Managing people and organisations

MANAGING PEOPLE AND ORGANISATIONSStephen HannaCOMPILED NOTESManaging people and organisationsLECTURES 1-9

Stephen Hanna2012

Managing People and Organisations Lecture OneOrganisations and ManagementLecture Overview:Chapter 1 The individual Management, managing, and the manager Organisations Early modern management Exporting modern management ideas to modern organisations

The IndividualMan is born free, but everywhere he is in chains Rousseau (1968)

Organisations shape our lives and our identities Identity: Is the way a person constructs, interprets, and understands who they are in relation to others in their life world. Is more or less stable, more or less fragmented, more or less problematic, and more or less secure Both shapes and is shaped by organisations There can be a trade-off between being an organisational member and ones own identity Adhere to other peoples schedules, routines and deadlines in exchange for wages, identities as workers Entrepreneurs Break the rules and are super-individualists Are the founding figures behind a successful business idea, innovation, or creation Are risk-takers and seek to change the way things are done Forge organisational identity

Management, managing and manager Management is: The process of communicating, coordinating and accomplishing actions in the pursuit of organisational objectives. The process of managing relationships with stakeholders, technologies and other artefacts both within and between organisations

Managing refers to: handling, directing, controlling, exercising skill in executive ability the act done by a person (manager) in charge of controlling and directing the affairs of the business, institution, or agency

The manager: discharges the functions of managing (planning, controlling, coordinating, and directing) is rational in that he/she systematically apply techniques that seek to achieve goals

Organisations

Characteristics of organisations: purpose, objectives, and goals sites of action, practice, and experience structural design, formal roles, and responsibilities change is normal rules are both explicit and implicit

rules: formal rules professional rules legal rules standards informal social rules

organisational identity: refers to the clear boundaries, a large degree of autonomy, and distinctive characteristic that differentiates organisations can be weakened through professional identity can we get to institutional forces

organisational hierarchy: refers to layers of communication, coordination, control this top-down centralised power in many contemporary organisations is weakening due to the need to adapt, flexible organisational forms in an age of increasing uncertainty

Best practice theories have developed, often suggesting that there is one best way to manage-what today is often called Best practice

these ideas reduce management to simple principles or one best-way models

Simple ideas travel most easily. Complex ideas are usually simplified in order travel

Management ideas have spread globally for a long time. Wherever economic activity has been spread across the globe then general management has also followed

Early modern management the principal of early modern management was the efficient extraction of value from labour limited liability legislation separated the private fortunes of entrepreneurs from investments in business, so that if the latter failed, the personal fortune was sequestered in the debtors prison avoidedAdam Smith and the Wealth of Nations: capitalism is an economic system founded on the sanctity and dominance of private property rights organised through markets

the majority of people sell their labour power in a market for labour to owners of capital (capitalists) which is consolidated in an enterprise

Max Webber bureaucracy: consist of a hierarchy of different knowledge and expertise rules and regulations arranged hierarchically and in parallel

Dependent on rational means for the achievement of specific needs

Webber's three types of authority: charismatic: defence because of the extraordinary attractiveness and power of a person traditional authority: the furtherance and obedience due to bloodline rational-legal: the ferrous and obedience due to the role they fill in

Jeremy Bentham utilitarianism: act for the greatest good of the greatest number proposed reforms to: relation between state and religion abolition of slavery equal rights for women employment and unemployment

panopticism: the capacity to be all seeing. Those under surveillance did not know when they were being watched, but were all aware that they were always under surveillance

Frederick W. TaylorScientific management: one best way to organise work and organisation, according to a science of management based upon principles of standardisation of time and routinisation of motion as decided by authoritative experts (managers)1. developing a science of work2. scientific selection and training of employee3. combining the science of work, selecting, and training the employee4. management and workers must specialise in collaborate closely

The above implies: a mechanistic organisation using the standardisation of work processes, with vertical and horizontal job specialisation, functional grouping of activities, vertical centralisation, limited horizontal decentralisation, and precise prescription of work roles, for control

specialisation is the skill formation that occurs when labour is divided and defined its more specific tasks

Mayos eight principles of human relations

Modern-day use of scientific management models-AppleThere have been claims about the conditions under which iPhones and iPads unaffected, with rising count of employing is dying from suicide, exhaustion and explosions. Fox con, Apple's largest supplier, has almost 1,000,000 employees. A typical employee might rise before dawn in a massive dormitory, and the work in silence for more than 12 hours a day, six days a week with forced overtime. Management have installed nets around buildings to reduce the number of suicide attempts and threats

SummaryScientific management: find the one "best way" to perform each task, match the worker the task, closely supervise workers, and use reward and punishment as motivators the sole motivator for a worker was monetary incentives

Human relations: display genuine concern for human needs satisfaction of the worker was its main objective (example a sense of acceptance) the worker is "social man"

Although the schools of management thought were different in their approach, both schools aim to increase productivity

Managing People and Organisations - Lecture TwoManaging IndividualsIntroduction to Psychology and Organisational Behaviour

Psychology: Psyche ones thoughts and feelings ology the quest for knowledge organised as a field of study, derived from the Greek logos meaning reason Organisational behaviour: Concerned with individual, group, and organisational-level processes and practices that inhibit or enable organisational performance. Involves understanding, researching, and addressing phenomena from a multidisciplinary perspective.

Nature vs. Nurture Nature is human personality, cognition, and behaviour genetic/pre-programmed?

Nurture is human personality, cognition, and behaviour learned/ socialized?

Survival of the fittest Self-interests or collective social interest?

Ultimately, the aim of managers should be to create a positive, productive working environment, in which ALL kinds of performativity can flourish healthily.

Perception Perception is the process of receiving, attending to, processing, storing, and using stimuli to understand and make sense of our world. Stimuli can be experiences through any and all of the senses (sight, smell, taste, and touch)

Survival of the fittest Darwinian theory: competitive instinct and struggle Best adapted not the strongest or fittest Adam Smith: father of capitalism Progress and economic growth occur because of self interest Create demand preferences that markets emerge to meet Benefit society as it creates self-regulating economic system Jobs, economic growth, innovation

SCHEMAS Underlying constructs that contain information about our values, how we perceive ourselves as people, how we perceive others, how we adjust and respond to change, how we operate in our world and how we experience emotions. Can be used to understand how we might negotiate peace between conflicting parties. E.g. evolution vs. creationism.Types of schemas: Person schemas the structures of meaning that affect thinking, planning and behaviour concerning others

Self-schemas self conceptions we hold about ourselves

Social schemas our social knowledge about public affairs, laws, politics, media art and anything socially important

Role schemas appropriate and inappropriate behaviour in specific contexts

Script schemas how we operate upon our world and understand and remember information

Common errors in perception Stereotyping: grouping objects into simplistic categories based on generalisations

Self-fulfilling prophecy : a believe that comes true because people behave and act as if it is true

Halo effect: ascribing positive characteristics to a person formed in one situation to other situations.

Devil effect: ascribing negative interpretations of people based on one negative trait in one situation (ex prisoner cant get a job)

Attribution errors: attribution theory concerns how people attribute cause to their own and other peoples behaviours.

Types of Attribution Error Internal attribution refers to attributing the cause of an individuals behaviour to internal or dispositional factors such as being mean or generous

External attribution refers to attributing the cause of an individuals behaviour to an external situational factor such as being catholic or Jewish

Self-serving bias comes into play when people attribute their own successes to internal causes and their failures to external causes

Cognitive dissonance refers to the anxiety and discomfort we experience when we hold inconsistent and conflicting sets of cognitions (or schemas)

Values Values a set of beliefs and goals that serve as guiding principles in ones life Trans-situational values are consistent and stable across situations Value priorities the order of values in terms of importance to ones life.

Personality Theories Personality refers to the stable patterns of behaviour and internal states of mind that help explain a persons behavioural tendencies. Several personality theories exist:

Trait theory refers to a mixture of biological, psychological and societal influences that characterize a persons thoughts and actions throughout their lives.

Big five personality factors: Emotional stability: calm vs. anxious, secure vs. insecure Extraversion: sociable vs. reserved, assertive vs. timid Openness independent vs. conforming, broad minded vs. narrow minded Agreeableness warm hearted vs. ruthless, trusting vs. distrusting Conscientiousness - high vs. low tolerance for risk, well organised vs. disorganised

Socio-cognitive theory seeks to explain how learning, social behaviour, and cognition compose and shape our personality.

Reciprocal determinism our personality is a product of our behaviour, our thoughts and our feelings in interaction with our environment: Locus of control you fate is in your own hands vs. your fate is outside your control Those with high internal locus of control are better able to deal with high uncertainty and stress Locus of control is a mindset socialised and learned overtime

Psychoanalytic theory personality is typified by unconscious desires and defence mechanisms aimed at fighting pent up sexual anxiety and pervasive fear of death.

Nothing happens by accident, our mind is structured in 3 ways: The unconscious mind (the id): driven by desires such as hunger, sex and aggression

The ego: control room of our personality, recognise and satiates desires in ways that ensure minimum pain and destruction

Superego: our personal and social monitor that constantly judge our behaviour, thoughts and feelings, looking at how we should behave through the eyes of all those around us.

Humanist theory aim is to ensure that humans fully realise personal growth and potential Actual self and the idealised self : When we act in ways that is consistent with ideal self = positive image When there are gaps between ideal self and actual self = negative self-image

3 basic conditions that enable growth: People are genuine honest and open about own feelings Must be accepting and value themselves and others Have empathy

Positive psychology Positive psychology is the study, research and theorising of the psychological bases for leading the best life possible through positive thinking, feelings and behaviour.

Application to management: in a management sense, positive psychology seeks to understand and to foster civic virtues, social responsibility, altruism, tolerance, happiness, and psychological well-being.

Emotions and moods: Emotions/moods - Emotions are feelings in response to or expectation of an object or event. Moods last longer

Emotional intelligence the capacity to recognise our own emotions and the emotions of others and the ability to manage our emotions in our relationship with others.

Managing People and Organisations - Lecture Three Managing teams and groupsLecture Overview:Chapter 31. The meanings of teams and groups1. The concept of group dynamics and the process of group development1. Common problems in teamwork1. How to identify and resolve team conflict

Teams and groups1. Team can be defined as two or more people psychologically contracted together to achieve a common organisational goal in which all individuals involved share at least some level of responsibility and accountability for the outcome

1. Group can be defined as two or more people working towards a common goal, but there is no psychological contract between them; the outcomes are less dependent on all the members working together, and there is usually no shared responsibility and accountability for outcomes

1. Psychological contract can be defined as the assumptions, beliefs and expectations held between one person and another or within a group, organisation, or some other collective entity, about the nature and function of the relationship between them. 2. Typically a psychological contract refers to a contract made in the context of work.

Team development strategies1. Stage one: Forming0. A team is established to accomplish a particular task

1. Stage two: Storming1. The team experiences differences over factors such as direction, leadership, work style and approach, and perceptions about the expected quality and state of the end product or deliverable

1. Stage three: Norming2. The group faces its issues, conflicts and power and leadership struggles, openly and directly

1. Stage four: Performing3. The team has worked through its differences and is highly motivated to accomplish its task

1. Stage five: Adjourning4. The team disbands permanently or temporarily after successfully completing the task or objectives

Types of teams1. Cross functional teams usually charged with developing new products or investigating and improving a companywide problem

1. Self-managed teams groups of employees responsible for a complete, self-contained package of responsibilities that relate either to a final product or an ongoing service

1. Task forces ad hoc, temporary project teams assembled to develop a product, service or system to solve a specific problem or set of problems.

1. Process improvement teams focus on specific methods, operations or procedures; are assembled with the specific goal of enhancing the particular component being studied.

Characteristics of a high performance team1. Common purpose and goals1. Intention1. Clear roles1. Communication processes1. Accepting and supportive leadership1. Small size1. High levels of technical and interpersonal skills1. Open relationships and trust1. Accountability1. Reward structures

Belbins team roles

Group Dynamics1. Concerned with how groups form, their structure, processes, and how they function as a unit

1. It is the study and analysis of any form of interaction that occurs within group contexts

Social impact1. How a social system influences people to behave and think in a certain way

1. How people perform in a team depends on:1. How well they know each other1. Trust each other1. How interlaced their jobs are 1. Group size

1. The Egypt uprise and the social media: social media is considered as an enabler that instigated the Arab consciousness where they were exposed to freedom to think and make choices for themselves

Conformance and obedience 1. Solomon Asch experiment on how groups influence individual behaviour The individual will conform to group decisions one third of the time (comparison with lines experiment).

1. Often conformity is necessary conforming to policy decisions

1. Conformity might explain why so few people resist their organisations and why a group may tolerate or engage in unethical or socially irresponsible behaviour

Groupthink 1. Groupthink refers to the tendency of members of a group to seek and maintain harmony I a group, at the cost of ignoring or avoiding important decisions that may disrupt harmony.

1. To avoid groupthink the team might:1. Appoint critical evaluators/devils advocate1. Open discussions (need team leader)1. Bring in outside experts1. Have second-chance meetings1. Form subgroups to form independent proposals

Social loafingSocial loafing colloquially known as shrinking, bludging, free riding, or laziness is a phenomenon that we have all experienced. It refers to a situation in which members of a group exert less work effort than their peers1. Most communes fail because of social loafing1. Quality concerns: difficult to allocate individual responsibility within a team environment1. Diversity: teams may be very discriminatory1. Members also often dont want to discipline each other

Managing team conflictConflict refers to one or more people, groups or entities perceiving that their interests are or will be negatively affected by the interest of others. 1. This may occur when people want the same thing and access to those things is limited1. Conflict may also occur because parties may actually want different things

1. Conflict can be functional or dysfunctionalFunctionalDysfunctional

the problem is solvedThe problem continues to exist and fester

People experience growth and change as a result of conflictPeople are diverted from the team goals and task accomplishment

People actively become part of the solution to the problemThe team cohesion and morale are destroyed

People feel closer bonds after the conflictTeam members are polarised and divided into us and them

Managing People and Organisations Lecture Four Leadership

Lecture Overview:Chapter 41. Managing and leading1. Leadership traits and behaviours1. Transactional, charismatic and transformational leadership1. Newer perspectives - substitutes/postmodern1. Coaching and mentoring coaching capabilities1. Motivation Theory X and Theory Y/content process theories/self-determination1. Positive leadership1. GLOBE leadership study

Managing and LeadingLeadership is the process of directing, controlling, motivating and inspiring staff toward the realisation of stated organisational goals

A Leader:1. Leads people as a ruler1. Inspires people as a motivator1. Facilitates or guides them as a coach and mentor

Leadership traits and behaviours1. Trait theories assumes that people are born with qualities that are stable across time and situations, and which differentiate leaders from non-leaders

1. Behavioural theories of leadership are not concerned with the traits or characteristic that makes someone a successful leader: it is concerned only with observable behaviour. A critical concept that is common to all behavioural theories of leadership is that the notion that there are two underlying behavioural structures that characterise leadership (an orientation towards the following):1. Interacting and relating to other human beings1. The task at hand, or the technical side of work

1. Situational and contingency theories argue that leadership emerges out of the situation. The same person who may emerge a leader in one situation may find themselves unable to cope in a different situation.

The Managerial Grid (By BLAKE & MOUTONs REGISTERED MODEL)

1. This figure is from one of the most recognised behavioural study of leadership. This developed a table which measured the behavioural characteristics of individuals and their orientation to the two underlying behavioural structures of a leader.

Path Goal LeadershipSituational leadership modelThe situational theory - proposes that the leader is expected to use the appropriate management style once they have determined the type of subordinates which exist and their willingness and readiness to be led by others.

1. This theory concentrates attention towards factors outside the actual person leading.

1. Four leadership styles or rolls include:2. Delegating (S4)2. Participating (S3)2. Selling (S2)2. Telling (S1)

1. To be used in accordance with the follower readiness:3. Willing and able (R4)3. Unwilling and able (R3)3. Willing and unable (R2)3. Unwilling and unable (R1)

Transactional leaders1. Transactional leaders do critical management functions such as role clarification and task requirements, and allocate and provide rewards and punishments. This form of leadership focuses on the task-oriented aspect of the behavioural theory of management.

0. They adhere to organisational policies, values, and vision and are strong on planning, budgeting and meeting schedules

0. They are less people focused and more task oriented

Charismatic Leaders1. Charismatic leaders - have a motivating effect upon people and are able to create grand visions about an idealised future.

1. They are able to unify people toward that vision and to foster conditions of high trust

1. They are unlikely to follow through, and can exhibit cult-like behaviours

1. Emphasise the articulation of a vision or mission that promises a better life

Transformational Leaders1. Transformational leaders inspire change and innovation, deal mainly with abstract and intangible concepts like vision and change

1. Full range leaders transactional and transformational, passive avoidant

Newer Perspectives1. Contingency based leaders can sometimes control contingencies. In this way, they can actually use the contingent variable to control or to increase their effectiveness.

0. Substitutes to leadership The idea that situational variables can act as a substitute for leadership, rendering the role of leader unnecessary. (Self-managed work teams)

0. Neutralizers Through substitution to leadership, the role of leadership has become more and more eventually neutralised.

1. Postmodern basis: Leader as servants1. S is for servant1. E is for Empowers1. R is for Recounter of stories1. V is for Visionary1. A is for Androgynous1. N is for Networker1. T is for Team Builder

Coaching and Mentoring1. Coaching is the process of developing and enhancing employees job competencies and capabilities through constructive suggestions and encouragement

1. Mentoring is the process of passing on the job expertise, skills, and knowledge in order to develop a protg.

1. Coaching capabilities:2. Trust building2. Empathy2. Active listening2. Influence tactics2. Set goals2. Monitor performance2. Feedback2. Encourage positive actions2. Discourage negative actions

Motivation1. Motivation is the psychological processes that drive behaviour toward the attainment or avoidance of some object

1. The object may be a person or relationship, an abstract concept such as love, or a material good such as money

Theory X and Theory Y1. Theory X is a managerial orientation that views employees as lazy, self-interested, and requiring control and coordination

1. Theory Y is a managerial orientation that views employees as motivated by feelings of self-worth, and seek autonomy, fulfilment, and meaningfulness at work.

Content Theories of MotivationFrom needs to motivation:1. Maslow underlines a hierarchy of needs1. One is unlikely to achieve self-actualisation if food is an issue1. Used as a base for content theories of motivation1. Disputed since the hierarchy can vary 1. Needs are satisfied in parallel

Managing People and Organisations Lecture Five CultureLecture Overview:Chapter 61. Introduction0. Culture and norms0. Artifacts1. Organisational culture1. Levels of culture1. Strong culture1. Perspectives on culture1. National cultures

Culture and NormsCulture represents the totality of everyday knowledge that people use habitually to make sense of the world around them through patterns of shared meanings and understandings passed fdown through language, symbols and artefacts.

Norms represent the tacit and unspoken assumptions and informal rules, the meaning fo which people negotiate in their everyday interactions.

ArtefactsArtifacts are those things with which we mark out territory and are symbolic of culture: the building decorations and art in a building; the furnishings and fittings; the styles of clothes that people wear; the types of desks, offices and computers they use these are all Artifacts that tell us, subtly, about the environments we occupy or are in.

Organisational CultureOrganisational culture (as defined by Schein 1997) comprises the deep, basic assumptions, beliefs, and shared values that define organisational membership1. Culture is not always displayed on the surface; instead, it is hidden and often unconscious.

1. Culture represents the way an organisation perceives its environment and itself

1. Refers to the members habitual ways of making decisions, and presenting themselves in their organisation to those who come into contact with it.

To clarify the various components of culture in organisations, Schein differentiates between three levels of cultures:

Level 1: Artifacts Physical features such as architecture, furniture, uniforms, etc.

Level 2: Espoused values A persons or social groups consistent beliefs about something in which they have an emotional investment as they express them; articulated in speeches, writings or other media

Level 3: Basic assumptions The essence of culture, defined by the intangible, mainly unconscious, and tacit frames that subconsciously shape values and artifacts such as the nature of humans, human relationships and activity, reality and truth.

Strong CultureA strong culture is one in which the norms and core value are widely shared, it is all about stories and story telling

Perspectives on cultureIntegrationist perspective defines culture as a phenomenon that is consistent and clear. Because they define organisational culture in terms of unitary and shared assumptions they include in their evidence only manifestations of it that accord with this definition, thus excising all the plural and non-integrative aspects of the culture.

Assumes:1. Strong and commonly accepted culture1. Shared organisation-wide agreement of managerially sanctioned values1. Mainly studied through quantitive surveys that seek to homogenize culture.1. An integrated culture leads to performance

Differentiation perspective stresses that the normal divisions to be found in organisations of departments and disciplines, of spatial locations, of gender, religiosity, ethnicity, age, and other attributes of human beings will all tend to be potential bases for specific local cultural formation. The assumption is that experience of more than one culture is likely to be the norm.

Assumes:1. More than one culture is likely to be the norm rather than the exception1. Cultures come and go1. Organisations made up of many cultures, in-groups, out-groups, and other subcultures1. Subcultures can become legitimate and dominant cultures

Fragmentation culture is suspicious of the desire to make culture clear. According to the fragmentation view, culture is neither clearly consistent nor clearly contested, but likely to be muddled and fragmentary. A fragmented organisational culture is one that forms around specific issues and then dissolves as these fade or are resolved. The nature of fragmentation is that specific opportunistic cultural coherencies form at different times around different issues.

Assumes:1. Cultures are fragmented, unstable, fluid and temporary1. Always fluctuating1. Studying culture, therefore requires ethnographic research1. Ethnography is ideal because it attempts to understand social phenomena, such as organisational life as it happens and in its own terms2. It involves in-depth interviews, participant observation and detailed case study

National CulturesHOFSTEDE:1. Assumes that a nation has one, commonly shared culture1. Culture is a mental program, or software of the mind 1. Nations can be grouped or differentiated based on surveys measuring specific cultural dimensions

HOFSTEDs national cultural dimensions1. Power distance the extent to which the less powerful members of organisations and institution (like the family) expect and accept that power is distributed unequally

1. Uncertainty avoidance intolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity

1. Individualisation verses collectivism the extent to which individuals are integrated into groups

1. Masculinity verses femineity assertiveness and competitiveness versus modesty and caring

Managing People and Organisations Lecture SixPower, resistance and post-bureaucracyLecture Overview:Chapters 7 & 131. Introduction1. Organizational Politics, Power and resistance0. Sources of power0. Political Arenas and Resistance0. Total Institutions0. Domination & Authority1. Post-bureaucracy1. Lost-bureaucracy0. Rethinking Bureaucracy0. Soft Domination1. Obedience, responsibility & ethics

Introduction1. Organisational Politics:0. Organisational politics refers the network of social relations between people in and around organisations-whether willingly or not, in practices of power1. Power:1. Power is the chance of an actor to realise the road will any social action, even against the resistance of others1. the actor may be an individual or a collective entity1. Power can mean forcing others to do things against their will1. Power can also be far more per is positive and less mechanical when it shapes the frames of what others want to doSources of Power1. Legitimacy attaches to something, whether a particular action or social structure, when there is a wide spread belief that is just an valid

1. Uncertainty is the inability to know how to continue some action, a lack of rule or undecided ability about which rule to apply

1. Strategic contingency theory: 2. assumes that managements definitions prevail2. sometimes they do, in which case management has exercised power2. when they do not, management is outmanoeuvred1. resource dependency theory:3. focuses on how managers in organisations secure the flow of resources essential for survival3. organisations strive to influence organisations upon which they are dependent for scarce critical resourcesPoliticsPolitics Arise from:1. structural divisions in organisation1. the complexity and degree of uncertainty attached to the dilemma1. the salience of issues for different actors and identities of an organisation1. the external pressure coming from stakeholders the actors or organisations on the environment1. history of past politics in the organisations in question

Political arenas and resistance1. organisations are political arenas1. resistance to challenge consists of those organisational activities and attitudes that aim to thwart, undermined, and impede or change initiatives1. dialects1. resistance by distance1. legitimate and illegitimate resistance

Domination and authorityThe paradox of Power:1. You Have PAL Only Fewer in a Superior Position in the Organisation and Are Opposed in what you want to do by others who are at the same level or lower level1. When You Want to Do Something against the Resistance of These Others it is termed authority1. Authority is legitimate1. Resistance to superordinate will is seen as illegitimate

Total institutions1. Total Institutions Are Organisations That Contain the Totality of the Lives of Those Who Are their members1. What All Total Institutions Have in Common:1. each members daily life is carried out in the immediate presence of others1. the members are very visible1. the members tend to be strictly regimented and often where institutional clothing1. life in a total institution is governed by a strict, formal, rational planning of time

From bureaucracy to post-bureaucracy1. Bureaucracy: 0. an organisational form consisting of a hierarchy of differentiated knowledge and expertise0. rules and disciplines are arranged not only by a hierarchy but also in regard to each other (parallel)1. growth in study of bureaucracy instigated a revision of Webber's ideas about bureaucracy

Limitations of bureaucracy1. The centrality of compliance1. coercive power elicits alienated involvement1. Remunerative power elicits calculative involvement1. normative power elicits moral involvement1. Rule Tropism1. Effective Bureaucracy Demands Reliability of Response and Strict Devotion to Regulation1. Rules Become Absolute Rather Than Means to an End1. Adaption Is Minimised As Rules Are Rigorously Followed1. Elements Designed in Principle to Enhance Efficiency and a Generating Inefficiency As the Letter of the Law Is Observed Rather Than the Spirit of the Mission

Rethinking bureaucracy1. changing interpretations of bureaucracy1. authority and delegation3. delegation drives a wedge between goals and performance1. discretionary delegation rather than rule following

Soft domination1. Organisation:0. based on the appearance of equality in the organisation among peers0. decentralisation0. empowerment1. Control:1. pervasive system of controls1. Conservative controls1. electronic and team surveillance1. flexibility in rules and process1. evaluation by results not process

Obedience, responsibility and ethics1. organisational power that makes you technically accountable and responsible for results expressed in a purely quantitative form has two profound effects0. first, it makes you utterly transparent0. second, a relieve the moral indeterminacy1. the Milgram experiment1. could you do unimaginable things to others

Positive power1. Ethical Action1. Diagnosis1. Establishing Polyphony1. Polyphonic Power Bases1. Personal Power Bases1. Strategy and Tactics1. Goal Specification

Managing People and Organisations Lecture SevenPower, resistance and post-bureaucracyLecture Overview:Chapters 10 & 13 Introduction Types of change Planned change Processual change Chaos? Innovation agenda Managing change and innovation Power & Innovation Mapping innovation Creativity, foolishness & management fashions Institutional theories

Introduction Innovation: The Creation of Either a New Process (process innovation) or new product or service (product/service innovation) that has an impact on the way the organisation operates

Platform innovation: Evolving ecosystem created from many interconnected pieces

Types of change Change: You can never step into the same river twice Fundamentally, chained refers to the transition occurs from one state to another Four types of change which can be: Struggle based: life cycle and dialectical Vision based: evolutionary and technological

Planned change change can be implemented and planned for in a rational way change is unfortunate, and driven by external forces organisations must adapt quickly in order to restore stability

Stakeholders and innovation innovation can involve: market technology linkages (conception through to implementation) innovation through employees innovation through collaboration

Mapping innovation the initiation period the development period the implementation period leading the innovation journey

Creativity, foolishness, and management fashions the innovators dilemma why successful business can fail when they face change and innovation disruptive technologies sustaining technologies

being foolish and creative technology foolishness play

10 ways to kill innovation1. always pretend to know more than anybody around you2. police your employees by every procedural means you can devise3. run daily checks on progress of everyone's work4. make sure that creative staff do a lot of technical and detailed work5. trade boundaries between decision-makers, technical staff, and creative minds6. never talk to employees on a personal level, except for annual meetings at which you praise your social and communicative leadership skills7. be the exclusive spokesperson for every new idea, regardless of whether or not it is your own8. embrace new ideas when you talk, but don't do anything about them9. when the proposed idea too radical, argue that not one has done it before for good reason10. when the proposed idea is not radical enough, just say it has been done

being monstrous in the innovation journey, what is and is not being useful, good or monstrous can never be known until it has happened

creative structures creativity comes from many levels, stakeholders, and requires a innovative structures, practices and processes

management fashion fashion set by gurus, and adopted by consultants and the media well packaged, highly seductive rhetoric offering simple solutions to complete problemInstitutional Theory institutional theory: a theory that proposes that organisations are what they are largely for cultural reasons some designs and practices have become regarded, for whatever reasons, as highly esteemed, as displaying high "cultural capital" 23 specific mechanisms (coercive, mimetic, or normative isomorphism), the template becomes widely adopted bureaucracy is so conventional that it has become common place to mimic its form reality is socially constructed

Managing People and Organisations Lecture EightManaging knowledge and learningLecture Overview:Chapters 10 & 13 Introduction Sources of knowledge Types of knowledge Organizational learning Knowledge as barriers to learning Learning as adaptation Communities of practice Collaborations The paradox of organizational learning Non-learning The Power of Learning

Introduction Knowledge - ideas, meanings, understandings and explanations of how phenomena of interest actually work (acquired by a person through experience or education)

knowledge and management - the process of managing knowledge to meet existing and future needs

organisational learning - when the knowledge that organisational members have is explicitly known and confided by the organisation

Sources of knowledge Learning by doing learning while managing

hearing stories share narratives of how things happened in the organisation, how problems were experienced and resolved

popular accounts popular and celebrated accounts of exemplary CEOs usually shared through popular media

Types of knowledge Tacit knowledge - the knowledge you actually use when you do things, but you cannot necessarily articulate it

Explicit knowledge - knowledge you can consciously talk about and reflect on, usually elaborated and recorded in such a way that others can easily learn it

NONAKAS knowledge creation

Organisational learning Organisational learning in the process of detection and correction of errors in an organisational context

Can organisations learn? An organisation's culture is where organisational knowledge is stored to change organisational culture (its store of knowledge), organisations must relinquish old habits and learn new ones yes they do learn

Knowledge and barriers knowledge acts as a barrier to learning when we assume we know everything, and do not need to know any more can be used to ignorance and/or arrogance

the competency trap occurs when an organisation does something well and learns more about it until it become such an expert organisation that it does not see the limits of its achievements it can no longer change in response to the changes in its environment

Learning as adaption Single Loop Learning - optimising skills, refining abilities, and acquiring knowledge necessary to achieve resolution of a problem that requires solving

Double Loop Learning - changing the frame of reference that normally guide behaviour, rethinking the task and whether its accomplishment is beneficial not

Exploration and exploitation Exploitation Of Knowledge - occurs through written as a, standardisation, and formalisation of what is already known and done: doing it more cheaply, quickly, and efficiently

Knowledge Exploration - involves serendipity, accident, randomness, chance, and risk -taking, not knowing what one will find

Communities of practice Community of Practice (COP) process of social learning that occurs when people with common interests share a problem collaborate to share ideas and solutions

Community of Practice Competency Is Defined by Three Elements: sense of joint enterprise relationships of mutuality shared repertoire

Managing COP Boundaries People Artefacts Interactions

CollaborationsCollaborative Relations - involve the process of sharing resources including ideas, know-how, technologies, and staff between two or more different organisations in order to create a solution to a given problem

The learning paradox learning and organising are essentially antithetical processes, which means the phrase organisational learning qualifies as an oxymoron oxymoron - a figure of speech that combines two normally contradicting terms (such as deafening silence or military intelligence) learning happens when the old and the new create tension

A guide to learning three metaphors learning humour improvisation small wins

Non-learning If learning is so good, is non-learning bad? Non-learning can be good because it allows for tolerance of contradictions allows room for organisational discretion

The power of learning knowledge management and scientific management Foucault and lifelong learning examined the three mechanisms at the heart of the exam:1. visibility - the learner is fully observable and the examiner is almost absent2. individuality - the group is transformed into a hierarchy of individuals, rank and rated3. cases - people are cases to be documented, compared an objectified

Managing People and Organisations Lecture NineEthics and CSRLecture Overview:Chapters 111. Introduction1. Ethical reasoning at organisations1. Business ethics levels1. Behaviour classification1. Normative theories of ethics1. Overview of ethics theories1. Corporate social responsibility1. Personal responsibility vs. social responsibility1. Stock holder Vs. Stakeholder view1. CSR and sustainability

Introduction1. Stakeholders:0. Individuals or groups with a vested interest or stake in a given decision or project

1. Sustainability:0. A sustainable use of resources would leave the world short of nothing that was depleted in any process0. Ensuring nothing deleterious to the worlds natural systems resulted from whatever processes were being undertaken

What is Ethics?1. Ethics involves what is perhaps the most monumental question any human being can ask:1. HOW SHOULD WE LIVE?

1. Ethics is, in this sense, practical, having to do with how we act, choose, behave, and do things.

1. Philosophers often emphasize that ethics is normative, in that it deals with our reasoning about how we should act.

Approaches to EthicsNormative ethics - Seeks to establish means of judging whether business practices are right or wrong

Descriptive approach - Does not seek for normative guidelines that ought to be applied in practice, but rather monitor and describe what actually happens

Overview of Ethical Theories1. Consequentialist theories:0. Egoism0. Utilitarianism

1. Non-consequentialist theories:1. Kant

Egoism (morality = long term self-interest)An act is morally right if, and only if, it best promotes an agents long-term interests

1. An agent can be a single person, an organisation, a group, or a country.

1. Two kinds of egoism:1. Personal (do not care about what others do)1. Impersonal (have a say on what others should do)

Utilitarianism1. Utilitarianism has its roots in 18th and 19th century social and political philosophy and was part of the same social movement that gave rise to modern democratic market capitalism.0. Promulgated by John Stuart Mill & Jeremy Bentham

1. the greatest happiness principle holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.

We should always act to produce the greatest possible balance of good over bad for everyone affected by our actions

1. The greatest good for the greatest number constitutes what is right and what is wrong.

Utilitarianism in organisational contextUtilitarianism provides:1. a clear basis for formulating and testing policies;1. an objective way of resolving conflicts of self-interest; and1. a flexible result-oriented approach to moral decision-making.

Kants ethicsGood will1. Human capacity to act from principle

The categorical imperative1. Universal acceptability1. We should always act in such a way that we can will the maxim of our action to become a universal law

Humanity as an end, never as merely a means

Respect the dignity of each individual human being.

Kant in organisational context1. The categorical imperative gives us firm rules to follow in moral decision-making.0. Kant introduces an important humanistic dimension into business decisions.0. Kant stresses the importance of motivation, and of acting on principle.

Persona Responsibility vs. Social responsibilityPersonal1. There will be many times within a business setting where an individual will need to step back and ask:What should I do? How should I act?

Social1. In the second sense, How should we live? refers to how we live together in a community.

1. In this sense, business ethics is concerned with how business institutions ought to be structured, about corporate social responsibility, about making decisions that will impact many people other than the individual decision-maker.

1. This aspect of business ethics asks us to examine business institutions from a social rather than an individual perspective.

1. We refer to this broader social aspect of ethics as decision-making for social responsibility.

Two views of social responsibility: Stockholder vs. Stakeholder approach

1. The stockholder approach focuses solely on financial and economic relationships, with stockholders/owners as primary beneficiaries of managerial decisions.

1. The stakeholder approach takes into account nonmarket forces that affect organizations and individuals, such as moral, political, legal, and technological interests, as well as economic factors.

Arguments for narrow (stockholder) view of corporate social responsibility1. The invisible hand2. Let government do it.3. Business cant handle it.4. Corporations lack the expertise.5. Corporations will impose their values on us.

Corporate Social Responsibility and SustainabilityCorporate greening - A process that involves trying to adopt green principles and practices in as many facets of the business as it is possible to do so

Learning to be green1. Lifelong learning: new ways to do things and things new to do

1. Developing critical thinking: voice in critiquing how things are done

1. Building citizenship: think not just as employees but as concerned citizens

1. Fostering environmental literacy: encourage learning about environmental challenges and solutions

1. Nurturing ecological wisdom: sharing an eco-understanding of the web-of-life

1. Ethics and CSR are a core part of managing people and organisations.

1. However, there are no black and white rules we could follow

1. We may not all agree on:7. What is ethical or moral or about7. The extent of the personal and corporate social responsibility towards achieving sustainability

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