Complete Metalsmith Student (1)

8/10/2019 Complete Metalsmith Student (1)

1/21

completemetalsmith

Tim McCreight

Brynmorgen Press


2/21

I hear and I forget.

I see and I remember.I do and I understand.

Chinese proverb


3/21

Contents

Metals

Tools

Surfaces

Shaping

Joining

Casting

Stones

Mechanisms

Appendix

Index


4/21


5/21

Chapter 1

Metals


6/21

Metallurgy

Metals >Metallurgy

CrystalsCrystals move most easily within a semi-ordered structure. Crystals at a grain boundaryare caught in a logjam with the result that themetal is tough and difficult to work. When metal is worked, large crystals arebroken into smaller ones, which creates moregrain boundaries. We refer to such metal aswork-hardened. A similar condition is created when metal is rapidly

cooled. Because crystals do not have time to grow into an organizedstructure, the metal recrystallizes into many small grains.

Eventually crystals will realign themselves into an organizedlattice. By heating metal we accelerate the movement of atoms and thesubsequent recrystallization. This process is called annealing.

DeformationWhen force is applied to a metal, it yields in aprocess called elastic deformation.If only limited

stress is applied, the metal will bounce back.There will come a point, though, when the forceis enough to permanently bend the metal, aprocess called plastic deformation. Each alloy hasunique limits of elastic and plastic deformation.

work-hardenedannealed

elastic

deformation

plasticdeformation

As crystals form, they bump into one another,forming irregular grains. The red line tracesgrain boundaries.

RecrystallizationWhen a metal is heated to its melt-

ing point it loses its crystallineorganization and becomes fluid.When the heat source is removedand the metal cools, it reestab-lishes its crystal pattern, startingwith the first areas to cool. Manyclusters of crystals start to form si-multaneously, all having the sameorder but not necessarily the same

orientation.

AnnealingAnnealing is the process of reduc-

ing stress within metal by heatingit to a prescribed temperature witha torch or kiln. Quench a piece inwater to cool, then slide it intopickle to dissolve surface oxides.In its annealed state, the crystalarrangement contains irregularitiescalled vacancies. These facilitatecrystal movement and so contrib-

ute to malleability. For most jewelry metals, heatto a dull red and quench as soon asthe redness disappears.


7/21

Gold

Metals >Gold

Gold AuMelting point F

C

Hardness .

Specific gravity:

Cast .

Worked ..

Atomic weight .

>Gold was probably the secondmetal to be worked by earlyhumans, being discovered aftercopper. Quality gold work can befound from as early as B.C.

>If all the gold ever found (about, tons) were cast into a singleingot, it would make only a -yard

cube.>One ounce of gold can be flattened

to a sheet that will cover square feet, or drawn to a wirealmost a mile long.

>Gold can be made into a foil thatis less than five millionths of aninch thick. At this point it is semi-transparent.

Gold-filledThis term refers to a material on which a layer of gold has been bondedby fusing. The resulting ingot is rolled or drawn to make sheet and wire.A standard practice is to clad the base with (weight)K gold. Since K is half pure, this means that thefinal result, if it were melted down and assayed, wouldequal or pure gold. This is marked as GF. This

technique has two advantages over plating: a thicker layerof gold can be achieved, and the gold is denser because ithas been worked. The term rolled gold refers to a similarmaterial that has only half as thick a gold layer: .

What karat is it?Determining karat requires a testing kit: nitric acid and aqua regia

metal samples of known karat touchstone (slate or ceramic)Rub the object to be tested on the stone (calledtouching) to leave a streak. Make a parallel lineon the stone with one of the test needles. Floodboth marks with acid and observe the reactions.When the two streaks change color at the samerate, a match has been made. Nitric acid is used forlow-karat golds and aqua regia is used for high karats.


8/21

Silver

Metals >Silver

Silver AgMelting point F

. C

Hardness .

Specific gravity .

Atomic weight .

SterlingSterling is the alloy most commonly used in jewelrymaking andsilversmithing. It was adopted as a standard alloy in England in the thcentury when King Henry II imported refiners from an area of Germanyknown as the Easterling. Coin silver, an alloy once used in currency,contains more copper ( to ) than sterling. It melts at a lowertemperature than sterling and is more likely to tarnish. A alloy wasused in U.S. coins until but now no silver is used in any U.S. coin.

An alloy popular in the Far East uses silver and the balance zinc,producing a metal with a low melting point and a bright, white shine.

In recent years a number of alternate sterling alloys have beenpatented. Most replace a small amount of the copper with a metal that isless likely to oxidize such as tin, germanium, zinc, or platinum. These alloysare commonly used in casting but have not become widely available assheet and wire.

Electrolytic CleaningThis kitchen version ofelectrostripping is especially usefulfor removing tarnish from flatware.Line a pot with aluminum foiland stir in cup of baking soda,salt, and liquid soap with enoughwater to cover theobjects. Set the

sterling in the pot,bring the mix to asimmer and allowit to stand for atleast minutes.The oxides will be transferred tothe aluminum, which youll seeis darkened. Throw that away andwash the silver before using it.

ArgyriaArgyria, a condition caused byingesting silver, is evidenced bya blue or blue-gray skin color.Until the s silver was used inseveral medicines, and it is stillsold as a miracle cure for suchailments as leprosy, plague, andanthrax. In the Food and Drug

Administration prohibited sellersof colloidal silver preparationsfrom making claims about healthbenefits.

Sterling .Melting point F

C

Specific gravity .


9/21

Copper

Metals >Copper

Copper CuMelting point F

C

Hardness

Specific gravity .

Atomic weight .

HistoryCopper was probably the firstmetal to be put to use by ourancestors and remains importantto us today. It conducts heat andelectricity very well, can be formedand joined, and combines withmany elements to form a broad

range of alloys.

Commercial Copper

> Copper is sold in standard sheets "x " (' x ') and in coils and inches wide. When ordering, specify Hard, Half-hard, orAnnealed.

>When copper is hot-rolled it develops a slightly rough surface. Forthis reason most craftspeople prefer cold-rolled material. Copperalloy # is a common choice.

> Copper cannot be heat-hardened, but responds to work-hardening.

Japanese Alloys

Shaku-do . to gold, balance copper.

Melting point F ( C).

This alloy is valued for the deep purple colorachieved through oxidation.

Shibu-ichi copper, silver.Melting point F ( C).

This is a silvery pink alloy that darkens and

reticulates easily.

Copper wasdiscovered.

Egyptians used copperweapons.

Beginning of theBronze Age.

Evidence of controlled

bronze alloying. Egyptians made

copper pipes.

Copper is available in more than alloys. Comprehensive data isavailable from:

Copper Development Association Madison Avenue

New York, NY

www.copper.org


10/21

Brass & Bronze

Metals >Brass & Bronze

Yellow Brass Melting point F

CSpecific gravity .

Jewelers Bronze Melting point F

C

Specific gravity .

Brass Facts

>Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and it can achieve a wide rangeof properties and colors.

>The practical limit of zinc in a copper alloy is . Beyond this, thealloy becomes too brittle for most uses.

>Low zinc brasses that contain up to zinc are grouped under theterm gilding metals.

>Brass is mildly antibacterial.

>The bronze of antiquity was a mix of tin with the balancebeing copper. Today the term bronze refers to any tin-bearing brassor golden-colored brass.

>To distinguish brass from bronze, dissolve a small sample in a/ solution of nitric acid and water. Tin is indicated by thewhite precipitate, metastannic acid.

Common Alloys

Gun Metal Historically an alloy of copper, tin, and zinc,it was used to cast cannons and large industrial products.

Pinchbeck An alloy of about copper and zinc inventedby the English watchmaker Christopher Pinchbeck inEngland around . It resembles gold and was used tomake costume jewelry and inexpensive accessories. Byextension, the word has come to mean cheap imitation.

Nordic Gold Alloy of copper, aluminum, zinc, and tinthat is used for euro coins.

Bell Metal An alloy of roughly copper and tin, used for,you guessed it, bells. It makes a rich tone when allowedto vibrate but is notoriously brittle when the blowsare confined. For proof, visit Independence Hall in

Philadelphia.


11/21

Nickel & Aluminum

Metals >Nickel & Aluminum

Nickel NiMelting point F

CSpecific gravity .Atomic weight .

Aluminum AlMelting point F

C

Specific gravity .

Atomic weight .

PropertiesAluminum is the most abundantmetallic element on the planet,making up of the earthscrust. Because of its light weight,resistance to corrosion and abilityto alloy well, it is used structurally(buildings, aircraft, cars), asarchitectural trim (siding), and in

functional objects like cookware.It is the second most malleableand sixth most ductile metal. Itis usually found in bauxite as anoxide called alumina: AlO.

JoiningAluminum can be soldered andjoined only with special solders,

many of which are sold with theirown flux. Welding can be donewith S or # wire used with #flux. Check with your supplier fordetailed information. Welding ismade easier with a TIG (tungsteninert gas) welder, but can beachieved with gas/oxygen systems.

AnodizingThis is a process of electricallycausing the formation of aresistant oxide film on thesurface of aluminum. This porous,nonconductive layer can be coloredwith dyes.

Nickel Silver Copper Nickel Zinc

The term nickel silver refers toseveral alloys with roughly theproportions shown above. Thealloy was originally developed inthe Far East and came to be known

as Paktong (a.k.a. Pakton, Pakfong,Paitun, Baitong, Baitung, and otherderivations). Other names includeAlpacca, Argentium, Electrum,Stainless NS, and Nevada Silver.Nickel silver gained in popularityafter when electroplatingcreated a need for an inexpensivesilver-colored substrate. This origincan still be seen in the abbreviationEPNS which stands for electro-plated nickel silver.

This metal is used in jewelrybecause of its low cost andgenerally favorable workingproperties. It can be forged,stamped, soldered, and polished.

Though it can be cast, its highmelting point and tendency tooxidize make casting difficult.

Common Alloys

Other alloys that contain nickelare Monel Metal, Nichrome, andNickel Alloy #.


12/21

White Metals

Metals >White Metals

Health & SafetyThe fumes produced by thesemetals are potentially unhealthy.Lead can be absorbed throughthe skin. Wash after handling anylead-bearing alloy.

White MetalsThe term white metals refers to several malleable, gray-coloredmetals and alloys with low melting points. These are also called easilyfusible alloys, pot metal, and type metal, the latter coming from theuse of these alloys in making printers type.

Because of their low melting points, white metals can be meltedwith almost any torch or on a kitchen stove. Melting is best done ina small-necked crucible or ladle to help reduce oxidation. Protect themetal from oxygen during melting with a coating of olive oil, linseed

oil, or lard. These float on the surface of the melt and will slide outfrom underneath when the metal is poured.

PewterPewter, as used in antiquity andassociated with colonial America,was an alloy of lead and tin. Inthe late s a substitute alloy

was developed in England andnamed Britannia Metal. Todaythe words pewter and Britanniaare used interchangeably andusually refer to an alloy of tin, . antimony, and .copper. Pewter can be sawn, sol-

dered, fused, formed, and cast.Keep separate tools for pewterand dont let filings accidentallymix with silver or gold. Finishingcan be done with fine steel wooland a mix of lampblack (soot)and kerosene blended to a paste.Fine steel wool (/) also leavesa pleasant finish.

ContaminationWhen heated above their melt-ing points, white metals willburn pits into gold, platinum,silver, copper, and brass. Use

separate files and soldering toolsto keep these metals away fromeach other.

RemovalTo remove white metal that isfused onto sterling or gold, file,scrape, and sand to remove as

much of the white metal aspossible, then allow the work tosoak in this solution overnight.

oz. glacial acetic acid

oz. hydrogen peroxide

Britannia MetalMelting point F

C

Specific gravity .


13/21

Metals Used for Steel Alloys> Chromium increases corrosionresistance; is used instainless steel.

>Manganese increases harden-ability and tensile strength.

>Molybdenum increases corro-

sion resistance; high temperaturestrength.

> Tungsten forms hard abrasion-resistant particles called tung-sten carbide. It is used for cuttingedges.

Metals >Iron & Steel

Iron & Steel

Iron FeMelting point F

CSpecific gravity .

Atomic weight .

PropertiesIron is the worlds most widelyused metal. It can be alloyedwith a wide range of elements toproduce many diverse properties.Iron ore usually contains sulfur,phosphorus, silicon, and carbon.When all but carbon has

been smelted out, the resultingmetal is poured into ingotsand called cast iron or pig iron.Further refining is necessary tomake a steel of good workingqualities.

Mild SteelMelting point F

C

Specific gravity .

Hardening Steel

Not all steel alloys can be hardened; only steels with . to .carbon will work. Hardening is a two-step process. First, heat theobject to a bright red (called the critical temperature) and quench itin the appropriate media, most commonly oil. This leaves the steelin a hard but brittle condition. In the second step, called tempering,heat the steel to temperatures between F ( C),

depending on the desired balance between hardness and flexibility.An alternate method, called case-hardening, diffuses carbon into theouter layers of mild steel to create a thin shell that can be hardened.

.. carbon mild (low) carbon steel cannot be hardened.. carbon medium carbon steel used for tools.. carbon high carbon steel specialty tools> . carbon malleable iron for cast and machined parts


14/21

Reactive Metals

Metals >Reactive Metals

Titanium TiMelting point F

CSpecific gravity .

Atomic weight .

Niobium NbMelting point F

CSpecific gravity .Atomic weight .

Reactive MetalsThis term refers to a group of six tough, gray metals that arelightweight, have a high melting point, and are resistant to corrosion.In order of importance, they are titanium, niobium, tantalum,zirconium, tungsten, and hafnium. The first two are of interest to

jewelers principally because of the colors produced by their oxidationfilms. The others are included in this group by scientists but are notimportant to jewelers.

Working PropertiesTitanium and niobium cannot be soldered or annealed in the jewelersstudio but both metals lend themselves to all other traditional processes.They can be drilled, filed, drawn stamped, or raised, with conventionaltools. Pure titanium is ductile and shows low thermal and electricalconductivity. It is twice as dense as aluminum and half as dense as iron.Its resistance to corrosion, combined with light weight and toughness,make it well-suited to use in prosthetics. It is added to steel to reduce

grain size, to stainless to reduce carbon content, to aluminum to refinegrain development, and to copper to harden it.

TitaniumTitanium is the ninth mostabundant element in the earthscrust and can be found in mostrocks, clay, and sand. It was firstidentified in but has been

commercially viable only since when the Kroll refining processwas invented. Titanium dioxide isa white powder used in paints andenamels.

NiobiumPure niobium is soft and ductileand polishes to look like platinum.It is more plentiful than leadand less common than copper.Niobium is extremely ductile.

This property can be a drawbackfor applications where strength isrequired. When this metal was firstdiscovered in it was calledcolumbium, but it was rediscoveredand renamed in .


15/21

Chapter

Tools


16/21

Degree GaugeIn this spring-activated tool,the size of theopening at the topis indicated by the

scale at the bottom.

Sliding Calipers

A casual tool like this brass modelshould not be used for extremeprecision, but it is handy for quickreference. Other sliding calipersare equipped with digital readoutsor precise gauges. These can be asaccurate as a micrometer.

Handtools

Tools >Handtools

Anyone reading this book already knows about tools, knows aboutthe timeless and universal appeal of the Right Tool. The handtools ofour field impart a wisdom that traces its roots not to brilliant thoughtbut to a genius of touch. Value in handtools falls into several categories: design, quality,and spirit. The first two are somewhat objective, while the last isclearly up to you. Duke Ellington said about music, If it sounds good,it is good, and the same thing applies here. If it feels good and works

well, its the right tool for the job.

Rulers Work in lighting that does notcast shadows. Do not take measurements fromthe end of a ruler. It could be wornand therefore inaccurate.

The smallest division of any ruleris printed near one end.

Gauge PlateThis is athick pieceof steel cutwith slots ofspecific size.

It measuresboth sheetand wirein the Brown and Sharpe system(also called American Standard andAmerican Wire Gauge, AWG). Theother side often shows thousandthsof an inch.

To use a gauge plate, find theslot that makes a snug fit, but dontdistort the metal by jamming it in.Be careful not to measure wherethe edge has been thinned byplanishing, or thickened by shears.

DividersIn addition to makingcircles like a compass,the dividers can be usedto hold a measurementfor quick reference.

Another use is to layout parallel lines bydragging one leg of thetool along the edge of apiece of metal.


17/21

Standard PliersPliers come in several grades and a couple sizes. Theword watchmaker indicates a smaller than average pliers.Generally the higher the cost, the better the steel andmanufacture. Box joints (which trap one piece insidethe other) are preferred over the weaker lap joint.

Pliers & Snips

Tools >Pliers & Snips

> To make a large version of a round-nose pliers, soldershort pieces of copper or brass pipe onto pliers.Some filing of the jaws might be needed to make agood fit. For softer work, epoxy short pieces of plasticpipe.

>Sometimes the width of pliers is not exactly the rightwidth for a design. Solder a piece of steel, nickel silver,or brass into a notch cut in the pliers.

Specialty PliersPliers can be purchased or modified in the studio to deliver specificresults. Here are a few possibilities.

Ring-Forming PliersOne of the most versatile andeffective specialty pliers has oneflat and one curved jaw. These havethe advantage of a curved bendingmandrel matched with a flattangent face. Note how this differsfrom round-nose pliers, whichfocus energy at a single point,almost always making a dent onthe convex side of a bend. To make standard ring-forming pliers, file, then sand one

jaw of a flat-nose pliers. To makea larger version, solder a curvedpiece of brass, nickel silver, or steelto one jaw of a large pair of pliers.

SnipsSnips cut by creating stress thatbreaks the molecular bonds of thematerial.

End cutters: designed to reachinto tight corners, usually moredelicate, so notrecommended

for thick wires.

Side cutters:most familiar,all-purpose wirecutter.

Sprue cutters: compound actiondevice thatprovidesincreasedleverage.


18/21


19/21

Step BitA step bit is a single tool thataccomplishes this withoutspending a lot of timechanging bits. These

can be purchasedin several ranges,and while they areexpensive, they canpay for themselves insaved time and savedfingers.

Drills & Drilling

Tools >Drills & Drilling

SafetyAt the moment the cutting edgebreaks through the undersideof the piece being drilled, thereis a tendency for the bit tosnag. To avoid this, always startwith a small bit and progresssequentially to larger bits. Even

better, drill a small hole, then usea saw to enlarge it.

ElectricMany jewelersuse electric

and battery-packdrills or flexible shaftmachines to drill holes. Whilethese are hard to beat for ease,care must be taken not torun them too fast. Wheneverpossible, a drill press is preferredover a handheld model becauseit guarantees a perpendicularangle of attack.

General Rules for Drilling>Run the drill slowly.>Avoid wiggling.>Keep the bit at a constant

angle.> Let the bit do the work; dont

push.>Avoid creating friction heat;

lubricate with beeswax, oil ofwintergreen, or Bur-Life.

DrillsPin ViseFor light use, grip a bit in a pin viseor glue it into a dowel. The tool will

be more comfortable to use if ithas a freely rotating knob on top,like the example shown here onthe left.

Drill Bit Styles

Core

Pump

Pearl

Twist

Spade


20/21

Hammers & Mallets

Tools >Hammers & Mallets

HammersThe heart of the metalsmithsshop is in the hammers. In factthe word smith is derivedfrom the verb to smite whichmeans to hit. While only acouple hammers are neededto get started, most smiths

collect specialized hammers astheir shops grow. Metalworkinghammers can be bought new, butmany smiths acquire and alter oldhammerheads to suit their needs.

MalletsTools in this family will bendmetal without stretching ormarring it. Probably the mostpopular material for mallets istreated rawhide. Other choicesinclude wood, horn, fiber, plastic,and rubber. A popular material

for raising mallets is Ultra HighMolecular Weight (UHMW)plastic, which is rigid andinexpensive.

Planishing

Forging

Chasing

Riveting

Ball peen

Claw

Deadblow Mallets

Most hammers bounce back, aphenomenon that makes theblow seemalive. This styleof mallet isdesigned to killthe recoil, hencethe name. A

deadblow mallethas a hollowinterior partiallyfilled with sand or small pieces ofa heavy metal like steel or lead.A split second after the blow isdelivered, this mobile weightslams against the recoil andcancels it out.


21/21

Which Side Up?Many people flip the pin overdepending on the work beingdoneflat for sawing and sloped forfiling. A variation on this is to createa sloped edge on the flat side.

Bench Accessories

Bench PinAny hardwood can be used to makea bench pin. This shape is a commonstarting place, but in practice the pin isfiled, drilled, and carved to meet specificneeds. You might find you want differentinterchangeable pins to meet a variety ofspecific needs.

Avoid drilling holes in the bench pin because they trap metal andeventually make the surface irregular. Keep a block of wood handy fordrilling. An exception to this is a few well-placed holes that make itpossible to work on objects with pinbacks and similar projections.

ScraperA scraper can be made by breakingoff an old triangular file and

grinding a point. Faces should beground smooth and polished.

Bench KnifeA knife can be improvised bygrinding and resharpening akitchen paring knife. These can

often be bought at flea markets.

Saw Blade Holders

SquaresA small square can be made fromsteel or brass rod. One side isthicker than the other to allow

the square to rest against theitem being marked. File a notchand solder the pieces togethercarefully. Test against a commercialsquare, and if it is not right, reheatand adjust. Do not try to fix byfiling.

Documents

Complete Metalsmith Student (1)