form a watery sludge, known as ‘primary sludge’, which is removed for

separate treatment. The sewage remaining after settlement has taken place is known as

‘settled sewage’.

Secondary (biological) treatment: Settled sewage then flows to an aerobic biological

treatment stage where it comes into contact with micro-organisms which remove and

oxidise most of the remaining organic pollutants.

At smaller works, the biological stage often takes the form of a packed bed of graded

mineral media through which the sewage trickles and on the surfaces of which the

micro-organisms grow. At most larger works, the sewage is mixed for several hours

with an aerated suspension of flocs of micro-organisms (known as the activated sludge

process). As well as removing most of the polluting organic matter, modern biological

treatment can, where necessary, remove much of the nitrogen and phosphorus in the

sewage, thus reducing the nutrient load on the receiving waters.

Final settlement: Following secondary (biological) treatment, the flow passes to final

settlement tanks where most of the biological solids are deposited as sludge (secondary

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sludge) while the clarified effluent passes to the outfall pipe for discharge to a

watercourse. In the case of the activated sludge process, some of the secondary sludge

is returned to the aeration tanks for further contact with the sewage. The secondary

sludge from biological treatment also requires separate treatment and disposal and may

be combined with the primary sludge for this purpose.

Tertiary treatment: In circumstances where the highest quality of effluent is required,

a third (tertiary) stage of treatment can be used to remove most the remaining

suspended organic matter from the effluent before it is discharged to a

watercourse. Tertiary treatment is effected by sand filters, mechanical filtration or by

passing the effluent through a constructed wetland such as a reed bed or grass plot.

Anaerobic digestion: In this process, consolidated liquid sludge is retained in an

airtight tank (digester) and maintained at 35 deg. C for 12-20 days. Under the anaerobic

conditions in the tank, various bacteria break down about half of the sludge organic

matter and convert it into a gas containing about 70 per cent methane.

The gas is used to heat the digester and, in some cases, also to fuel gas engines to

generate electricity. The sludge resulting from anaerobic digestion is much less

offensive in odour than the untreated raw sludge and, with certain restrictions, is

generally suitable for use in agriculture in liquid or solid form. Further consolidation of

sludge after digestion, to reduce its volume, is a common practice.

Lime stabilization: At some smaller works, lime is added to liquid sludge to raise its

pH to above 12.0 for several hours. The high alkalinity improves its odour and reduces

the number of pathogens.

Facultative Ponds - Oxidation pond, in which both aerobic and anaerobic activities are

carried out in a single unit is called facultative pond. They are the most widely used

oxidation ponds. Facultative ponds are mostly rectangular in shape with a length-

breadth ratio of 3: 1. They are usually l-2m deep. Shallow areas near the edge of the

tank should be avoided to prevent breeding of mosquitoes.

Anaerobic Ponds - These are comparatively deep ponds with a depth of 3-5 meters to

ensure anaerobic conditions. They can be operated with a high organic loading.

Retention time for these ponds is about 30 days.

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They are generally used for the pretreatment of strong organic wastes before adding

them to facultative ponds. The main problem with such anaerobic ponds is the

production of odor

Aerated Ponds - Aerated ponds are of less common use when compared to other

oxidation ponds. They utilize floating aerators to maintain dissolved oxygen levels and

to provide mixing. Retention times for these ponds are a few days. The process

involves bacterial floc and produces good quality effluents

2.2 CONCEPTS OF FINANCIAL INCENTIVES/DISINCENTIVES

It is used in the study to plan the possible way to present a perfect approach in

the research. In a broader sense, the socio-economic activity of the society ends with

pollution or contamination in the natural resources and hazards to human health, due to

the interaction of human activities with water and other natural resources.

Tax

Faqir S. Bagi (2002), according to him when water/sewer facilities are built to

provide safe drinking water which will reduce health related risk, this will benefits

existing businesses and also helps to attract new businesses to the community. Further it

will enable to generate private investment, public fund and increase the property tax

base, through these expansions and increasing of businesses activities will increase the

local income and it will add to the local property tax bases, sales tax revenue and even

local income tax revenue will also increase.

Ecological Protection Tax

Min Niu, Liangliang He and Jie Jiang (2008), ecological protection tax imposed

to pollution behaviors and ecological tax includes pollution tax is directly associated

with actual pollution values, pollution tax or material tax is indirectly imposed on those

product through which it produce pollution in the production process. The

implementation of tax difference such as low tax rate for the beneficial ecological

products and high tax rate for those products which will harm the ecology. The

Government has right to share resources benefits with resources development

enterprises together and by launching tax system, the purpose for imposing the

resources tax for keeping within limits of unlimited exploitation for natural resources.

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The expansion of taxation range is needed for conforming the classes of the available

resources. Relatively laws should be adapted to avoid the ecological tax conflicts with

present ecological basic laws, regulations and other department laws, it should be

uniformed and it must bound with the science based development view. These will

compel the social pollution costs into production costs and market price and improved

ecological qualities can be realized by forming laws and polices.

Water Pollution Tax

James Boyd (2003), a tax based policy and a command-and-control quantity

standard can both achieve the efficient outcome. The economists have compared two

broad types of policy, they are Charges and standards approach and a uniform treatment

approach. Under charge approach, a uniform tax is applied to a set of polluters, with the

tax level set high as much as necessary to encourage aggregate effluent reductions

adequate to meet an ambient water quality standard were as in uniform treatment

approach, all firms are required to trim down their emissions by an equal percentage,

sufficient to meet an ambient standard. With a tax system, all the facilities need not to

reduce their pollution by same amount/quantity. Because the facilities differ in their

control costs, this flexibility is very important for the tax system. Under such system

high control cost firms abate less and low cost firm abate more. Through these given

level of ambient water quality can be achieved more economically than if all firms

abate the same amount.

Subsidy

Anand Bhansali et. al. (1992), the treatment of municipal wastewater was the

rational for the subsidies, the newly constructed publicly owned treatment works

(POTWs) became heavily involved in processing industrial effluents. The consequence

of this was the tax money drawn national wide subsidized industrial waste treatment.

Water using industries increased their use of POTWs during the subsidy period and

when charges and other restriction were imposed during that time their discharge will

decreased marginally. In other word water intake increased with use of POTWs and

decrease with the pollution legislation. The subsidized of POTWs will induce the

industrial development.

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Willingness to pay

John C. Whitehead (1995), the effect of changes in prices, quality and income

on willingness to pay for quality change was examined. The comparative study was

done between resources users and resources non-users. The empirical measures of

willingness to pay for quality changes will vary inversely with the own price for

resources users and for resources non-users, the willingness to pay will vary inversely

with the own price if the quality improvement leads to resource use. No effect will be

found for nonusers if the improvement doses not lead to resources use. The cross-price

and its potential effect were shown by identify the substitution and complementary

relationship between trips to natural resource sites. The equivalent variation for a

quality improvement should increase with increases in the quality change and with

income.

Mirajul Haq, et. al. (2007), Safe drinking water is an effective health measure to

prevent or reduces the mortality caused owing to water-born diseases. Scarce drinking

water not only resulted in more sickness and deaths; however it will also enhance

health cost, lower worker productivity and school enrolment. The willingness to pay

(WTP) for improved water service and prevention of the behaviour for the quality

improvement of drinking water and by applying contingent valuation (CV) method for

estimating the economic value of non-marketing environmental goods. The WTP

depends on income, wealth; household education level will determine the WTP. The

economic effect of unsafe drinking water include changes in the expenditures pattern

and well being in terms of medical costs, earning lost, lost production in the household,

loss of leisure time and so on. Urban dwellers are fully depending on the government

sources rather than their own source and their own sources are negligible. The

respondents form urban areas are having higher willingness to pay compare to rural

peoples. Those who are using tap water are significantly affect WTP and who is having

own sources are WTP higher in order reduce the maintenance cost of their own source

2.3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Theoretical background of the study with reference to the theory of externality

is reviewed. Based on the theory of externality, the study attempted to analyze the

negative externalities in terms of pollution that is caused by improper disposal of

domestic sewage into the water bodies. Study on the impact of pollution generated by

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domestic sector and disposal of sewage into water channel, surface water, livestock and

human health of the surroundings is done on the support of theory of externality.

Nick Hanley et. al., (2007), authors have explained the concept of externalities

as a bridge between the private and social points of view. Also focused on focused on

ecosystem and transferable externality. Externality exists when one person’s action

affect other people, who neither receive compensation for harm done nor pay for the

benefit gained. In his example Riley’s discharge of wastewater into the Cloquet River

that affects Ole’s well-being is an externality. Riley’s choices affect Ole, who receives

no compensation for damage done. According to the authors whether market failure

exists by comparing the market outcome to the social optimum but for market outcome,

Riley has no economic incentive to account for how his level of pollution affects Ole.

Private pollution levels exceed socially optimal pollution level. Pollution is the classic

example of negative externality. Ecosystem externality was focused in the study

through example. That is; hundred years ago, residents of the country (U.S.A) killed

nearly all the natural predators (eg. coyotes), in order to reduce risk to domestic animal

and children (Croker and Tschirhart, 1992). Unfortunately, the consequence was one of

the largest rodent in huge number ever witnessed in the United State. Rodent invaded

the villages and farms wash out to the crops and this is not the traditional case of one

person affection on another person. This resulted into negative externality and few

citizens recognized that killing of coyotes and foxes (cause) would reduce grains and

bread production (effect). The externality emerged from different points in the

ecosystem than that from where it has started. How the rodent affects people indirectly

through grain, is called ecosystem externality. The market outcome does not include

the externality of ecosystem which is in the social optimum. Authors idea on

transferable externality is that it differs from the conventional view of the pollution

externality. Hence, transferable is aggravated by intentional behavior and not by

accidental outstanding of production. People protect themselves from external damage

by transferring the threat to another location or through time to another generation

(Bird, 1987). They concluded with the view of material balance, most environmental

programs or policy will not reduce environmental problems since they do not reduce

the mass of material used. Ultimately this will continue to allow the waste mass to flow

into the environment and the program and policy will simply transfer these

accumulation of waste though time and across space.

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Nick Hanley et. al., (2004), points out that Externalities are the classic case of

market failure. The externalities exist when a person does not bear all the cost or

receive all the benefits of his or her action. It exists when the market price excludes its

social impact, cost or benefits. Many externalities in the environment would raise the

risk to life. All actions that are modified the risk to others in which no compensation is

paid. The authors focused the idea of ecosystem externalities and its indirect impact.

An action that affects the environmental system at one point of period and no harm

seems to be done or reflected. But the action is working in its way through the system

and it shows and reflects in somewhere else as an unexpected surprise. The ecosystem

externalities highlight that the economist cannot assume the cause and effect of

production and consumption cannot determine clearly. Because there is no effect under

the ‘streetlight’, there might be an unpredictable effect somewhere else (Croker and

Tschirhart, 1993). Hence, it is very critical for the economist to work with scientist in

the field of life science to predict good capacity for indirect externalities.

Yew-Kwang Ng and Xiaokai Yang (2000) in their work have shown that by

adopting inframarginal analysis of external cost control through taxation was liable

only to correct allocational inefficiency but not organizational inefficiency. Traditional

analysis of externality considered only allocational inefficiency that is, efficient relative

consumption and production of different goods and inputs. It failed to pay proper

attention to organizational inefficiency, which relates to efficient division of labour and

extent of market. Authors of this article argue that external costs cause both allocational

and organizational inefficiency. Measures of taxation and subsidy cannot correct the

organizational inefficiency on the level of division of labour and extent of market.

External costs lead to very high or low level of division of labour. Low cost taxes, sales

tax and subsidies were not helpful in correcting organizational inefficiency. There exist

two lines of thinking regarding external costs in economics. Traditional line of thinking

was generated by Pigou who argued that taxation could solve negative externality. The

other line of thinking relating to theory of endogenous externality given by Coase,

Cheung and Brazel. By criticizing the traditional Pigovian theory of externality, they

argue that for any good there was a tradeoff between the measurement cost and

distortions caused by imprecise measurement. The degree of externality depends upon

the extent of tradeoff. They had given the example by stating that if the measurement

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cost of pollution is low then the degree of externality would be less and rights to

pollution would be well defined and therefore they would be efficiently traded and vice

versa. Yew-Kwang Ng and Xiaokai Yang reviewed Barzel's idea about externality as

“Even for the trade of oranges, it is not efficient to eliminate all externality caused by

imprecise measurement of quality and quantity of orange since precise measurement

may require division of orange into more than one thousand grades with a unique price

for each grade which has a slightly different taste from another grade”. The theory of

endogenous externality is formalized by Holmstrom, Milgrom Yang, Wills and Lio.

Barnett A. H. and Bruce Yandle (1999) in their article “The End of Externality

Revolution” have analyzed the history of evolution of the concept externality and it

helps to know how the externality theory entered into the economist’s lexicon. They

conferred the works of the economists like Marshall, Pigou, Knight, Young, Staff,

Clapman, Graham, Hicks, Lange, Viner and Joan Robinson about externality. From

their literature they observed that the concept of externality was the rationale for

unlimited Government intervention into private transactions. Marshall introduced the

concept of externality in 1922 by saying that the entering firms produce costs (benefits)

that are external to the firm but internal to the industry. Marshall initiated the concept of

externality, but Pigou elaborated it. Initially Pigou in his first edition of ‘The

Economics of Welfare’ assumed that political solutions could solve the externality

problem. But after the emergence of efficiency and welfare economics, he faced severe

criticism and then he modified his argument in his forth edition of ‘The Economics of

Welfare’ in 1932. Thus input price changes are externally imposed. Marshall and Pigou

initiated the externality debate known as “empty boxes debate” in their argument it is

clear that increasing and decreasing cost competitive industries produce non-optimal

investment and output. Pigou argued that this was the reason for the divergence

between marginal private net product and marginal social net product. Solution

suggested by Pigou was to give bounties to firms entering decreasing cost industries

and imposition of taxes to firms entering increasing cost industries. Then economists

started the work of categorizing the decreasing, increasing and constant cost industries

for identifying which should be taxed and which should be subsidized. Pigou is of the

view that Government intervention was the only solution to the problem of externality

and the private contractual arrangements would worsen the situation. Clapman

considered this specification of laws of returns as an empty box concept by stating that

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laws of returns have never been attached to specific industries. After that economists

like Young and Knight found that this externality is pecuniary, which failed to represent

the divergence between marginal private net product and marginal social net product.

Thus the only observed from this empty box debate was that the distinction between the

pecuniary and technological externalities. Knight argued that Pigou’s assertion that

private activity could not solve the problem of externality was wrong by arguing that

property rights and private contractual arrangements would solve the problem of

externality.

Jon D. Harford (1998) focused that the issues of childbearing choices and

externality in a two – generation model of a competitive economic with a pollution

externality is twisted with the aggregate consumption of one of two goods, is based on

population growth and their external effect. The externality is understood as a pollution

interpretation. This would be better for comparing with Williams Schulze and Ralph C.

d’ Age (1974) and Daniel F. Spulber (1985) regarding the Pigovian taxation of

pollution from firms. Such taxation will induce each existing firm to limit their

pollution level. With both the externalities in a two – generation model, the

childbearing tax will approximately equal the per capita net present value of Pigovian

taxation. Among the classical economist and others, there is disagreement about

whether population growth is a ‘problem’, which in present terms can be interpreted as

a disagreement about the sign of the net value of externalities caused by one more

child. The author has ignored this kind of complication, it has good quality of allowing

both childbearing and externality generating consumption choice to be endogenous and

disproportionate concern of parents for their own children is recognized.

Trenery Dolbear F (1968) indicates the conventional assumption of price

theory, that some qualification to the usual classroom externality prescription are

necessary and it is notwithstanding. He has sympathy for Pigovian tax subsidy policy.

Pauly’s suggestion was similar to his idea “it is not in general possible to impose a per

unit tax which will simultaneously compensate for damage and achieve a Pareto

optimum”. He preferred to show the result that can be achieved with a “per unit tax”.

But Pauly is minded with “increasing per unit tax”. The average as well as the total tax

depends on the quantity consumed. In general the marginal condition can be satisfied

with the constant per unit tax which will be equal to marginal social and private cost.

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Mishan holds on constant welfare of both the parties and he realized that the income is

generated to third party (Government) from this issue. Whose performance is not

present in his model, which may called as ‘partial analysis’. Mishan constructed a

model that is not suitable for handling the case which will occupy the constant per unit

tax because not only the income of government affects but also the welfare of the both

parties will also affect. An incentive to internalize externalities from the tax and

subsidies of the concept of Mishan was not clear. And he considered the weather will

be simple to regulate externality with a tax system. The author agreed that it is a

practical issue and he suggested the problem is likely to be small since the welfare

effects of the internalizing technique will be small. In real world the compensation at

marginal damage (Pauly’s example of water pollution) rates leads to considerably differ

from the exact compensation.

Robert J. Staff and Francis X. Tannian (1783) have explained the concept of

externalities as a bridge between the private and social points of view, as the conditions

external to an industry were internal to society. Thus externalities focus attention on the

relationship between individual firm or industry and the entire society. They have

analyzed the Pigou’s treatment of externality in “The Economics of Welfare”. Pigou in

his article “The Economics of Welfare” especially in the part II dealt with the

divergences between social and private net products, which aroused due to externality.

External effects may be both positive and negative. It referred to those costs which

were thrown upon the people, who were directly concerned or involved in such activity.

Many of the economists and environmentalists are of the view that the solution

to the problem of externality lies in charging price for environmental goods in the form

of prohibition of action causing pollution and imposing taxes and subsidies. Robert J.

Staff and Francis X. Tannian explained the concept of externalities in a new angle that

is, as a bridge between the private and social points of view, as the conditions external

to an industry are internal to society. They have given that the externalities focused

attention on the relationship between individual firm or industry and the entire society.

Coase considers the pollution problem is of reciprocal nature. It is necessary to

know whether the damaging business is liable or not for the damage caused since

without the establishment of this initial delimitation of rights there can be no market

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transactions to transfer and recombine them. But the ultimate result is independent of

legal position of the pricing system is assumed to work without cost. This is known as

the Coase theorem he argues that the problems which we face in dealing with actions

which have harmful effects is not simple one of restraining those responsible for them.

The decision depends upon whether the gain from the prevention of the harm is greater

than that of the loss which was suffered elsewhere as a result of stopping the active

which produces the harm. Coase rules out that government need not interfere in the

form of specifying standards or levying a tax to correct externality, but advocates that

the government must define and enforce property rights for environmental resources

and mitigation transaction.

Shankar defines he concept of externality as the action of producers of

consumers have intended external effects on the other producer of the consumer.

Externalities are of two types, viz. positive and negative externalities. Positive

externality arises when an action by an individual or a group confers benefits to others.

Whereas negative externalities arises when an action by an individual or group

produces harmful effects on others. The author differentiates between social benefits

and private benefit. If an activity generates positive externality that the social benefit is

higher than that of the private benefit and if an activity generates negative externality

than the social cost is higher than that of the private cost. Market failure occurs because

markets for environmental goods and services do not exits of if exist, the market prices

underestimates their social scarcity values. The two important reasons for non existence

of the market are difficulty in defining, distributing and enforcing property rights and

the high units of creation and generation of markets.

2.4 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This segment of the chapter discusses published information relevant to the

study by various scholars and researchers. It helps the present study to give new

interpretations based on old studies. It helps to trace the academic development in the

field of the research. Past studies have been grouped into two major categories viz.

Health & Environmental aspect and Cost & Technology aspect.

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2.4.1 Health and Environmental aspect

Author Year Findings (Indian scenario)

R. Vimal Kumar 2008 Freshwater of KARAPAD Bay is carrying sewage in

TUTICORIN owing to rein lowered, here the salinity

level is extreme about 6ppt (parts per thousand) is high

which is giving shock to fish species. They are having

difference in salt content in their blood due to pH value,

owing to sewage the oxygen level is depleted in the area.

They found through their sample that the concentration

of ammonia was high in the water.

The Hindu 2008 Sewage was pumping out from Underground drainage

system into open space by the authority due to heavy

rainfall by which residents were annoyed and worrying

of health hazards and having the fear that it would affect

the water quality of their wells and bore wells and should

protect the water resources and human health instead of

damaging. The practice should not carry out in future in

any were and need to monitor the system round the clock

and its water flow.

Andrew Cameron

and Attwood

2007 The domestic wastewater is a potentially valuable

resource for the agricultural sector, untreated sewage is

highly concentrated with pathogenic organisms. That

leads to negative impact on human health and livestock.

When the cattle are exposed to untreated sewage or

wastewater will lead to affect in the health of human

being through food chain process. The consumption of

contaminated poorly cooked meet by people will resulted

in the tapeworm infestation.

Bindu Shajan

Perappadan

2007 Author reiterates that rising population leads to

generation of sewage in huge quantum, which led to

water related disease like typhoid, malaria, cholera and

jaundice. Sewage collected within urban area

contaminated the groundwater, which was the source the

drinking water, leading to health hazards due to

mosquitoes breeding, percolation into soil bed and

polluting ground water resources.

27

Bhaskar Ghose 2007

According to author, Delhi city is spreading toward the

eastern bank of the river Yamuna and growing rapidly.

River becomes the main source for the survival of the

human being in the city, Public have to encounter

unpleasant smell while crossing the river and river is

flooded with the sewage of the city. When it flows to

downstream of Wazirabad it carries untreated and

partially treated domestic and industrial wastewater,

contributed through several drains. Delhi Jal Board

(DJB) has started to clean the river, towards 2010

Common Wealth Games. State and local authority should

check and monitor the surface water system regularly

and should not take remedy at any occasion.

The Hindu 2007 This emphasised that the residents of Kailasapuram in

Tondiarpet zone and Govind Singh Street in Pulianthope

zone had complained that the drinking water was

contaminated with sewage. A resident said that the water

pumped every morning was very cloudy and had a foul

smell. The residents were worried about the occurrence

of acute diarrhoeal diseases (ADD) in their locality. The

Chennai Corporation had taken remedial measures and

intensified the fogging operation to overcome the

population of mosquitoes.

Muhammad Abbas

Aziz

2006 He underlined that in Pakistan informally sewage water

is used for irrigation purpose. Only 10 percent of

wastewater is getting primary level of treatment, about

95,000 acres (32,000 hectares) are irrigated with

wastewater. The accumulation of heavy metals in leafy

vegetables such as radish, carrot, cabbage, cauliflower

and so on. Foods are having higher possibility of

transferring heavy metals to humans and through animal

milk are also possible, which cause mental disorder,

respiratory problems and hormonal imbalance. Through

appropriate sewage treatment, it can reuse for

groundwater recharge, aquaculture, and irrigation of

lawns, urban recreational, etc. the management of

wastewater treatment is to protect the environment and

reducing health hazards and to mobiles clean water to

28

overcome water scarcity and crop production. Other wise

risk will associate with the cultivable foods through

pathogenic micro-organisms and outbreak of water-borne

diseases is the ultimate result.

Hamner, Steve

et, al.

2006 Authors have emphasized that in Varanasi 200 MLD of

untreated sewage is discharged into the Ganga river, were

about 108 MPN (most probable No.) of faecal Coliform

count per 100ml and BOD over 40 mg/l was found in the

river water and which is most polluted zone of the river

in Varanasi. Water-borne like gastrointestinal disease,

cholera, dysentery, hepatitis-A, and typhoid disease were

estimated around 66 percent during one year period prior

to the survey. Regression analysis were used focused the

significant between the water borne disease and the use

of river water (bathing, laundry, brushing teeth, washing

eating utensil etc.) in which thirty-three cases of cholera

were found in the survey household were exposed by

using this harmful water. Low income and low

educational level are significantly associated with the

water-borne disease. From the study it was highlight that

there is lack of sewerage facilities, toilets in residence,

outdoor defecating were practiced and poor sanitation.

This will devastate the environment severely.

Nuanjun Pasda et,

al.

2006 Authors emphases that the Bangkok covers more than

1500 km2

and has 10 million populations, wastewater

disposal is creating enormous pollution problems and it

was estimated the quantity of sewage sludge is about 108

tonnes dry matter (DM) per day in 2005. Plant nutrient

content in the sewage was high and organic matter

content was low and the concentration of heavy metals

varies from sample to sample and some times it is higher

than the US regulation for sewage sludge use

in

agriculture. Faecal coliforms were present in the sludge

and it indicating a possible contamination of the soil,

measures were taken to decrease these pathogenic

populations, the sewage sludge should be heated by

composting.

29

Valdas Paulauskas,

Nomeda Sabiene

and Ernestas

Zaleckas

2006 Authors said that sewage sludge should be stored in the

special place which will have optimistic impact on

destruction of pathogens and micro-organism

contaminants and future it will reduce the contamination

of heavy metals. To stabilize this sewage sludge, cement

kiln dust were applied to increase the pH and temperature

and to reduce the moisture content, which will not

mobilize the heavy metals.

John Stansbury 2006 Presently 2.4 billion peoples are not having adequate

sewage treatment facilities, less than 15 percent of the

wastewater is treated in Latin America and untreated or

poorly treated wastewater is polluting more then half of

the world’s rivers, lakes and coastal water. Posing to

serious impact on water system in the global

environment, which is results in more then 5 million

deaths per year owing to waterborne disease which is

equal to ten folds of all the wars combined.

Magdalena

Svanström et al.

2005 This article attempted to analyse the advantages of the

treatment methodology Supercritical water oxidation

(SCWO) in treating sewage. It was suitable for the

treatment of wet organic waste. SCWO

allows for

complete oxidation of all organics in sewage sludge and

almost complete recovery of the inherent energy,

essentially without harmful emissions. In this paper, a

life-cycle assessment (LCA) of sewage sludge SCWO

(Aqua-Critox) is presented and the results are compared

with LCA results for other

sludge handling options.

Compared to other methods of treatment, advantages of

SCWO methodology were phosphorus extraction, reuse

of treated water for agriculture and co-incineration with

municipal solid waste.

Dollar L. H. 2005

He combined the results of experiments conducted for

the treatment of municipal solid waste in laboratory and

outdoor. Two laboratory series of experiments contained

municipal solid waste (MSW) amended

with sewage

sludge, one with higher proportions of ash in the MSW

than the other. Outdoor experiments contained

waste

30

streams with different proportions of ash. Field cells

compared moisture retention of refuse and MSW co-

disposed with sewage sludge. Belt-pressed sludge

retained water as bound water that was released by decay

and changing pH. Sun-dried sludge also retained more

moisture than MSW alone. In gravimetric terms, ash

reduced the storage potential of MSW, in laboratory and

outdoor experiments. However,

outdoor experiments

released less leachate from ash-rich refuse than middle-

income waste with no ash fraction.

Prafulla Das 2005

He emphasis that the water contamination emerges as a

dangerous killer, and it has killed 2169 people through

water-borne diseases, 4,96,000 people were exposed to

diarrhea and 29,000 were suffered from jaundice and

jaundice disease were limited to certain part of

Bhubaneawar, in Orissa state. The reason beyond these

disease was about 12,446 tubewells sunk over a decade

remained untested and 470 water quality test were done

from 3,403 tubewells in the district, were not safe for

drinking purpose and it was contaminated by bacteria

with high pH value, this was not potable use owing to the

leakage of sewage from the neighboring septic tank,

leach pits and open sewage overflows in isolated area,

leakages in the pipeline, non-clearance of sewage.

Because of rapid growth in urban population the

authority is fail to supply the sufficient quantity of water

to their population. Most of the tubewells remains out of

use and which makes the water crises very horrible.

Raghavachari

Srikanth and

Durgadas Naik

2004 Impact of health by using raw domestic sewage which

resulted to high contamination of vegetable owing to

fecal coliforms, Giardia cysts and other pathogenic

bacteria like Shigella and Salmonella. Nutritional intake

of raw greens (like cabbage, carrots, etc.) which is grown

in the raw sewage have caused the following diseases

like Giardiasis, Amebiasis, and Diarrhea in the farming

groups and having its impact in the sourrounding area

also and this was checked with the hospital data and with

other areas. Within the locality of Asmara.

Comprehensive health education program were

31

encourage to among the communities to know the risk of

untreated wastewater used for agricultural crops.

Sumithra S and

Narayanan. J

2004 The major causes of river pollution like rapid industrial

development and urbanization and studied about

discharge of industrial and domestic untreated sewage

into river Bhadra. During summer season the physical –

chemical parameter showed high level of concentration

than in rainy season because dilution would reduce its

concentration. Installation of STP in Bhadravathi, which

reduced the pollution load was confirmed by sample

collection taken at discharge point in the river Bhadra

and analyzed for various physical-chemical parameters.

Zhang Yue 2004 In his speech has highlighted that water should be priced

to make the community to realize the importance of

water resources. To overcome water supply scarcity the

government should switch over to recycling of sewage

water. In the Sewage Treatment Plant in Tianjin

Development Zone the treated water had the standard

quality of drinking water.

Mamdouh Riad 2004 Author highlights the use of land and a water resource,

which is directly linked to public health, food security

economic and social benefits. Treated Municipal waste

water was an important water resource, when it is

properly and effectively used, then it would turn to

valuable. 2.4 billion Cubic meter of waste water was

generated annually and the cost spent on this is 600

million Egyptian Pound (US$ 100 million) annually. This

plan had been implemented by involving various

stakeholders such as local community and farmers so that

operation and maintenance of these forests, the variety of

trees to be selected for plantation by keeping in view the

various factors like to soil, climate, and economy.

Laiqh A. Khan 2004 He emphasised that treated sewage water was fit for fish

farming and healthy for consumption. Mysore City

Corporation tested this on an experimental basis for four

months by releasing treated sewage into a five acre pond

for fish farming and tested the quality of fish harvested.

It was found that there was no enteric pathogen in those

fish and were fit for consumption.

32

Abdul G. Liew et

al.

2004 This study has reported the use of sewage sludge

generated from sewage treatment plant (STP) as raw

material in a clay brick-making process. The physico-

chemical and mineralogical characterization of the

sewage sludge and clay were carried out in order to

identify major technological constraints for its usage in a

clay brick-making process. Bricks were produced with

sewage sludge additions ranging from 10 to 40 percent

by dry weight. Bricks with more than 30 percent sludge

addition were not recommended for use since they are

brittle and easily broken even when handled

gently.

Therefore, sludge bricks of this nature are only suitable

for use as

common bricks, which are normally not

exposed to view, because of poor surface finishing.

Teresa Z

Mitakakis, Martha

I Sinclair & Karin

Leder

2004 Negative impact of human health was focused through

consuming the drinking water which was separated from

sewage and larger population were exposed to pathogens

and chemical contamination. When the drinking water

pump was removed the cholera disease was drastically

stopped among the population. The treated wastewater

will be efficiently used for toilet flushing, garden

watering, washing car, outdoor surface, irrigating sports

fields and public parks etc., will be very useful for the

sustainable development system by which we can reduce

the demand of fresh water.

Tjalfe G. Poulsen

and Jens Aa

Hansen

2003 The purpose of the article is to assess the Strategic

environmental assessment (SEA) of sewage sludge

management in a Danish municipality (Aalborg), with

160,000 inhabitants

using alternative methods for

aggregation of environmental impacts. It also discussed

the use of SEA in sludge management. . Six different

scenarios for management of sewage sludge within the

Aalborg municipality involving thermal treatment,

composting and landfilling of sludge were evaluated.

Thermal sludge treatment with energy utilisation was

shown to

be a promising option for sewage sludge

management in Aalborg. The

analysis showed that

aggregation procedures, sludge biogas potential

and

sludge production were very important.

33

Saptarshi

Bhattacharya

2003 This article revealed that the residents of MKB nagar,

Chennai had been using sewage contaminated drinking

water for ages without their knowledge. Some private

sewage lorries carrying sullage from different place were

dumping them into the storm water channels nearby.

Only when the drinking water pipes discharged blackish,

foul smelling water, the contamination was suspected and

the authorities informed.

Vinson Kurian 2003 According to him the Integration of anaerobic technology

in sewage treatment and he found it was suitable with

respect to energy conservation. Implementation of this

technology in countries like India, Columbia and Brazil

has shown it to be a success in sustainable waste water

treatment.

G. Brinda 2003 Emphasis in this article was that the discharge of sewage

and industrial waste into sea will harm the marine life

and it posed a big threat to ocean eco-system, planktons

and coral reefs were damaged by these wastewater,

excessive amount of nutrients are present in the

wastewater which affect the growth of plankton and

acting as a fuel for the algae and finally it attacks Corals

which is world third largest barrier reef. Pollution, over

fishing and global warming are playing a vital role in

contaminating the Coral reefs teem. Finally human

excreta have worst effect on aquatic environment.

Gargi Parsi 2003 He underlined that around 14 percent of the whole

riverine length is severely damaged and 19 percent in

moderately polluted and the major rest portion is

comparatively clean. Industrial sector generated effluents

about 13000 MLD and sewage generation from urban

area is around 23000 MLD, which two times to industrial

effluents. The stagnation of sewage in urban area will

lead to mosquitoes breeding, contamination of

groundwater and high level of pathogens contribution is

from sewage alone which will increase the ratio of water

borne diseases. In large urban vicinity the ground water

quality have been damaged.

34

M.Ludin,

M.Olofsson,

G.J.Pettersson &

H.Zetterlund,

2004 The effective disposal of sludge from sewage treatment

in Sweden. The four options evaluated included

agricultural application, incineration with solid waste,

phosphorus recovery by incineration and phosphorus

recovery by fractionation. Among these incineration and

direct application to agricultural soil are the best methods

for handling the sustainable sludge management in

environmental aspect. But direct application to

agricultural soil is a cost-effective solution and it will

reduce the level of contaminants in sludge will decrease

continuously.

Avelino Nunez-

Delgado

2002 The effectiveness of the treatment is variable in different

place and the negative values are achieved in the

different place in different occasion and the controlling

authority should promote periodical maintenance on the

systems. Heavy metals are highly found in the sewage

sludge sample and which is spread on frost and cultivable

area of Galicia for that chemical stabilization and

biological composting is needed to reduce the intensity

pollution.

B. B.

Chanappagoudar

and S.R.

Salakinkop

2002 The significance of irrigation with treated sewage as it

contained micro-nutrients like phosphorus, potassium,

calcium, sulphur, iron, manganese and boron. Also

observed increased yield of crops over and above the

yield in bore-well irrigated areas.

B.N. Pandey 2002 Authors tested the water in Koshi Zone (North Bihar)

and found it not suitable for human consumption due to

the presence of faecal matter of human and animal

origin. They found this drinking water contamination had

caused damages to human health.

U. Krogmann et at. 2001 Authors say that the understanding of farmer’s

perception and choices about the application of sewage

sludge on land and it is the locally accepted plan for

managing its sewage sludge. Open semi-structured

interviews were conducted with 50 fruit and vegetable

farmers in New Jersey Annual Vegetable Meeting in the

1999. Application of sewage sludge is not a common

practice for these growers. Farmers are thinking on their

35

crops and land, because of negative public perception,

sewage sludge contain heavy metals, odour complaints,

and increase of contaminants in the water supply will

compensate economic incentives and soil improvement

benefits, but not mentioned about Environment.

Usha Rai 2001 In this article author said that the increasing demand for

agricultural irrigation and sewage spewing into the river

system that is 16,000 MLD is generated from class 1 city

and 1600 MLD from class 2 cities with population 1,

00,000 and 50,000 to 1 lakh, respectively. 17,600 MLD is

generated every day in the country, only 4000 MLD are

treated and the huge quantity is sapped into water bodies.

The total length of the our river system is 45,000 km

length, in which 6,000 km have BOD above the

priscribes level and is unfit for drinkable standard.

Coliform conten in the yamuna is high as in raw sewage.

In Punjab and Haryana 90 percent of the wastewater is

used for irrigation porpose and they are not letting into

water bodies. We are proficiency with IT and in sewage

management we are still in bullock cart age. Southern

rivers are cleaner then north and there civil authorities

are executing well and there communities are more

literate. GAP was initiated by the Prime Minister (Rajiv

Gandhi) in 1985 for cleaning up the river. River Yamuna

and Sabarathi most polluted rivers of the country and the

suilty cities are Delhi and Ahmedabad, with growing

population they are pouring both sewage and industrial

pollutants into the river. Delhi Govt. is planning to divert

there city sewage toward Haryana and Calcutta is the

biggest city on the Ganga and they are handling its

sewage better than the other cities.

The Hindu 2001 This article underlines that the raw sewage and shipyard

discharge are responsible for infecting the large number

of corals with high concentration of the dissolved metals.

The healthy corals contain a natural population of

bacteria which is ecofriendly in purifying the water. The

environmental stress due to these pollution which

reduced the count of corals and also the unique group of

photosynthetis bacteria population which owing to lack

of light in the water bodies.

36

Akila Dinakar 2001 The dense human settlement near the water course will

lead to pollution as it becomes recipient of waste water

and solid waste. The industries located in the city and the

residential complexes discharge their waste water and

sewage directly into these water ways. There is

inadequacy of treatment facilities in Adayar where the

existing STP capacity is 223 MLD but the estimated flow

of sewage is 440 MLD.

Rajiv K. Sinha and

Er. Ambuj K.

Sinha

2000 Examined how the domestic sewage can be recycled

through aquatic plant, which is favourable for the

conservation of resources with environmental sanitation.

The aquatic plant called duck weeds (Lemna) and water

hyacinths (Eichhornia cressipes) were used for treatment

and purification of domestic sewage and it is

economically a viable solution to overcome the problem

of disposal of urban sewage. These plants absorb and

incorporate the dissolved material in their own structure.

More then 80 countries including India using this

biological treatment which is scientifically proved.

Rajiv K. Sinha and

Er. Ambuj K.

Sinha

2000

Sewage water is irrigated through sprinklers and

perforated pipes significantly improve the irrigation in

terms of BOD and DO values. Economic and ecological

value trees are planted like fuelwood, shade-giving trees

are grown with sewage and harvested for timber, fibre

and chemicals. These sewage farming is also carried out

in Chennai city. In India rosewood and Teak-wood

plantation is done in sewage irrigation. Eucalyptus,

matchwood trees and neem are responding very well to

sewage irrigation and it absorbs nearly 40 liters per

tree/day as well as large quantity of toxic wastewater

while transpiring clean water vapour into the atmosphere

and it very suitable for sewage silviculture.

Rajiv K. Sinha and

Er. Ambuj K.

Sinha

2000 Authors emphasized that the domestic sewages and

industrial waste have contaminated major rivers and

well. Indian Rivers become giant sewers for the countries

urban populations and storm drainage with human and

cattle excreta, urban sewage, surface run-off from

dumping sites for municipal solid wastes and industrial

37

wastes, dumping of ashes and animal carcasses, partly

and unburnt human bodies etc. are the main sources

pollution in river Ganga and Yamuna.

Sonu Satija and

Bibhu Mishra

1999 In this article authors have estimated the domestic

sewage generation, monetary value of nutrients present

in the sewage, the alternative ways of sewage treatment

etc. In India around 15000 MLD of sewage is generated

from the 444 cities/towns, disposed into water bodies and

the wastewater which contains nutrients was estimated

the value of Rs. 375 million, which is drain into earth

unwontedly. Which is polluting the natural resources?

Domestic waste occupies 75 percentage of the total

pollution in the Ganga river, the volume the organic

waste is about 4.33 tones. When this sewage is mixed

with fresh water it will generate the parameters like

BOD, COD, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, noxious gases,

methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc. which will

consume the oxygen level in the natural water body.

Ultimately it have negative value of oxygen in the water

bodies resulted in rising the bacterial level causing

physical, chemical and biological damages to the natural

environmental. Treatment measures like aquaculture

sewage treatment plant (ASTP) were used to check the

pollution and maintain the ecobalance in natural aquatic

system. For duckweed culture is 0.36 hectare and for fish

culture 0.2 hectare of land is needed for the treatment of

one MLD of sewage, five days is needed for the

preservation of this water and around 90 percent of the

pollutant is removed and in fish pound around three to

four tones of fish can be harvested and the monetary

value of this is Rs. 18,000 within 10-12 months. The

capital cost for this treatment will be Rs. 15 lakhs and the

operational cost is Rs. 85,000 and this system gives a

return of Rs. 33,000 per year from the sale of fish apart

from pollution control. In this way the grey water can be

reuse for the productive purpose which is essential for

the sustainability of the ecosystem for the fourth coming

generation.

38

Hasselgren. K 1999 This study has analyzed the usage of dewatered and non-

dewatered sewage sludge from a secondary treatment

plant for the plots planted with three Salix (willow)

clones according to the Swedish short-rotation forestry

concept. By the application of sludge stem biomass

production was noticed to be enhanced. Sludge metals in

general accumulated in the soil within the layer in which

the sludge was applied, whereas metal transportation

below this point was less pronounced. Concentrations of

nutrients and metals in plant tissues were not influenced

by the sludge application rates, but decreased in general

with stem and stand age

Himanshu Kaushik 1998 Focused on the issue of mixing of industrial effluents and

domestic waste water in the AMC (Ahmedabad

Municipal Corporation) sewage line, which hampered the

process of treatment plant. Sabarmathi river was

reported to have received about thirty per cent of raw

domestic waste water. A substantial portion of population

suffered from scarcity of drinking water.

Stewart Dallas, et.

al

1998 Authors brought out a case of domestic waste water

usage in Australia. It was a study on grey water reuse and

its implications on human health risks. State support was

observed in this endeavour with a view to achieve

development of sustainable water reuse technology.

P.J. Parsons 1986 Municipal is sole body with the responsible to collect and

dispose the household waste in the dumping yard and to

destroy them by chemical treatment and incineration and

disposed of to landfill as solids sludge or liquids, when

the landfill is overlie an aquifer directly and rain entering

into the waste will encourage the accumulation of

leachate and contaminate surface water and ground water

and it will pollute water reserve in universal. The

characteristic Ground water below to landfill will have

severely broken down.

Mohammas Zafar

and Pawan Kumar

1986

Authors have made a study with a sample size of 60

farmers in which 30 farmers under sewage and 30 under

non-sewage irrigation. They found that sewage irrigation

39

supplied plant nutrients to potato crops enhanced its

profit per unit area compared with non-sewage irrigated

crop. Potato is consumed as a staple food, it also stands

first in protein production, and unfortunately per capita

consumption in India is very low (13 kgs) compare to

Germany, Belgium and Denmark etc. 174 Kgs, 146 Kgs

and 132 kgs respectively.

Alan Webb and

Daniel Badger

1977 The elimination of water pollution is done by promoting

the growth agricultural crops through sewage irrigation.

When the wastewater is disposed in the cropping fields

beyond the level of plant usage, the effectiveness of this

application will diminish ultimately, fail to remove

nitrogen and phosphorous from the water and their will

be high probability of groundwater contamination. Lower

irrigation will extend the long-run productivity. When

the govt. is willing to apply huge amount of sewage to

the amount of land, then the govt. should purchase their

own land, in water scarcity are they have to contact with

farmers for disposing the wastewater in the form of

irrigation to the independent farmers.

Robert K. Horton

and Herman G.

Baity

1941 This article discusses the advantages of disposal of

textile wastes with domestic sewage. The advantages

listed out were reduction of capital outlay, constant and

skilled supervision of entire treatment, elimination of

chances of neglect and mismanagement by mill labor. It

also discusses the problems arising from the combined

treatment. The major problem was the difference in the

characteristic of effluent and sewage. The treatment

methodology suggested for the treatment of combined

waste was the activated sludge process as it removes

color better, but it is more easily upset by variations in

the character of the waste.

40

2.4.2 Cost and Technological aspect

Author Year Findings

The Hindu 2008 Decentralized system is viable for the community to

operate wastewater treatment system with full efficient

and it will avail cost effective solution for the

individual and vertical building and colonies in urban

centres. Recycled water is used for garden purpose and

this system is minimizing the maintenance cost. Like

wise it conserve the water resources and it produce

Energy by converting biogas (Methane). Through this

it protects global warming.

Tzanakakis V.E,

Paranychianaki.

N.V and Angelakis

A.N

2007

Soil is used for the treatment of wastewater, through

this crop production were increased by direct

application of wastewater into crop and by this process

they have protected the surrounding environment. This

system was practiced since ancient civilizations period

onwards, from this practiced they have found

significant impact and land based wastewater treatment

system can be used to treat municipal wastewater and

other wastewater. It will be efficiently used to rise the

irrigated areas. The change in the system was realized

from time to time due to technical innovation.

In the second phase (1905-1972) is was conventional

wastewater treatment plants which include trickling

filters and later it was upgraded with activated sludge

and in the third phase it developed

Melissa Howell-

Alipalo

2007 McLaren Vale grape grower made use of this

wastewater as irrigation for their crops, they reduced

the fertilizer, water supply, less groundwater, and they

saved half the cost ground water and 65 percent of the

cost of potable water and the they received more yield

then ever before. This company was become

financially healthy by utilizing this wastewater with

out wasting.

Maria

Prihandrijanti,

Almy Malisia &

2006

Authors have used Cost Benefit Analysis between

Centralized Wastewater Treatment System (CWATS)

and Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System

41

Ralf Otterpohi (DEWATS) in Surabaya-Indonesia, from the analysis

they have founded the net present value cost in high

and cost benefit ratio is very low in the CWATS and

vice-versa in DEWATS, usage of domestic wastewater

for agricultural purpose is safe and biogas product is

utilized for cooking purposes. DEWATS is feasible

economically in terms of building and O&M cost, as

well as for the society (expenditure for the medical

treatment will decrease on health aspect).

Srivatsan P 2005

According to him DEWATS is the alternative solution

to reduce the wastewater contamination and the

encouragement of low-cost sewage treatment

technologies to facilitate to reduce the impact of waste-

water on human life and the environment. The CPCB

also recognized that this system is an effective means

of pollution control. DEWATS technology becomes an

integral part of civil engineering courses in all the

universities in the State Karnataka. Wastewater

treatment technology gives the benefits generating the

biogas and improving the quality of the environment in

all the aspect.

Sabiena Feenstra,

Raheela Hussain &

Wim van der Hoek

2000 The wastewater is rich in nutrient farmers are willing

to use nutrient rich water even without treatment,

having the knowledge of cost and benefit from their

yield output and lack of knowledge toward

environmental impact and health risk of irrigation with

untreated wastewater. The prevalence of diarrheal

disease and hookworm infection was very high among

farmer community as well as with their children below

12 ages.

D. Kay et. al. 1999 In this article authors said that the in order improve the

environmental quality near the recreation point,

removal of point sources pollution and to setup in

distance place, employing the secondary treatment

with involving disinfection of Ultra Violet (UV) light

to check the pathogens as a tertiary treatment. From

the treatment significant reduction was observer and

this is little expensive compare to other treatment

42

process. Discussed about three potential sources: high

flow discharge form sewerage system, partial treated

from UV and finally the bacterial concentrations and

river are drained into coastal water from the adjacent

catchments area, and were calculated the expensive

remedial measures were taken. Catchment modelling

methods were used as a mechanism for prediction of

diffuse sources of pollution.

T. H. Y. Tebbutt 1998 In this article author said that 142 liter per capita water

consumption in UK and most part of it returned as

wastewater, industrial sector also emit the same

quantum of water as a waste in the environment. For

controlling these wastes they have adopted meter in

water supply for industrial use and in domestic use.

Amount of leakage in a distribution system have

greatly affected by its age and density and the old

system will produce excess rate of leakage i.e. 35

percent, modern development can easily reach the

unaccounted water and it will reach to less then 10

percent. By these the volume and nature of wastewater

can reduced. in older sewerage system damaged and

cracked joints loss the sewage into the surrounding and

penetration into groundwater may increase the flow of

sewage. Cost for separate will be higher then that of

combined system and problems take place in this were

release of paper, plastics and sanitary items in

sewerage system.

Gay. J and Robert.

D

1993 Authors pointed out that Sewage sludge in agriculture

is beneficial, utmost care is necessary when discharged

in the field to minimize the risk on workers, livestock,

contamination of soil and ground water quality by

heavy metals and other chemicals. They argued further

that cost and impact resulting from the installation of

treatment depends on the nature of receiving water, site

of the treatment work and sludge disposal route. More

than one third of substance is removed in the primary

treatment and the higher level of removal is carried out

at secondary treatment level.

43

2.5 CRITICAL REMARKS

The preceding review of literature included discussions on both theory and

concepts and review of past studies. Different concepts related to the study like health,

environmental aspect, different types of diseases, cost of the treatment, concept related

to treatment methodologies help to gain conceptual clarification. It is quite helpful to

discern the appropriate methodology and different variables for the present study. It is

also useful to identify the research gap, on which the present may focus.

There are a very few studies available on sewage water in India and abroad

from time to time. Studies available over a period of 1986 – 2009, discussions on

economic and environmental issues of sewage water were reviewed in this chapter.

Studies, which were grouped under the environmental aspects, included details

of strategies of management of sewage pollution, physic-chemical properties of sewage

polluted soil and water and impact of sewage polluted water on human health and

plants. Studies which report on the impact of sewage pollution and human health

relevant to the present study have been reviewed; this approach facilitates to make out

problems, hypotheses to be tested and enables a critical approach to the policy issues

pertaining to domestic wastewater.

Most of the previous studies have discussed the issues of sewage water dwelling

on either economic or environmental perspectives in a truncated manner. Present study

has tried to integrate the economic and environmental issues of sewage water with

reference to Trichirappalli Corporation. It focuses on the economics of pollution control

with reference to domestic wastewater. Studies discussing the impact of wastewater

released by residential area on human health are found to be petite. This study proposes

to fill the research gap on sewage generation, treatment, health aspects so as to amend

the policy framework aiming for sustainable management of the sewage in detail.