Air Compressors

Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems

IntroductionCompressed air systems generate, store and distribute energy in the form of compressed air for use throughout a plant. In a compressed air system, a single set of compressors can supply power to machines all over the plant, thus eliminating the need for numerous and dispersed electric motors. This advantage must be balanced against the relative poor energy efficiency of compressed air systems, which can be as low as 20% when leaks and part-load control losses are taken into account.

On a national scale, air compressors rank only behind pumps in terms of industrial motor drive electricity consumption. Thus, increasing the efficiency of compressed air systems can result in significant energy savings.

Principles of Energy-Efficient Compressed Air SystemsEnergy Balance ApproachTo compress air, the power delivered to the fluid (air) dWf is the integral of the product of the volume flow rate V and the pressure rise dP.

dWf = V dP

The electrical power supplied to an air compressor is:

dWe = V dP / (motor compressor control)

where motor is the motor efficiency, compressor is the compressor efficiency and control is the control efficiency.

Three types of compression are shown below. The right compression line represents isentropic compression, in which air is compressed adiabatically with no internal reversibilities. The left compression line represents isothermal compression, in which the air is cooled to keep the air temperature constant during compression. Isentropic compression has no cooling and isothermal compression has the maximum cooling possible. Actual compression processes lie somewhere in between isentropic and isothermal compression, and are called polytropic compression. The area to the left of the compression lines represents the fluid work dWf = V dP. Thus, isothermal compression requires less compressor work because the cooling is responsible for part of the decrease in volume.

Source: Cengal, Y. and Boles, M., Thermodynamics, 1998, WGB-McGraw-Hill.

Some air compressors utilize two stages of compression with intercooling between the stages to further reduce compressor power. The power savings from two-stage compression with intercooling are shown graphically below.

Source: Cengal, Y. and Boles, M., Thermodynamics, 1998, WGB-McGraw-Hill.

Assuming that air can be treated as an ideal gas, it can be shown that

Pvn = constant

during the compression process, where P = absolute pressure, v = specific volume, n = 1 for isothermal compression, n= k = Cp/Cv = 1.400 for isentropic compression of air and 1.0 < n < 1.400 for polytropic compression.

Substituting (Pvn = constant) into the equation for fluid work (dWf = V dP) and solving the differential equation yields the following results:

Wf = R T ln (P2/P1) for isothermal compressionWf = n R T1 [(P2/P1) (n-1)/n - 1] / (n - 1) for polytropic compressionRair = 0.06855 Btu/lbm-R

Example:Calculate specific capacities (cfm/hp) for isothermal and isentropic compression of 70 F air to 100 psig.

Actual compressors generate between 4 and 5 scfm/hp at 100 psig. The difference between the thermodynamic values of scfm/hp computed above and scfm/hp generated by actual compressors is due to the turbulence and friction generated within the compressor. Thus, this difference characterizes the efficiency of the compressor.

Example:Calculate the efficiency of a compressor with an actual specific capacity of 4.2 cfm/hp if the polytropic specific capacity is 6.0 cfm/hp.

dW = V dP / compressor compressor = V dP / dWcompressor = 4.2 scfm / 6.0 scfm = 70%

Motor efficiency is the efficiency of the motor at converting electrical power into shaft power. The efficiency of a premium-efficiency 100-hp motor is about 92%. Motor efficiency can be improved by specifying premium-efficiency motors.

Control efficiency is a measure of the losses incurred to vary compressed air output to match compressed air demand. In air compressors, control efficiency varies widely depending upon the type of part-load control employed.

Understood in this light, the energy balance equation serves as a useful guide for energy saving opportunities. Thus, primary energy savings opportunities are:

Reducing volume flow rate Reducing pressure rise Increasing control efficiency Increasing compressor efficiency Increasing motor efficiency.

Opportunities for Improving The Energy-Efficiency of Compressed Air SystemsThese principles can be organized using the inside-out approach, which sequentially reduces end-use energy, distribution energy, and primary conversion energy. Combining the energy balance and inside-out approach, common energy-efficiency opportunities in compressed air systems include:

End use Eliminate inappropriate uses of compressed air (reduce V) Install solenoid valves to shut off unnecessary air (reduce V) Install air saver nozzles (reduce V) Replace timed-solenoid with differential-pressure control (reduce V) Use blower instead of air compressor for low-pressure applications (reduce dP) Distribution Fix leaks (reduce V) Replace timed-solenoid drains with demand-control drains (reduce V) Decrease pressure drop in distribution system (reduce dP) Conversion Compress cooler outside air (increase compressor efficiency) Stage compressors with pressure settings or controller (increase control efficiency) Employ on/off, load/unload with auto shutoff, or variable-speed control for trim compressor (increase control efficiency) Add compressed air storage to decrease unload power and increase auto-shutoff (increase control efficiency) Replace desiccant with refrigerated dryer (reduce V) Use heat from compressors to heat building during winter

Recurring Energy-Efficiency ConceptsClose inspection of these energy-efficiency opportunities illustrates three important and recurring energy efficiency concepts.

The equation for air compressor energy use serves as a useful guide for comprehensively identifying energy saving opportunities.

Like most systems, compressed air systems are designed for peak conditions, but spend the vast majority of time operating at off-peak conditions. Thus, several energy efficiency opportunities result from improving control to reduce unnecessary compressed air use and power consumption during off peak conditions. Careful attention to control efficiency is vital to achieving energy efficiency.

To achieve energy savings, many end-use and distribution system savings opportunities must be coupled with modifications to the conversion equipment, which in this case is the air compressor plant. Thus, the whole-system inside-out approach is vital to maximizing energy-efficiency potential.

Air CompressorsThe three basic types of air compressors are reciprocating, rotary screw and centrifugal compressors.

Reciprocating Rotary Screw

Centrifugal

Reciprocating compressors use pistons to compress air in cylinders. Single-acting compressors compress air on one-side of piston, and double acting compressors compress on both sides of piston. Large reciprocating compressors may employ multiple stages with intercoolers and double acting pistons to achieve high compression efficiencies. Single-stage compressors control compressed air output by stopping the pistons when compressed air is not needed. Multi-stage compressors control compressed air output by sequentially reducing the number of stages in use.

Rotary-screw compressors compress air by forcing air between rotating screws with decreasing volume between the screws. Most rotary-screw compressors control compressed air output by modulating the air intake valve, and or alternating between full open and fully closed operation.

Centrifugal compressors compress air by accelerating air from the tips of impellors rotating at high speeds into a volute. Centrifugal compressors are typically 250-hp or larger, and frequently employ multiple stages to achieve the desired compressed air output pressure. Centrifugal compressors control compressed air output by modulating an inlet valve or variable inlet vanes on the air intake, loading and unloading, or blowing off compressed air to atmosphere rather than into the compressed air system.

Compressor ControlsCompressor controls typically match compressed air output to compressed air demand by maintaining discharge air pressure within a specified range. There are five primary control strategies for maintaining the pressure within the desired range.

On/Off ControlIn on/off control, the compressor turns on and begins to add compressed air to the system when the system pressure falls to the lower activation pressure. The compressor continues to run and add compressed air to the system until the system pressure reaches the upper activation pressure when the compressor shuts off. Typical lower and upper activation pressures would be 90 psig and 100 psig. On/off control may also employ a timer to reduce short-cycling. Reciprocating compressors typically employ on/off control. On/off control is the most efficient type of part-load control, since the compressor draws no power when it is not producing compressed air.

Load/Unload ControlIn load/unload control, the compressor loads and begins to add compressed air to the system when the system pressure falls to the lower activation pressure. The compressor continues to run and add compressed air to the system until the system pressure reaches the upper activation pressure. It then unloads and does not add compressed air to the system until the system pressure drops to the lower activation pressure. Typical lower and upper activation pressures would be 90 psig and 100 psig. When unloaded, rotary screw compressors typically partially close the air inlet valve and bleed the remaining compressed air in the sump to atmosphere.

Power draw when fully unloaded varies from about 60% of full load power to about 30% of full-load power, depending on compressor design and on the length of time the compressor runs unloaded. To fully unload, the load/unload cycle time must be long enough to allow the compressed air in the sump to bleed to atmosphere when the compressor unloads. Thus, load/unload control works best when coupled with adequate compressed air storage, which lengthens load/unload cycles while modulating pressure variation to end uses.

Most compressors with load/unload control also have an automatic shutoff option, in which the compressor shuts itself off if it runs unloaded for about 5 to 10 minutes. The compressor will remain off for a specified period of time before restarting to avoid short-cycling. Running the compressor in automatic shutoff mode can result in significant energy savings during periods of low compressed air demand. In addition, adequate compressed air storage increases load/unload cycle time, and the likelihood that the compressor shuts off after running unloaded for a few minutes.

Modulation ControlIn modulation control, the position of the inlet air valve is modulated from full open to full closed in response to compressor output pressure. Modulation control typically employs PID control with a narrow control range about + 2 psig. Inlet modulation is a relatively inefficient method of controlling compressed air output.

Variable-Speed ControlRotary-screw air compressors can be equipped with variable frequency drives to vary the speed of the screws and the corresponding compressed air output. As in other fluid flow applications, the variation of speed to vary output is extremely energy efficient.

Blow-off ControlIn centrifugal compressors, the quantity of air flow through the compressor can only be controlled by modulating the inlet air valve over a relatively small range. When flow is reduced below this range, the flow becomes unstable in a surge condition. To avoid surge, centrifugal compressors may discharge compressed air to the atmosphere to control compressed air output to the system. Blow-off control is the least efficient method of controlling compressed air output, since input power remains constant as the supply compressed air to the system decreases.

Power / Output Relationships by Control TypeThe following figure shows typical relationships between fraction input power to the compressor (FP) and fraction compressed air output (FC) for various types of control. At full output capacity (FC = 1.0), compressors draw full power (FP = 1.0). The power draw at less than full output capacity is a function of the type of part-load control. The figure shows that at part load, most energy efficient control mode is on/off, followed by variable speed, load/unload, modulation and blow-off control.

Assuming linearity, fraction power, FP, can be calculated from fraction capacity, FC, and fraction power at no load, FP0, according to the following relationship:

FP = FP0 + (1 FP0) FC

Some compressors use a combination of basic control modes described above. For example, the figure below shows the relationship between fraction of full-load power and fraction of full-load output capacity for a compressor using a combination of modulation and load/unload control. The top line shows full modulation control, in which the compressor continues to draw 70% of full load power even when producing no compressed air. The bottom line shows a combination modulation and load/unload control, in which compressed air output is modulated by the inlet valve down to 40% of total capacity. Below 40% of full output capacity, the compressor loads and unloads to vary compressed air output. In this example, the compressor draws 25% of full-load power when fully unloaded.

Centrifugal compressors typically employ three primary methods to control compressed air output to meet demand: inlet modulation by a flow control valve or variable inlet vanes, load/unload and blow off. Inlet modulation by a flow control valve or variable inlet vanes varies the quantity or rotation of inlet air to the compressor, which reduces compressed air output and input power. In most cases, however, the control range using inlet modulation is limited to between about 70% and 100% of compressed air output. If flow is reduced below about 70% of full output capacity, an unstable flow condition called surge may result. To control flow below about 70% of full output capacity, some compressors can load and unload to match compressed air demand. When fully unloaded, the compressor generates no compressed air and can draw as little as 15% of full load power. Centrifugal compressors without load/unload capability continue to generate compressed air, but blow off the excess compressed air to the atmosphere. Because compressor power remains constant while compressed air output falls, blow-off control is the least efficient method of controlling compressed air output.

Many centrifugal compressors employ some combination of these basic control options. For example, the figure below shows the fraction power to fraction capacity curves for a centrifugal compressor with Constant Pressure and Auto-dual control modes. In Constant Pressure mode, variable inlet vanes modulate inlet air to the compressors down to about 70% of full load capacity, and compressor power draw follows linearly. If compressed air demand falls below 70%, blow off valves discharge compressed air to the atmosphere and power draw remains constant. Alternately, the compressor could be set to run in Auto-dual mode. In Auto-dual mode, the variable inlet vanes modulate inlet air to the compressors down to about 70% of full load capacity, just as in Constant Pressure mode. However, in Auto-dual mode, the compressor will unload when compressed air demand falls below 70% of full-load capacity and compressor power draw will be reduced to about 15% of full load power. The plot below shows fraction of full load power draw (kW) on the vertical axis and fraction of full load capacity (cfm) on the horizontal axis for Constant Pressure and Auto-dual modes.

LubricationIn reciprocating and flooded-screw compressors, lubricating oil comes in direct contact with the compressed air. Most the oil is removed from the compressed air stream in the sump and by a separator. However, trace amounts of oil are carried forward in the compressed air. In oil-free screw and centrifugal compressors, no oil comes in contact with the compressed air.

Cooling The temperature of air increases during compression and from irreversibilities within an air compressor. Removing heat during compression reduces the work required to raise the pressure of the air.

Heat can be removed from the air compressor to the surrounding air or to water. Air-cooled compressors pass the hot lubricating oil from the compressor and compressed air through finned-tube heat exchangers and force ambient air across the heat exchangers using a cooling air fan. Cooling fan horsepower is typically about 5% of the power of the compressor motor. Water-cooled compressors use water-to-air heat exchangers to remove heat from the lubricating oil and compressed air. In many applications, this heat is eventually rejected to the atmosphere by a cooling tower. Increasing cooling by decreasing the temperature of the cooling air or water improves compressor efficiency and output capacity.

In many cases, the relatively low temperature of the cooling air or water leaving an air compressor limits its usefulness for other process-heating applications. However, the temperature is typically high enough to provide useful space heating during winter. Thus, an excellent application for reclaiming heat from air compressors is to direct hot air into the plant during winter. About 70% of the electrical power input to an air compressor is typically removed by the cooling system.

Compressed Air Storage TanksStored compressed air dampens variation in supply and demand and stabilizes compressed air pressure within the system. Primary compressed air storage refers to tanks located near the air compressor that dampen pressure variations for the entire compressed air system. Secondary compressed air storage refers to tanks located near individual compressed air loads with variable demand. The typical price for compressed air storage tanks is about $4 per gallon.

Primary compressed air storage tanks are generally sized to hold at least 10 seconds of compressor capacity. For example, the recommended minimum volume of the primary storage for a 25-hp air compressor generating 4 cfm/hp would be about:

25 hp compressor x 4 cfm/hp = 100 cfm x 10/60 min = 17 ft3

Primary storage tanks can be located upstream or downstream of the dryer. Locating the primary storage tank downstream of the dryer reduces the variation in compressed air flow through the dryer caused by large variations in end-use demand. In many cases, this eliminates problems of excess water in the compressed air lines due to excess flow through the dryer during periods of high compressed air demand.

DryersThe two most common types of dryers for removing moisture from compressed air lines are refrigerated dryers and desiccant dryers. Dryers are typically sized to handle the peak air compressor air flow.

Refrigerated DryerDesiccant Dryer

Refrigerated DryersRefrigeration dryers cool the air to a dew-point temperature of about 35 F and remove the resulting condensate. According to manufacturer data, the typical power required for a refrigerated dryer is about 6 W/scfm. For example, assuming a 200-hp compressor generates 4.2 scfm of compressed air per horsepower, the output capacity of the compressor at full load is about 840 scfm. The power draw of a refrigerated dryer sized for this application would be about:

840 scfm x 0.006 kW/scfm = 5.0 kW

Desiccant Dryers Desiccant dryers adsorb water into desiccants and reduce the dew point temperature of the compressed air to about -40 F or lower, which is much dryer than the compressed air leaving refrigerant dryers. Desiccant dryers typically have two tanks. Compressed air flows upward through the left desiccant tank where moisture is adsorbed by the desiccant (in an exothermic reaction which warms the desiccant and air). After the desiccant becomes saturated with water, the flow of compressed air is directed upward through the right desiccant tank. The left desiccant tank is then purged of water.

Desiccant dryers employ three methods to purged water from the desiccant: compressed air purge, heated compressed air purge and heated blower purge.

In compressed air purge, about 15% of the dry compressed air leaving the dryer is expanded to about 45 psig and directed downward through the wet tank to purge moisture from the tank.

ExampleCalculate the power requirement for compressed air purge for a 200 hp compressor generating 840 scfm of compressed air if the compressor generates 4 scfm/hp.

Assuming the efficiency of the motor is 90%, the power required for purging the desiccant in an unheated purge-type dryer would be about:

840 scfm x 15% / 4.2 scfm/hp / 90% x 0.75 kW/hp = 25 kW25,000 W / 840 scfm = 30 W/scfm

This example shows that the drying power requirement or compressed air purge is about 30 W /scfm. This is about five times as much electricity as a refrigerated dryer would use; thus, desiccant dryers should be used only in applications that require very dry air.

In heated compressed air purge, about 7% of the dry air leaving the left desiccant tank is expanded, then heated by electrical resistance heaters to about 375 F, and then directed downward through the right tank to purge moisture from the tank. According to product literature, heating requires about 7 W /scfm. Thus, the total power required for heated compressed air purge drying is about 22 W /scfm.

In heated blower purge, a blower supplies ambient air to an electric resistance heater that heats the air to about 375 F. The heated air is directed downward through the right tank to purge moisture from the tank. According to product literature, blowers require about 3 W/scfm and heaters require about 13 W /scfm. Thus, the total power required for heated blower purge drying is about 16 W /scfm.

The purge cycles are initiated by a timer or by a humidity sensor that determines the whether the on-line tower has additional adsorptive capacity. Timers are generally set to handle peak conditions when the air is the most humid. In many parts of the country, the summer air contains 4 more times more humidity than winter air; thus, timed cycles typically use for more energy for purging than is necessary during much of the year.

Condensate DrainsAs compressed air cools, water vapor can condense out of the air and should be removed from the compressed air system through drains. Condensate drains should be located:

After the after cooler Underneath the receiver tank At low points in the system After filters, regulators and other devices that result in a large pressure drop.

Condensate is typically removed from compressed air systems by timed-solenoid or demand- activated drains. Timed-solenoid drains are controlled by a solenoid valve on a timer that opens at a prescribed interval to discharge condensate. Although simple, reliable and inexpensive, timed solenoid drains typically discharge excess compressed air because the timer is typically set for peak condensate conditions during hot and humid summer months. Demand-activated drains function like steam traps and remove condensate only when needed.

If the condensate removal system does not function properly, cocks may be left partially open so water doesnt accumulate in the compressed air lines. This is a major waste of energy. The dryer and condensate drains should be inspected, evaluated, and repaired or replaced.

Filters, Regulators and LubricatorsFilters, regulators and lubricators are frequently located in a grouped F-R-L sequence. The filter removes particulates entrained in the compressed air and may have a trap or drain at the bottom. Filter cartridges should be replaced when the pressure drop across the filter exceeds about 7 psig. According to a compressed air service company, a filter cartridge for a filter on a 1-inch line passing about 170 scfm costs about $30 and takes about 10 minutes to replace. Most filters have float drains that open to discharge condensate when the condensate level reaches a set point in the filter. The seats on these drains can become damaged or dirty allowing compressed air to continually leak through the drain. According to a compressed air service company, replacement float drain assemblies cost about $18 and take about 10 minutes to replace. According to a compressed air service company, a good preventative maintenance program would replace filter cartridges about every 1 year or 8,000 hours of service.

Regulators reduce downstream air pressure. Regulators have pressure gauges and valves to adjust the downstream pressure.

Lubricators add lubricating oil. Lubricators look like filters, but have a clear bubble or screw assembly on top for adding oil.

F-R-L groups are common locations for leaks and should be inspected regularly. In addition, if the all machines in a plant or area use regulators to reduce air pressure, it would save energy and compressor wear and tear to reduce the operating pressure of the compressor instead of reducing line pressure with regulators.

Distribution SystemThe air distribution system includes headers, branch lines, hoses, valves and fittings. The distribution system should be designed so that the total pressure drop from the compressor to the farthest air-using machine is no more than 10 psi. Large headers serve both to minimize pressure drop and increase storage. The most efficient layout utilizes a loop design for the header pipe and a single compressor entry location. Typical rules for sizing compressed air distribution lines are:

Main line: size from average cfm to get P < 3 psiBranch line: size from cfm peak to get P < 3psiFeed lines: size from peak cfm to get P < 1 psiHose: can generate P = 4 to 5 psi (proper selection of hoses is important!)

In addition, it is important to connect multiple compressors into the system using a piping design which does not cause excess turbulence. For example, the diagram below shows 10 psig of unnecessary pressure drop caused by a straight T-connection between compressors. The pressure drop could be eliminated using curved or 45-degree connections.

Pneumatic ToolsMost pneumatic tools are designed to operate at 90 psig. Operating at a higher pressure shortens tool life. Operating at a lower pressure may compromise the ability of the tool to perform its task.

Low-Pressure BlowersLow pressure blowers provide compressed air at pressures up to 20 psig using much less electrical power than traditional air compressors, which generate 4-5 scfm/hp when compressing air to 100 psig. For example, a positive displacement blower requires 43 bhp to provide 310 scfm at 20 psig, and 17.7 bhp to provide 423 scfm at 5 psig. The The specific capacities (scfm/hp) at these operating conditions are:

20 psig: 310 scfm / 43 hp = 7.2 scfm /hp5 psig: 423 scfm / 17.7 hp = 24 scfm /hp

Compressor SizingThe determine the required output capacity of a compressor, find the sum of the scfm requirements of all the individual equipment, add 10% for leakage, and then size the compressor to meet this load. As an example, consider the following case:

Number Toolsscfm/toolDiversity factorTotal scfmAverage scfm

Tool Type A102020%20040

Tool Type B51040%5020

Total1525060

Most compressors deliver about 4 scfm per brake hp. Sizing for the average and peak loads results in very different compressors:

Average load: 60 scfm / 4 scfm/hp = 15 hpPeak load: 250 scmf / 4 scfm/hp = 60 hp

This example demonstrates why compressors are regularly oversized. Oversizing compressors typically results in large first costs and large operating costs since many compressors have poor part-load efficiencies. Partial solutions to the part-load dilemma are:

Size AC for average load, but add storage capacity in system for peaks. Buy multiple smaller compressors so the baseload compressor is generally fully loaded and the part-load penalty is small for the trim compressor. This also adds redundancy for machine failure and servicing. Buy a variable-speed compressor or reciprocating compressor with excellent part-load efficiency.

Inside-Out Approach to Energy Efficient Compressed AirApplication of the whole-system inside-out approach leads to the greatest savings for the least first cost. First, develop a baseline of the current compressed air system. Next, minimize end-uses of compressed air. Next, investigate the distribution system for leaks and excess pressure drops. Finally, investigate the compressors and dryers for energy saving opportunities.

Minimize End Uses Of Compressed AirIs compressed air the best source of power for the job?Use blowers instead of compressed air.Use valves and sensors to shut of compressed air when not neededUse Venturi nozzles that amplify flow by up to 20 to 1 to reduce compressed air flow.

Fix Leaks In The Distribution SystemLeaks are expensive! Most compressed air systems lose between 5% and 20% of compressed air to leaks. We recommend inspecting the compressed-air system for leaks once a week by listening for leaks when all machinery is off except the air compressor.

Tagged compressed air leak.

To estimate leakage rates from compressed air systems at 100 psig, we use the following table.

Equivalent Hole DiameterLeakage Rate scfm

1/64 "0.25

1/32 "0.99

1/16 "3.96

1/8 "15.86

1/4 "63.44

3/8 "142.74

Source: Compressed Air Systems, DOE/CS/40520-T2, 1984.

The values in this table were computed from the S.A. Moss equation (Ingersoll-Rand Condensed Air Power Data, 1998)

W(lb/s) = 0.5303 x A (in2) x C x P (psia) /

where C = 0.97 for a smooth edged hole and C = 0.61 for a sharp edged orifice. The equation can be modified to show air leakage in standard cubic feet per minute at T = 70 F = 530 R and the density of air at 70 F is 0.7494 lb/ft3 such that:

V (scfm) = 0.5303 x / 4 x [D (in)]2 x 0.61 x P (psia) / [x 0.07494 lb/ft3] x 60 s/minV (scfm) = 8.8356 x [D (in)]2 x P (psia)

Example:Calculate the annual electricity cost savings from fixing a leak if a) the compressor is a reciprocating compressor, and b) the compressor is a screw compressor running in modulation mode.

Input Data:Leak: single 1/16-inch diameterCompressor that uses 0.25 hp per scfm of compressed airCompressor runs 8,000 hours per yearElectricity costs $0.06 /kWh.Motor efficiency = 90%FP0 for reciprocating compressor = 0.0 FP0 for screw compressor with modulation control = 0.70

Calculations:Unadjusted: 4 scfm x 0.25 hp/scfm x 0.75 kW/hp / 90% x 8,000 hr/yr x $0.06 /kWh = $400 /yrAdjustment for part-load efficiency: = Unadjusted savings x (1-FP0)

Savings for reciprocating compressor = $400 /yr x (1 - 0.00) = $400 /yrSavings for screw compressor with modulation control = $400 /yr x (1 - 0.70) = $120 /yr

Use Outside Air For CompressionTheoryW = m cp (T2 - T1)For polytropic expansion: T2 = T1 (P2/P1)kW = m cp T1 [(P2/P1)k -1]Fraction savings = (WT1high - WT1low) / WT1highFraction savings = (T1high - T1low) / T1high

Example:Calculate savings and simple payback from compressing outside air instead of indoor air.

Input Data:Avoided cost of demand $14.62 /kW-mo Avoided cost of energy = $0.02 /kWh50-hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr Measure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of time at 480 V.Compress outside air if inside air = 90 F when outside air = 65 F and avg outside air = 50 FCost of 16 ft of 3" PVC pipe w/ fg insulation = $50 + (4 hr x $25 /hr labor) = $150

Calculations:

Wloaded = 53 A x 480 V x x 84% PF = 37 kW

Wunloaded = 40 A x 480 V x x 78% PF = 26 kWWaverage = (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kW

Tout = 65 F, Tin = 90 F, dT = 90 65 = 25 F = constant Toa,avg = 50 F hence T1lo = 50 F, T1high = 75 FFraction savings = [(75 + 460) R (50 + 460) R ] / (75 + 460) R = 4.7%

Wloaded,new = 37 kW x (1-0.047) =35.3 kW Waverage,new = (60% x 35.3 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 31.6 kWDemand savings = 33 kW 31.6 kW = 1.4 kWDemand savings = 1.4 kW x $14.62 /kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $246 /yrUsage savings = 1.4 kW x 5,000 hr/yr x $0.02 /kWh = $140 /yrTotal savings: $246 /yr + $140 /yr = $386 /yr

Simple payback = $150 / $386 /yr x 12 mo/yr = 5 months

Reduce Operating PressureTheoryW = m cp (T2 - T1)For polytropic expansion: T2 = T1 (P2/P1)k k = 0.2857 for isentropic expansion of airW = m cp T1 [(P2/P1)k -1]Fraction savings = (WPhigh - WPlow) / WPhigh = [(P2high/P1)k - (P2low/P1)k] / [(P2high/P1)k - 1]Fraction savings = (P2highk - P2lowk) / (P2highk - P1k)

Example:Calculate savings and simple payback from reducing operating pressure.

Input Data:Avoided cost of demand $14.62 /kW-mo Avoided cost of energy = $0.02 /kWh50-hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr Measure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of time at 480 V.Reduce pressure from 110 psig to 100 psig

Calculations:

Loaded power: 53 A x 480 V x x 84% PF = 37 kW

Unloaded power: 40 A x 480 V x x 78% PF = 26 kWAverage power: (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kWPercent full-load power when unloaded: 26 kW / 37 kW = 70%

P1 = 14.7 psiaP2high = 110 psig + 14.7 psi = 124.7 psiaP2low = 100 psig + 14.7 psi = 114.7 psiaFraction savings: (3.9700 3.8763) / (3.9700 2.1553) = 5.1%Loaded power, new: 37 kW x (1-0.051) = 35.1 kWAverage power, new: (60% x 35.1 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 31.5 kWDemand savings: 33 kW 31.5 kW = 1.5 kWDemand savings: 1.5 kW x $14.62 /kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $263 /yrUsage savings: 1.5 kW x 5,000 hr/yr x $0.02 /kWh = $150 /yrTotal savings: $263 /yr + $150 /yr = $413 /yrImplementation cost: noneSimple payback: immediate

Reduce Unloaded Run TimeRotary screw, centrifugal and some reciprocating compressors run continuously, but only add air to the compressed air system when the pressure of the system is between the activation pressures (typically 100 psig to 110 psig). When a compressor is running, but not adding compressed air to the system, it is said to be unloaded. Unfortunately, rotary screw compressors typically draw between 50% and 70% of full-load power even when running unloaded. Thus, there is a huge energy penalty for running unloaded.

The fraction of time a compressor runs unloaded is determined by the relationship between the capacity of the compressor and the demand for compressed air. If the compressor is under or properly sized, it will run loaded most of the time. If a compressor is oversized for the load, it will quickly raise the pressure to the upper bound of the activation pressure and then run unloaded for an extended period of time.

There are two primary strategies for minimizing the time that compressors run unloaded. The first is simply to purchase or operate a smaller compressor. In our experience, this is frequently cost effective whenever a compressor is loaded less than half the time.

Example:Calculate savings and simple payback for replacing 50-hp screw compressor with 25-hp reciprocating compressor.

Input Data:Avoided cost of demand = $14.62 /kW-mo Avoided cost of energy = $0.02 /kWh50-hp screw compressor generates 4 scfm/hp and runs 2,250 hr/yr Loaded 10 sec and unloaded 35 sec.Loaded = 71 Amps PF = 0.84 kW/kVA Voltage = 480 VoltsUnloaded = 45 Amps PF = 0.78 kW/kVA Voltage = 480 Volts

Calculations:Compressor loaded 10 sec / 45 sec = 25% of the time, thus compressor is oversized. Loaded power: 71 Amps x 480 Volts x x 0.84 kW/kVA = 49.6 kWUnloaded power: 45 Amps x 480 Volts x x 0.78 kW/kVA = 29.2 kWAverage power: (25% x 49.6 kW) + (75% x 29.2 kW) = 34.3 kW

Annual elec: 34.3 kW x 2,250 hr/yr = 77,175 kWh/yrPercent full-load power when unloaded: 29.2 kW / 49.6 kW = 59%Power output at full load: 49.6 kW x 90% eff / .75 kW/hp = 59.5 hpService Factor: 59.5 hp / 50 hp = 1.19Average compressed air output: 59.5 hp x 4 scfm/hp x 25% = 59.5 scfm

Percent time loaded for 25-hp recip to supply same output:59.5 scfm / (25 hp x 4 scfm/hp) = 60%25-hp recip power: 25 hp x .75 kW/hp / 88.5% = 21.2 kW25-hp recip elec: 21.2 kW x 60% x 2,250 hr/yr = 28,620 kWh/yr

Demand savings: (34.3 kW 21.2 kW) x $14.62 / kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $2,298 /yrElec savings: (77,175 kWh/yr 28,620 kWh/yr) x $0.02 /kWh = $971 /yrTotal savings: $2,298 /yr + $971 /yr = $3,269 /yr

Cost of 25-hp air cooled recip: $7,000Simple payback = $7,000 / $3,269 /yr x 12 mo/yr = 26 months

The second strategy for reducing the time that compressors run unloaded is to stage multiple compressors so that unneeded compressors are turned off when not needed, rather than running unloaded. To stage multiple compressors, set the lower activation pressure of the baseload compressor a few psi higher than the lower activation pressure of the lag compressor. Additional lag compressors should activate at increasingly lower pressures. For example, the baseload compressor may be set at 105 psig, the first lag compressor at 103 psig and the second lag compressor at 101 psig. If the compressors are staged in this manner, the lag compressors never load unless the baseload compressor cannot meet the plants demand for air.

This alone, will not result in energy savings since the lag compressors will continue to run unloaded while drawing a significant fraction of full-load power. However, most compressors have a sleep or automatic mode in which the compressor will turn off if it runs unloaded for 5 or 10 minutes. Staging activation pressures and setting the compressors to run in sleep mode can dramatically reduce energy use while delivering the same system performance. This can be done manually or using dedicated compressor control equipment, which can also be programmed to rotate baseload duty.

Example:Calculate savings and simple payback for running 30-hp reciprocating as base compressor instead of 50-hp screw compressor.

Input Data:Avoided cost of demand = $14.62 /kW-mo Avoided cost of energy = $0.02 /kWhCompressors generate 4 scfm/hp and run 6,000 hr/yr

Current: primary comp is 50-hp screw with 30-hp reciprocating backup.50-hp cycle time: 5 minutes loaded and 10 minutes unloadedFraction time loaded: 5 min / 15 min = 33%Recommend: baseload 30-hp and run 50-hp in automatic mode as lag for peaks

Loaded power = 61 Amps x 480 V x x 84% PF = 42.6 kW

Unloaded power = 44 Amps x 480 V x x 78% PF = 28.5 kWAverage power: (33.3% x 42.6 kW) + (66.6% x 28.5 kW) = 33.2 kWAnnual energy: 33.2 kW x 6,000 hr/yr = 199,200 kWh/yrPower output at full load: 42.6 kW x 90% eff / 0.75 kW/hp = 51.1 hpService Factor: 51.1 hp / 50 hp = 1.02Average compressed air output: 51.1 hp x 4 scfm/hp x 33% = 67.5 scfm

Percent time loaded for 30-hp recip to supply same output:67.5 scfm / (30 hp x 4 scfm/hp) = 56%30-hp recip power: 30 hp x .75 kW/hp / 89% eff = 25.3 kW30-hp recip elec: 25.3 kW x 56% x 6,000 hr/yr = 85,008 kWh/yr

Demand savings: (33.2 kW 25.3 kW) x $14.62 / kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $1,386 /yrElec savings: (199,200 kWh/yr 85,008 kWh/yr) x $0.02 /kWh = $2,284 /yrTotal savings if 50-hp lag never loads: $1,386 /yr + $2,284 /yr = $3,670 /yrTotal savings if 50-hp lag loads and increases demand: $2,284 /yr

Implementation cost: noneSimple payback = immediate

Use Cooling Air For Space HeatingAdiabatic compression of air to 100 psig results in outlet air temperatures of 350 F to 500 F. When the air is cooled to room temperature, about 80% of the work added to the air is removed as waste heat. In air-cooled compressors, the temperature of the exiting cooling air is typically between 80 F and 120 F and can be used for space heating or other low-temperature heating applications. To use this heat for space heating, we recommend equipping air-cooled compressors with ducts and dampers to direct warm air from compressor into the plant during winter and out of the plant during summer. This damper system would also keep the compressor room cool, thereby increasing the lifetime and efficiency of the compressor.

The net amount of heat added to a plant from an air compressor that is currently exhausting the cooling air depends on the way the air compressor is ventilated. For example, consider the two scenarios below where warm air from the compressor is being exhausted from the plant.

The first scenario is shown below. Figure 1A is the current ventilation in which outside air is brought to the compressor then exhausted to the outside during winter. Figures 1B and 1C show two possible ways of changing the ventilation system to use heat from the compressor to reduce the space cooling load. In Figure 1B, outside air is still used for cooling, and then directed into the plant. Figure 1C shows an alternate system with no outside air.

Figure 1A, 1B and 1C. 1A is the current ventilation, 1B is proposed ventilation using outside air, and 1C is proposed ventilation with no outside air.

If the compressor cooling air is currently coming from the outside and is exhausted to the outside as in Case 1A, then the net heat from the air compressor to the plant is zero. If the proposed ventilation system is to continue to draw cooling air from outside and then direct the warm air into the plant, as in 1B, then the net heat into the plant, Qnet, is

Qnet = Qc [V x pcp x (Tp To)]

where pcp is the product of air density and specific heat (0.018 Btu/ft3-F), V is the volume flow rate of cooling air through the compressor, Qc is the heat from the compressor, Tp is the temperature of air in the plant ad To is the outside air temperature. The second term in this expression, V x pcp x (Tp To), is a penalty for bringing more cold outside air into the plant. Depending on the outside and plant air temperatures, this penalty could exceed Qc, in which case the ventilation system would actually be increasing space heating requirements. The preferred system is shown in 1C. In this case, no additional outside air is brought into the plant and the Qnet heat gain from the compressor is simply Qc.

Another scenario where warm air from the compressor is being exhausted from the plant is shown below. In Figure 2A, cooling air is supplied from inside the plant then exhausted to the outdoors. The recommended system is shown in Figure 2B, where plant air is recirculated through the compressor.

Figure 2A and 2B. 2A is the current ventilation system, and 2B is the proposed ventilation system that recirculates plant air through the compressor.

In Figure 2A, the compressor is actually adding to the space heating load by increasing infiltration into the plant. The net space heating energy loss is:

Qloss = V x pcp x (Tp To)

If the ventilation system were changed to B, then the net heating energy gain would be the sum of the heat added by the compressor, Qc, and the elimination of the previous loss.

Qnet = Qc + [V x pcp x (Tp To)]

Example:Calculate savings and simple payback for using heat from air compressor to displace space heating.

Input Data:50 hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr at 480 VMeasure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of timeInitial ventilation as in 1A and proposed as in 1C.Assume can capture 70% of input energy for space heat for 2,500 hr/yrNatural gas costs $7 /mmBtu and gas furnace is 80% efficient

Calculations:

Loaded power: 53 A x 480 V x x 84% PF = 37 kW

Unloaded power: 40 A x 480 V x x 78% PF = 26 kWAverage power: (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kW

Space heat: 33 kW x 70% x 2,500 hr/yr x 3,413 Btu/kWh = 197 mmBtu/yrGas cost savings: 197 mmBtu/yr / 80% x $7 /mmBtu = $1,724 /yr

Implementation cost for ducts and dampers: $1,000Simple payback: $1,000 / $1,724 /yr x 12 mo/yr = 7 months

References1) Compressed Air Systems, U.S. Dept. of Energy, DOE/CS/40520-T2, 1984.2) Cengal, Y. and Boles, M., Thermodynamics, 1998, WGB-McGraw-Hill.3) Condensed Air Power Data, Ingersoll-Rand, 1984.

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