Compositional vs. Frozen SequencesCompositional vs. Frozen Sequences

Jorge BaptistaJorge BaptistaUniversity of Algarve, PortugalUniversity of Algarve, Portugal

jbaptis@ualg.pthttp://w3.ualg.pt/~jbaptis

Lexicon-Grammar Workshp, Beijing, 16-17 Oct. 2004Lexicon-Grammar Workshp, Beijing, 16-17 Oct. 2004

1. Introduction1. Introduction

Compound words and frozen expressions constitute Compound words and frozen expressions constitute a major part of the lexicon of many languages. a major part of the lexicon of many languages.

Their definition is not easy, and conceptual and Their definition is not easy, and conceptual and terminological discussions abound in the literature. terminological discussions abound in the literature.

Traditionally defined on semantic groundsTraditionally defined on semantic grounds criterion of criterion of non-compositionalitynon-compositionality, , the global meaning of a multiword the global meaning of a multiword

expression can not be calculated based on expression can not be calculated based on the meaning of its individual elementsthe meaning of its individual elements when when they are used separately in the language. they are used separately in the language.

formal, formal, syntacticsyntactic (or combinatorial) (or combinatorial) constraintsconstraints. .

semantically ‘semantically ‘opaqueopaque’ compound words ’ compound words dog-collar, dog-collar, ddogfight ogfight

only ‘half only ‘half opaqueopaque’ compound words : ’ compound words : dogfishdogfish , , fish knifefish knife , , half-lifehalf-life

semantically ‘semantically ‘transparenttransparent’ compound words ’ compound words heavy element , heavy element , <date> <date> before presentbefore present (present =1950). (present =1950).

spelling rules spelling rules –are just writing –are just writing conventions conventions (orthography consecrates writing habits)(orthography consecrates writing habits)

fish knife fish knife / / fish-knife, fish-knife,

fish finger fish finger / / fish-fingerfish-finger

Formal constraints on word combinations (non Formal constraints on word combinations (non semantically motivated):semantically motivated):e.g. the set of time‑related nouns (e.g. the set of time‑related nouns (dawndawn, , morningmorning, , afternoonafternoon, , sunsetsunset, , eveningevening, , nightnight), and prepositions, determiners or ), and prepositions, determiners or modifiers.modifiers.

at noon at noon / */ *at morningat morningin the eveningin the evening / * / *on the eveningon the eveningin the morningin the morning / * / *in morningin morningby morning by morning / / by the morningby the morning

meaning of individual, isolated words.meaning of individual, isolated words. meaning of a word is related to the word’s meaning of a word is related to the word’s

syntax, syntax, i.e. the words it co-occurs with. i.e. the words it co-occurs with.

determining the meaning of a given word by determining the meaning of a given word by inserting it in several, different sentences and, inserting it in several, different sentences and, by carefully controlling formal changes on by carefully controlling formal changes on those those

sentences, looking for changes (or sentences, looking for changes (or invariance) in meaning. invariance) in meaning.

Disagreement about ‘transparent’, half-Disagreement about ‘transparent’, half-transparent’ or even ‘opaque’ word-combinations. transparent’ or even ‘opaque’ word-combinations.

Intuitions about meaning are almost always Intuitions about meaning are almost always vague vague and too imprecise to be used in a reproducible and too imprecise to be used in a reproducible way.way.

rather use syntactic, formal criteria to identify rather use syntactic, formal criteria to identify compounds, compounds,

Show that words are ‘frozen’ together, Show that words are ‘frozen’ together, even if the meaning of the even if the meaning of the

combination combination is relatively ‘transparent’. is relatively ‘transparent’.

‘‘frozen’ = two or more elements of the frozen’ = two or more elements of the expression do not show any distributional expression do not show any distributional variation. variation. e.g. the set of time‑related nouns

unpredictable blocking of distributional variation unpredictable blocking of distributional variation acceptable combinations have to be included in acceptable combinations have to be included in

the lexicon therefore they should be treated as the lexicon therefore they should be treated as compound lexical units.compound lexical units.

Every part-of-speech (PoS) shows both simple Every part-of-speech (PoS) shows both simple and compound words. and compound words.

For example, word-combinations such as For example, word-combinations such as the man in the streetthe man in the street could very well be could very well be accounted as an indefinite pronoun (similar to accounted as an indefinite pronoun (similar to everyoneeveryone):):

Politicians always cared about the opinion of Politicians always cared about the opinion of the man in the streetthe man in the street

Usually, many compound prepositions and Usually, many compound prepositions and conjunctions have already been included in conjunctions have already been included in current dictionaries:current dictionaries:

John stopped John stopped in the middle ofin the middle of the street the street

John came to Paris John came to Paris by way of by way of MadridMadrid John came to Paris John came to Paris in spite of in spite of my warnings against itmy warnings against it

John came to Paris John came to Paris because of because of my warningsmy warnings

There are some (productive?) rules to produce There are some (productive?) rules to produce compound adjectives:compound adjectives:

--likelike : : to be to be life-likelife-like, , Algol-likeAlgol-like languages languages

--proofproof : : to be to be ((bulletbullet + + waterwater + …) - + …) -proofproof Other compound adjectives are frozen on purely Other compound adjectives are frozen on purely

combinatorial ways:combinatorial ways:

John is John is ((sick and tiredsick and tired + * + *tired and sicktired and sick) ) of thatof that

Moreover, in English, Moreover, in English, verb + particleverb + particle combinations combinations forming forming phrasal verbsphrasal verbs, can be considered a , can be considered a especial case of compound verb:especial case of compound verb:

John John ranran ((for a milefor a mile))John John ran away ran away ((to Brazilto Brazil))The batteries are The batteries are running down running down John John ran into ran into MaryMaryJohn John ran off ran off to Brazilto BrazilJohn John ran off ran off with a bookwith a bookJohn’s lecture John’s lecture ran on ran on The printer The printer ran out ran out of paperof paperThe truck The truck ran over ran over the dogthe dogJohn John ran throughran through the entire proceeding the entire proceeding

Some compound words can be described in a Some compound words can be described in a regularly way, by means of finite-state regularly way, by means of finite-state transducers, as, for example, the (potentially transducers, as, for example, the (potentially infinite) set of compound numerals:infinite) set of compound numerals:

twenty-one, twenty-one,

one hundred and twenty-one, one hundred and twenty-one,

twenty-one thousand two hundred and twenty-onetwenty-one thousand two hundred and twenty-one

……

High number of compound words in texts, High number of compound words in texts, particularly in scientific and technical textsparticularly in scientific and technical texts

meaning unitsmeaning units must be identified as a must be identified as a blockblock and and notnot as a as a

string of simple words. string of simple words. unpredictable overall meaning, that cannot be unpredictable overall meaning, that cannot be

directly calculated from the meaning their directly calculated from the meaning their internal elements.internal elements.

In this lecture, we will focus on syntactic In this lecture, we will focus on syntactic properties that can be used to identify properties that can be used to identify compounds. compounds.

Being a major part of many languages’ lexicon, Being a major part of many languages’ lexicon, the task of retrieving and describing them into the task of retrieving and describing them into dictionaries is not trivial, especially if these dictionaries is not trivial, especially if these dictionaries are meant to be used in natural dictionaries are meant to be used in natural language processing. language processing.

many statistical methods to retrieve compound many statistical methods to retrieve compound (or multiword) lexical units from texts, (or multiword) lexical units from texts,

the linguist’s task : to validate those word combinations the linguist’s task : to validate those word combinations as compound lexical units and to build the dictionaries as compound lexical units and to build the dictionaries for them. for them.

In order to do this, linguists have to rely on syntactical In order to do this, linguists have to rely on syntactical properties, which can only be done by learning the properties, which can only be done by learning the language’s syntactic general rules.language’s syntactic general rules.

It is only then that linguists can find out It is only then that linguists can find out the combinatorial constraints on those the combinatorial constraints on those

rules rules shown by multiword expressions.shown by multiword expressions.

This presentation is structured in two parts: This presentation is structured in two parts: first we will present some of the major syntactical first we will present some of the major syntactical

properties distinguishing compound nouns from properties distinguishing compound nouns from ordinary noun phrases; and ordinary noun phrases; and

in the second part we will give some examples in the second part we will give some examples of how the same methodology can be applied of how the same methodology can be applied to the identification of compound adverbs.to the identification of compound adverbs.

1. Compound nouns.1. Compound nouns. Probably the most known case of compounding, Probably the most known case of compounding, compound nouns constitute the largest of all compound compound nouns constitute the largest of all compound

word classes. word classes. In every domain (scientific, technical, economical, In every domain (scientific, technical, economical,

political, etc.) there is a constant need for coining new political, etc.) there is a constant need for coining new denominations for new objects, tools, concepts, denominations for new objects, tools, concepts, products and so on, the nouns being the most natural products and so on, the nouns being the most natural

part-of-speech (PoS) to accommodate part-of-speech (PoS) to accommodate such new designations.such new designations.

compound nouns formed by sequences of compound nouns formed by sequences of grammatical categories identical to those grammatical categories identical to those appearing in ordinary (i.e. not frozen) noun appearing in ordinary (i.e. not frozen) noun phrases:phrases:

a a nice dognice dog (a dog) (a dog)a a hot doghot dog (a sandwich) (a sandwich)a a square tablesquare table (a table) (a table)a a square rootsquare root (a mathematical function) (a mathematical function)Adam’s orangeAdam’s orange (an orange)(an orange)Adam’s appleAdam’s apple (a part of the human body) (a part of the human body)

differences between compounds and free word differences between compounds and free word combinationscombinations

this distinction is not as clear-cut as dictionaries this distinction is not as clear-cut as dictionaries and grammars sometimes could lead one to and grammars sometimes could lead one to believe. believe.

This presentation will show some of the basic This presentation will show some of the basic syntactic properties that can help distinguishing syntactic properties that can help distinguishing compounds from free word combinations. compounds from free word combinations.

compounding in the framework of traditional compounding in the framework of traditional grammar studies (Morphology). grammar studies (Morphology).

Lexicon-grammar approach: Lexicon-grammar approach: compounds are described with the very same compounds are described with the very same tools used to describe the syntax of noun tools used to describe the syntax of noun phrases.phrases.

In order to identify a compound as such In order to identify a compound as such it is necessary to check if that particular word it is necessary to check if that particular word combination shows any combination shows any constraintsconstraints to the combinatorial properties that one would to the combinatorial properties that one would expect to find in a noun phrase (NP) formed by expect to find in a noun phrase (NP) formed by the same internal PoS sequence the same internal PoS sequence

(G. Gross 1988, 1989). (G. Gross 1988, 1989).

compare the grammar of noun phrases to compare the grammar of noun phrases to syntactical properties of a word-combination syntactical properties of a word-combination candidate for the status of compound word. candidate for the status of compound word.

our examples here will consist of already well-known our examples here will consist of already well-known compound nouns. compound nouns.

By analogy, the same methodology can be extended By analogy, the same methodology can be extended to other, more complex, word combinations.to other, more complex, word combinations.

Let’s take the examples Let’s take the examples square table square table / / square rootsquare root. . In a free In a free NP NP with the internal structure with the internal structure Adjective + Noun Adjective + Noun

((ANAN), where the adjective is often a free modifier of the ), where the adjective is often a free modifier of the noun, noun,

the predicative function of the adjective on the noun the predicative function of the adjective on the noun is an explicit paraphrase with relative clause with is an explicit paraphrase with relative clause with auxiliary verb auxiliary verb bebe::

a square table a square table : : a table a table that isthat is square square This is not the case with the compound This is not the case with the compound square rootsquare root::

a square roota square root : * : *a root a root that isthat is square squareand also with many other compound nouns and also with many other compound nouns where we say that the adjective looses his where we say that the adjective looses his predicativitypredicativity..

Also, free adjectives can be further modified by Also, free adjectives can be further modified by an adverb:an adverb:

a square table a square table : : a a perfectly perfectly square tablesquare tablea table a table that isthat is perfectly perfectly squaresquare

but:but:

a square roota square root : * : * a a perfectly perfectly square rootsquare root**a root a root that is perfectly that is perfectly squaresquare

When the When the ANAN combination is free, both the adjective and the combination is free, both the adjective and the noun can vary, provided that basic distributional constraints are noun can vary, provided that basic distributional constraints are respected. respected.

Therefore, Therefore, tabletable can be replaced by other nouns: can be replaced by other nouns: a squarea square ( (tabletable + + doordoor + + carpetcarpet + …) + …)

in the same way as in the same way as squaresquare can be replaced by other can be replaced by other distributionally similar adjectives:distributionally similar adjectives:

aa ( (squaresquare + + ovaloval + + triangulartriangular + + oblongoblong + …) + …) tabletable However, when an However, when an ANAN combination forms a compound noun, combination forms a compound noun,

distributional variation is blocked:distributional variation is blocked:a squarea square ( (rootroot + * + *twig twig + *+ *branch branch + …)+ …)

aa ( (squaresquare + * + *ovaloval + * + *triangulartriangular + * + *oblongoblong + …) + …) rootroot

Ambiguous strings Ambiguous strings round tableround table (free combination or compound noun). (free combination or compound noun).

only syntactic environment may help to disambiguate it:only syntactic environment may help to disambiguate it: I have bought a I have bought a round tableround table for my dining roomfor my dining room

(a piece of furniture)(a piece of furniture)I have attended a I have attended a round tableround table on French syntax on French syntax (an event)(an event)

Even if many compound nouns are Even if many compound nouns are ambiguous with free word combinations, ambiguous with free word combinations, usually they are much less ambiguous then usually they are much less ambiguous then simple words.simple words.

in free in free NPNP, adjectives are just , adjectives are just facultative modifiers facultative modifiers of the noun. of the noun.

They can be deleted without changing the overall They can be deleted without changing the overall meaning of the meaning of the NPNP (nor the meaning of the (nor the meaning of the sentence where the sentence where the NPNP is inserted): is inserted):

John bought a John bought a (E + (E + squaresquare) ) tabletable

However, with some abstract nouns that express However, with some abstract nouns that express predicates and are hence called predicative nouns predicates and are hence called predicative nouns (M.Gross 1981; see below), the presence of a modifier is (M.Gross 1981; see below), the presence of a modifier is often obligatory (Meunier 1981; Giry-Schneider 1995; often obligatory (Meunier 1981; Giry-Schneider 1995; Laporte 1997):Laporte 1997):

He had an immense esteem for traditionHe had an immense esteem for tradition (Henry James, (Henry James, Portrait of a LadyPortrait of a Lady))

**He had esteem for traditionHe had esteem for tradition

**He had an esteem for traditionHe had an esteem for tradition

When the adjective is not a mere modifier of the noun, When the adjective is not a mere modifier of the noun, usually it cannot be deleted, for it is the usually it cannot be deleted, for it is the ANAN combination combination that forms a compound lexical unit. that forms a compound lexical unit.

This is particularly clearer with semantically opaque This is particularly clearer with semantically opaque compound nouns:compound nouns:

John attended a round table on Chinese SyntaxJohn attended a round table on Chinese Syntax

**John attended a table on Chinese SyntaxJohn attended a table on Chinese Syntax

John calculated the square root of 9John calculated the square root of 9

**John calculated the root of 9John calculated the root of 9

But in some compounds, even frozen adjectives can be But in some compounds, even frozen adjectives can be deleted. deleted.

For example, most of the times people calculate For example, most of the times people calculate square square rootsroots, so that in some languages – Portuguese, for , so that in some languages – Portuguese, for instance –, unless otherwise stated, the adjective instance –, unless otherwise stated, the adjective quadradaquadrada (equivalent to (equivalent to squaresquare) can be zeroed without ) can be zeroed without loss of information:loss of information:

O João calculou a O João calculou a raizraiz (E + (E + quadradaquadrada) ) de de 99

(John calculated the (E + square) root of 9)(John calculated the (E + square) root of 9)

In many other cases, however, the adjective in a In many other cases, however, the adjective in a compound noun functions as a compound noun functions as a classifierclassifier of the noun, of the noun, distinguishing a particular type of object:distinguishing a particular type of object:

John likes to drink John likes to drink ((red red + + white white + … ) + … ) winewine

In this case, the adjective can be zeroed, with some loss In this case, the adjective can be zeroed, with some loss of information:of information:

John likes to drink John likes to drink (E + (E + redred) ) winewine

The classifying function of an adjective can be detected The classifying function of an adjective can be detected by means of by means of classifying sentencesclassifying sentences::

A red wine is A red wine is a type ofa type of wine wine

NPNP with free modifiers cannot enter classifying with free modifiers cannot enter classifying sentences:sentences:

**A square table is a type of tableA square table is a type of table

Of course, compound nouns cannot enter these Of course, compound nouns cannot enter these sentences either:sentences either:

*A square root is a type of root*A square root is a type of root

When an adjective functions as a modifier, it is When an adjective functions as a modifier, it is sometimes possible to see a (usually) small sometimes possible to see a (usually) small distribution paradigm:distribution paradigm:

John calculated the John calculated the ((squaresquare + + cubiccubic) ) rootroot of that value of that value

John likes to drink John likes to drink ((redred + + whitewhite + … ) + … ) winewine

which is closed for distributional variation:which is closed for distributional variation: John calculated the John calculated the ((square square + + cubiccubic + +

**triangulartriangular + *spherical) + *spherical) root of that valueroot of that value

John likes to drink John likes to drink ((red red + + white white + *+ *yellow yellow + *+ *blueblue… ) … ) winewine

In this sense, In this sense, AN AN combinations where the adjective is a combinations where the adjective is a classifier can be described as compound nouns. classifier can be described as compound nouns.

The extension of distributional paradigm of the classifier The extension of distributional paradigm of the classifier adjective can be rather large (adjective can be rather large (acidsacids) and open to the ) and open to the coining of new terms; or relatively small (coining of new terms; or relatively small ( teeth teeth and and vertebraevertebrae) and closed to further additions:) and closed to further additions: John poured some John poured some ((ascorbicascorbic + + citriccitric + + nitricnitric + + … ) … )

acidacid into the solution into the solution

The dentist repaired one of my The dentist repaired one of my ((incisiveincisive + + caninecanine + +

molarmolar + …) + …) teethteeth

John was injured in one of hisJohn was injured in one of his ( (cervicalcervical + + lumbarlumbar + …) + …) vertebraevertebrae

in the compounds of in the compounds of winewine, one finds that many toponyms , one finds that many toponyms ((NtopNtop) designating wine-producing regions can replace ) designating wine-producing regions can replace winewine::John likes to drink a glass of John likes to drink a glass of ((winewine + + Porto Porto + + Bordeaux Bordeaux + …)+ …)

These combinations can be derived from a deleted These combinations can be derived from a deleted occurrence of occurrence of wine wine : : John likes to drink a glass of John likes to drink a glass of ((EE + + Porto Porto + + Bordeaux Bordeaux + …) + …) wine wine

The number of The number of Ntop wineNtop wine combinations is combinations is very large (every wine region), very large (every wine region), but highly conventional, but highly conventional, determined by extra-linguistic factors.determined by extra-linguistic factors.Extensive lists can be made, Extensive lists can be made, but of small linguistic interest. but of small linguistic interest.

Some adjectives combine in a highly exclusively way with Some adjectives combine in a highly exclusively way with a very short set of nouns (often only one):a very short set of nouns (often only one):

This noun is inflected in the This noun is inflected in the nominative casenominative case In these cases, the noun of some In these cases, the noun of some ANAN compounds (but not compounds (but not

all) can be zeroed, leaving the adjective in a (superficial) all) can be zeroed, leaving the adjective in a (superficial) noun slot:noun slot:

This noun is inflected in the This noun is inflected in the nominativenominative (E + (E + casecase))The dentist repaired my The dentist repaired my ((caninecanine + + molarmolar +…)(E + +…)(E + toothtooth) )

with less ‘exclusive’ adjectives, N can be zeroed depending with less ‘exclusive’ adjectives, N can be zeroed depending on the syntactic context:on the syntactic context:

John prefers to drink John prefers to drink redred (E + (E + winewine)) to to whitewhite (E + (E + winewine))

This is probably one of the reasons why dictionaries This is probably one of the reasons why dictionaries have classified so many adjectives both as adjectives and have classified so many adjectives both as adjectives and nouns nouns (see M. Gross 1998 for further discussion of this subject).(see M. Gross 1998 for further discussion of this subject).

This is not always the case: This is not always the case: John was injured in a John was injured in a (*(*cervicalcervical + * + *lumbarlumbar + …) + …)

or it may depend on the language and the or it may depend on the language and the NANA involved. involved. For Portuguese, for instance, zeroing of For Portuguese, for instance, zeroing of NN in a similar case is observed in a similar case is observed with some with some AdjAdj but not others: but not others:

O João ficou ferido numa O João ficou ferido numa (E + (E + vértebravértebra) () (cervical cervical ++**dorsal + *lombar + *sacradorsal + *lombar + *sacra))

A particular case of A particular case of ANAN combinations : combinations : relation relation adjectivesadjectives, i.e. adjectives derived from nouns, such as , i.e. adjectives derived from nouns, such as presidentialpresidential (from (from PresidentPresident). ). These adjectives never allow the formation of the These adjectives never allow the formation of the relative clause, neither the insertion of an adverbial relative clause, neither the insertion of an adverbial modifier:modifier:

The presidential address to the Congress The presidential address to the Congress **The address to the Congress that was presidential The address to the Congress that was presidential **The very presidential address to the CongressThe very presidential address to the Congress

<<was very disturbingwas very disturbing>>

Nouns such as Nouns such as addressaddress express predicates and are express predicates and are therefore called therefore called predicative nounspredicative nouns. . (M. Gross 1981)(M. Gross 1981)

Relation adjectives, such as Relation adjectives, such as presidentialpresidential, when , when combined with predicative nouns, do not function as combined with predicative nouns, do not function as mere modifiers of the noun. Instead, they are derived mere modifiers of the noun. Instead, they are derived from a complement from a complement NPNP::

The President’s address to the Congress The President’s address to the Congress < < was very disturbingwas very disturbing > >

In this sentence, In this sentence, President President is interpreted as an is interpreted as an argument (in this case, the subject) of the predicative argument (in this case, the subject) of the predicative noun noun addressaddress. . This syntactic and semantic relation between the two This syntactic and semantic relation between the two nouns (nouns (President – addressPresident – address) is of the same nature as the ) is of the same nature as the relation between a subject and verb, and it has a formal relation between a subject and verb, and it has a formal counterpart in the sentence:counterpart in the sentence:

The President The President made an address to made an address to the Congressthe Congress

We consider this to be an elementary sentence, We consider this to be an elementary sentence, the predicative node is the noun the predicative node is the noun addressaddress, , which selects its two arguments (which selects its two arguments (President, CongressPresident, Congress). ).

In this sentence, In this sentence, to maketo make is a is a support verbsupport verb ((VsupVsup; also called ; also called light verblight verb): ):

it is devoid of meaning and it functions as a it is devoid of meaning and it functions as a morphological tool to actualize the predicative noun, morphological tool to actualize the predicative noun, carrying the tense morphemes that the noun cannot carrying the tense morphemes that the noun cannot express. express.

Now, the adjective Now, the adjective presidentialpresidential can enter many other can enter many other ANAN combinations, involving predicative nouns: combinations, involving predicative nouns: The presidential campaignThe presidential campaign <…> <…>However, some of these combinations cannot be derived However, some of these combinations cannot be derived from the reduction of support verb sentences.from the reduction of support verb sentences.

In fact, the In fact, the NP: The presidential campaign NP: The presidential campaign above is ambiguous : above is ambiguous : (a) ‘(a) ‘the campaign that the President is makingthe campaign that the President is making’, ’,

NP is equivalent to:NP is equivalent to:

The president’s campaign The president’s campaign <<has been extremely violenthas been extremely violent>>b) it is a campaign where many people run for the office of President b) it is a campaign where many people run for the office of President

(and not necessarily the President himself), (and not necessarily the President himself), NPNP can appear in sentences such as: can appear in sentences such as:

The presidential campaignThe presidential campaign < <takes place in Septembertakes place in September>>Notice that the regularly derived Notice that the regularly derived NPNP cannot appear in this context: cannot appear in this context:

**The president’s campaign takes place in The president’s campaign takes place in

SeptemberSeptember

It is therefore necessary to study in detail the It is therefore necessary to study in detail the properties of all properties of all ANAN combinations where combinations where Adj Adj is a is a relational adjective and relational adjective and N N a predicative noun in order a predicative noun in order to determine if this combination can be regularly to determine if this combination can be regularly derived from an elementary sentence with a support derived from an elementary sentence with a support verb or, else, if this derivation is blocked in some verb or, else, if this derivation is blocked in some way, and has become a compound noun.way, and has become a compound noun.(A. Monceaux 1999)(A. Monceaux 1999)

The next case illustrates a curious type of blocking The next case illustrates a curious type of blocking involving relation adjectives. involving relation adjectives. relational adjectives: relational adjectives: solar solar ((sunsun) or ) or lunarlunar ( (moonmoon) ) AN AN noun phrases regularly derived from elementary noun phrases regularly derived from elementary sentences where sentences where moonmoon or or sunsun are an argument of a are an argument of a predicative noun, such as predicative noun, such as eclipseeclipse::

the eclipse of thethe eclipse of the ( (moonmoon + + sunsun) ) <<lasted 20 minuteslasted 20 minutes>>

thethe ( (lunarlunar + + solarsolar) ) eclipseeclipse <<lasted 20 minuteslasted 20 minutes>>

?*?*thethe ( (moonmoon + + sunsun))’s eclipse’s eclipse <<lasted 20 minuteslasted 20 minutes>>

**thethe ( (moonmoon + + sunsun) ) eclipse eclipse <<lasted 20 minuteslasted 20 minutes>>

There are, however, many AN combinations that one There are, however, many AN combinations that one cannot derive from cannot derive from moon moon or or sunsun::

the lunar month the lunar month <<lasts 28 dayslasts 28 days>>

**the moon’s month the moon’s month <<lasts 28 dayslasts 28 days>>

**the month of the moon the month of the moon <<lasts 28 dayslasts 28 days>>

**the moon monththe moon month <<lasts 28 dayslasts 28 days>>

the solar year the solar year <<lasts 365,25 dayslasts 365,25 days>>

**the sun’s year the sun’s year <<lasts 365,25 dayslasts 365,25 days>>

**the year of the sun the year of the sun <<lasts 365,25 dayslasts 365,25 days>>

?*?*the sun year the sun year <<lasts 365,25 dayslasts 365,25 days>>

Finally, some compounds show morphosyntactic Finally, some compounds show morphosyntactic constraints: while their elements can vary in gender constraints: while their elements can vary in gender or/and number when used independently, together they or/and number when used independently, together they do not show any variation. do not show any variation.

For example, For example, national watersnational waters, is always used in the plural, in , is always used in the plural, in spite of the uncountable nature of spite of the uncountable nature of waterwater::

They prevented the ship from entering They prevented the ship from entering ((national watersnational waters + * + *national waternational water))

There is a certain degree of There is a certain degree of institutionalizationinstitutionalization in in compounding. compounding. Sometimes several, different structures may be available in Sometimes several, different structures may be available in the language in order to designate the same concept or the language in order to designate the same concept or object, but the language retains only one of them. object, but the language retains only one of them. ‘ ‘machinemachine used to take used to take photographsphotographs’ :’ :

photographic machine photographic machine ((ANAN)) photographing machinephotographing machine

( (V-ing NV-ing N, as in , as in washing machinewashing machine)) photophoto((graphgraph)) machine machine ( (NNNN, as in , as in copy machinecopy machine)) photographierphotographier ( (N-erN-er, as in , as in photocopierphotocopier))

Instead, it is the simple word Instead, it is the simple word cameracamera that is used to name this object.that is used to name this object.

When comparing different languages, one finds out that When comparing different languages, one finds out that each may adopt a different strategy, hence:each may adopt a different strategy, hence:

FR: FR: appareil photoappareil photo (NN) ‘photo aparatus’ (NN) ‘photo aparatus’**appareil à photographierappareil à photographier (N à V), (N à V),**appareil photographique appareil photographique (NA)(NA)**photographphotograph((ii))euseeuse / * / *photographphotograph((ii))eureur (N-eur) (N-eur)

PT: PT: máquina fotográfica máquina fotográfica (NA) ‘photographic machine’(NA) ‘photographic machine’**máquina de fotografarmáquina de fotografar (N de V) (N de V)* * foto-máquina foto-máquina (NN)(NN)* * fotografiadorafotografiadora (N (N-ora-ora)/*)/*fotografadorafotografadora (V (V-ora-ora))In view of these language differences, In view of these language differences, many dictionaries used in machine translation many dictionaries used in machine translation may have to include some word combinations may have to include some word combinations regardless of its semantic transparence. regardless of its semantic transparence.

When describing different types of compound nouns, When describing different types of compound nouns, different syntactic properties have to be used to determine different syntactic properties have to be used to determine their degree of formal frozenness. their degree of formal frozenness. These properties are the very same that are used to These properties are the very same that are used to describe the syntactic relations between the elements of a describe the syntactic relations between the elements of a free noun phrase. free noun phrase. Compound nouns differ from free noun phrases in that they Compound nouns differ from free noun phrases in that they do not admit some (or any) of these properties. do not admit some (or any) of these properties.

compound adverbs compound adverbs pose similar problems pose similar problems Simple adverbs Simple adverbs are already included in dictionaries are already included in dictionaries

(if we do not consider the adverbs regularly derived from (if we do not consider the adverbs regularly derived from adjectives with suffix adjectives with suffix –ly–ly: rapidly),: rapidly),

but many compound adverbs were just left out but many compound adverbs were just left out or, else, are described as mere expressive word or, else, are described as mere expressive word combinations with no particular lexical status. combinations with no particular lexical status.

2. Compound Adverbs.2. Compound Adverbs.

adverbial status of a phrase, replaced by simple adverbs:adverbial status of a phrase, replaced by simple adverbs:John is reading ShakespeareJohn is reading Shakespeare ( (nownow + + at this momentat this moment))

For the most part they are formally identical to For the most part they are formally identical to prepositional phrasesprepositional phrases, but several combinatorial , but several combinatorial constraints hold between two or more of their elements. constraints hold between two or more of their elements.

Usually the resulting overall meaning of the expression Usually the resulting overall meaning of the expression can not be calculated from the sum of the meaning of its can not be calculated from the sum of the meaning of its internal elements. internal elements.

Thus, we find several time adverbs formed with time-related Thus, we find several time adverbs formed with time-related noun noun momentmoment:: <<That happenedThat happened>> at at ((this this + + that that + + thethe) ) momentmoment

<<I was doing thisI was doing this>> for the momentfor the moment

<<I didn’t believe itI didn’t believe it>> for a momentfor a moment

<<I did itI did it>> on the spur of the momenton the spur of the moment

<<I did itI did it>> not a moment too soonnot a moment too soon

the combination of preposition and noun is frozen. the combination of preposition and noun is frozen. If we would replace If we would replace moment moment for another, almost for another, almost synonymous word, synonymous word, instantinstant, most of these combinations , most of these combinations become unacceptable:become unacceptable: <<That happenedThat happened> > at at ((this this + + that that + *+ *thethe) ) instantinstant

<<I did itI did it>> * *for the instantfor the instant

<<I didn’t believe itI didn’t believe it>> for an instantfor an instant

<<I did itI did it>> * *on the spur of the instanton the spur of the instant

<<That happenedThat happened>> ?not an instant too soon?not an instant too soon

Several adverbs look like an ordinary noun phrases:Several adverbs look like an ordinary noun phrases:One momentOne moment John was reading quietly, John was reading quietly, the next the next momentmoment he was crying he was crying

Some of these Some of these NP-likeNP-like adverbs may derive from the adverbs may derive from the deletion of a preposition, while others do not:deletion of a preposition, while others do not:((AtAt + + **onon + + EE) ) oone momentne moment John was reading quietly, John was reading quietly, (?*(?*at + at + ?*?*on on + + EE) ) the next the next ((EE + + momentmoment)) he has crying he has crying

current spelling of many simple adverbs current spelling of many simple adverbs denounces their former condition of phrases:denounces their former condition of phrases:John goes joggingJohn goes jogging ( (everydayeveryday + + every nightevery night))

The determiner of the noun can sometimes present some The determiner of the noun can sometimes present some formal variation, as in:formal variation, as in:

at at ((this this + + that that + + thethe) ) momentmoment, , for for ((a a + + oneone) ) momentmoment but it becomes frozen when its replacement involves a but it becomes frozen when its replacement involves a

clear change in the overall meaning: clear change in the overall meaning: John is reading Shakespeare John is reading Shakespeare for the momentfor the moment

I believed I believed for a moment for a moment John that was readingJohn that was readingShakespeare Shakespeare

In some adverbs the preposition and the noun may be In some adverbs the preposition and the noun may be frozen but the noun allows for the insertion of modifiers:frozen but the noun allows for the insertion of modifiers:

<<That happenedThat happened>> at that unfortunate momentat that unfortunate moment

<<That happenedThat happened>> at the moment we are speakingat the moment we are speaking

<<That happenedThat happened>> at thisat this ( (preciseprecise + + exactexact) ) momentmoment Some of these insertions may also be frozen:Some of these insertions may also be frozen: <<That happenedThat happened>> at at ((this this + + that that + *+ *thethe) ) very momentvery moment

<<That happenedThat happened>> at the at the ((last last + *+ *firstfirst) ) momentmoment

<<That happenedThat happened>> * *at thisat this ( (impreciseimprecise + + inexactinexact) ) momentmoment

or depend on the determiner-modifier combinations or depend on the determiner-modifier combinations involved (for example, a definite article and a relative involved (for example, a definite article and a relative clause):clause):

<<That happenedThat happened> > atat (*(*this this + *+ *that that + + thethe) ) very moment very moment I was speakingI was speaking

Other constraints on formal variation can be found:Other constraints on formal variation can be found:<<John arrivedJohn arrived>> not an moment too not an moment too ((soonsoon + *+ *latelate))

Some subordinate clauses function as frozen adverbs Some subordinate clauses function as frozen adverbs (M. Gross 1986)(M. Gross 1986) : :

<John will stay in his post<John will stay in his post>> until hell freezes over until hell freezes over (= forever) (= forever)<John will only get my post> when hens get teeth <John will only get my post> when hens get teeth (= never)(= never)<John will only get my post> when pigs fly <John will only get my post> when pigs fly (= never)(= never)

In these examples, one cannot change any element of the In these examples, one cannot change any element of the (frozen) subordinate clause. (frozen) subordinate clause.

Particular cases of frozen subordination Particular cases of frozen subordination are comparative frozen adverbs, are comparative frozen adverbs, modifying verbs or adjectives:modifying verbs or adjectives:<<John moves> John moves> like a bull in a china shoplike a bull in a china shop (clumsily)(clumsily)

<John cried> <John cried> like Magdalenlike Magdalen (very much)(very much)

<The crowd rose to its feet> <The crowd rose to its feet> as one manas one man (together, at the same time)(together, at the same time)

<John is as fast> <John is as fast> as a bulletas a bullet (= very fast)(= very fast)

<John is as white> <John is as white> as a sheetas a sheet (= very white)(= very white)

Notice, in some cases, the absence of the first comparative Notice, in some cases, the absence of the first comparative particle:particle: <<John is deaf> John is deaf> as a postas a post

Some compound adjectives may have been formed from Some compound adjectives may have been formed from such comparative structures:such comparative structures:

John is stone deafJohn is stone deaf

John is deaf John is deaf ((as as + + likelike) ) a stonea stone

but others do not admit this paraphrase:but others do not admit this paraphrase:**John is post deafJohn is post deaf

**John is bullet fastJohn is bullet fast

**John is sheet whiteJohn is sheet white

There are several compound adverbs that select (or There are several compound adverbs that select (or modify) only a limited set of verbs (or predicates):modify) only a limited set of verbs (or predicates):

John John ((knowsknows + + learned learned + + recitedrecited) ) the poem the poem by heartby heart

the adverb the adverb man-to-manman-to-man can only modify SPEAK-like verbs: can only modify SPEAK-like verbs:

John John ((spoke + talkedspoke + talked)) man-to-man man-to-man to Paulto Paul

However, there are often many distributional, unpredictable However, there are often many distributional, unpredictable constraints:constraints:

**John John ((chatted + whisperedchatted + whispered)) man-to-man man-to-man to Paulto Paul

**John gossiped John gossiped man-to-man man-to-man with Paulwith Paul

Certain verb-adverb combinations are so constraint that Certain verb-adverb combinations are so constraint that the adverb can only modify a single verb:the adverb can only modify a single verb: John John heardheard that that (E + (E + straightstraight) ) from the horse’s mouthfrom the horse’s mouth (directly from a (directly from a bona fidebona fide source) source)

Adverbs are facultative modifiers of the verb and can usually be Adverbs are facultative modifiers of the verb and can usually be zeroed or replaced by other, simple word adverbs, zeroed or replaced by other, simple word adverbs, but but these these highly constraint combinations are closer to frozen sentences. highly constraint combinations are closer to frozen sentences.

Therefore, linguistic description of compound adverbs is not just Therefore, linguistic description of compound adverbs is not just a matter of showing their internal word combination constraints. a matter of showing their internal word combination constraints. It also involves representing the way they interact with the other It also involves representing the way they interact with the other sentence’s elements. sentence’s elements.

In this sense, it is, therefore, not very much different from In this sense, it is, therefore, not very much different from describing the syntax of simple adverbs. describing the syntax of simple adverbs.

3. 3. ConclusionConclusionss

The theoretical and methodological framework of The theoretical and methodological framework of Lexicon Grammar has demonstrated the quantitative Lexicon Grammar has demonstrated the quantitative importance of compounding in the many languages’ importance of compounding in the many languages’ lexicon. lexicon.

Using formal criteria to identify compound words made Using formal criteria to identify compound words made clear that most of them show an internal PoS structure clear that most of them show an internal PoS structure similar to that of ordinary phrases. similar to that of ordinary phrases.

Comparing the syntax of free combinations with Comparing the syntax of free combinations with restrictions on those formal properties proved to be the restrictions on those formal properties proved to be the most correct way identifying compounds without having most correct way identifying compounds without having to rely on vague, imprecise, and irreproducible meaning to rely on vague, imprecise, and irreproducible meaning intuitions. intuitions.

At the same time, it is the very grammar of the language At the same time, it is the very grammar of the language that comes under scope. that comes under scope.

Compounds are not just bizarre word combinations; Compounds are not just bizarre word combinations; they are a clue to the language’s grammar.they are a clue to the language’s grammar.

Finally, by adopting a formal, taxonomical approach and Finally, by adopting a formal, taxonomical approach and by the careful construction of linguistic resources, by the careful construction of linguistic resources, Lexicon-Grammar enables researchers working on Lexicon-Grammar enables researchers working on different languages to compare their inventories and different languages to compare their inventories and their respective syntactic properties their respective syntactic properties (M. Gross 1984; J. Labelle (ed.)1995)(M. Gross 1984; J. Labelle (ed.)1995)..

These comparative studies constitute a solid base for These comparative studies constitute a solid base for many NLP, lexicographic or didactic applications, and many NLP, lexicographic or didactic applications, and eventually for future machine translation.eventually for future machine translation.

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