Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Comparison of sandbox with traditonal play materials
Item Type text; Thesis-Reproduction (electronic)
Authors Swingle, Jo Ann Amos, 1931-
Publisher The University of Arizona.
Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this materialis made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona.Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such aspublic display or performance) of protected items is prohibitedexcept with permission of the author.
Download date 06/06/2018 11:59:28
Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/554962
COMPARISON OF SANDBOX WITH
' TRADITIONAL PLAY MATERIALS
by
Jo Ann Amos Swingle
A T hesis Submitted to the F acu lty of the
DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
In Partia l Fulfillm ent of the Requirements For theJD egree of
MASTER OF ARTS
In the G raduate C ollege
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
1 9 7 5
STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This th e s i s has been subm itted in partia l fu lf il lm ent of r e qu irem ents for an advanced degree a t The U n ivers ity of Arizona and is d ep o s ited in the U n iv e rs ity Library to be made av a i la b le to borrowers under ru le s of the Library.
Brief quo ta tio n s from th is thes is , are a llow ab le w ithout sp e c ia l p e rm iss io n , provided th a t accu ra te acknow ledgm ent of source is m ade. R equests for perm ission for ex tended quo ta tion from or reproduction of th is m anuscrip t in whole or in part may be granted by the head of t h e . major departm ent or the D ean of the G raduate C ollege when in his ju d g ment the proposed u se of the m ateria l is in -the in te re s ts of s c h o la r sh ip . In a ll o ther i n s t a n c e s , h o w ev er , perm ission m ust be obtained from the au thor .
APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR
This th e s i s h as been approved on the d a te shown below:
VIVIAN E. COX A ss is ta n t P rofessor of Elem entary Education
D ate '
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
B ecause a th e s i s is the in teg ra tio n of many of l i f e 's ex p e r i
e n c e s , i t i s im p o ss ib le to e x p ress g ra titude to a ll who have made i t
p o s s ib le . There are th ree groups who d e se rv e s p e c ia l thanks for the ir
support and help in forming many of the im portant learn ing ex p er ien ces
in my l i fe , and w hich are re f le c te d in th is s tudy .
F irs t is my fam ily . M y husband Roy 's lo v e , u n d ers tan d in g , and
u n c h a u v in is t ic support have been and w ill con tinue to be my main su p
port. Even his s ta ff a t Security Savings and Loan gave me much help •
inc lud ing typ ing and Xeroxing. It would tak e many tom es to d e sc r ib e
w hat I have learned from our large fam ily , e s p e c ia l ly the ch ild ren and
grandch ild ren .
Specia l th an k s m ust go to th e Tucson Community School, no t
only a s the se tt in g for th is s tu d y , but as a sp e c ia l p lace w hich a ffec ted
many of the m ost im portant of my learn ing e x p e r ien ces abou t ch ildren for
the p a s t s ix te e n y e a r s . To the d ire c to r , M rs . Kay R u s e , and the s ta f f ,
M rs . Jane P a rk er , M rs . Becky W ill iam s, M rs. Nancy Burroughs, and
M r s . Ann Boice, go my thanks for th e ir warm un d ers tan d in g and generous
h e lp . H ow ever, i t i s to the ch ild ren of the school th a t I owe my g re a te s t
t h a n k s . They have been my b e s t te a c h e r s .
iv
Of c o u rse , no th e s i s can be com pleted w ithout the he lp of o n e 's
co m m ittee . Their confidence made me fee l so proud. Dr. M ilo K.
Blecha w as so k ind to tak e time from h is b u sy life a s Head of the D ep a r t
ment of Elem entary Education and community lead e r to se rve on my
com m ittee. Dr. S h ita la P. M ishra w as e s p e c ia l ly sw ee t and p a tien t
w ith h is he lp w ith th e d es ig n and s t a t i s t i c s . E sp e c ia l ly am I grateful to
Dr. Vivian E . C ox , who w as more than adv isor; giving t im e , f r iendsh ip
and a s e n se of humor to ligh ten f ru s tra t io n s and h a s s l e s . Over a span
of tw e n ty - th re e y e a r s , my long-tim e f r ien d , m entor, and f ir s t te ach e r
and ad v iso r in Early Childhood E d u c a t io n , M r s . M ary F ro b ish e r , has my
deep a ffec tion and th an k s for her he lp in .m y personal and p ro fess io n a l
g row th .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
' Page
LIST OF TABLES . ........................................................ v i
ABSTRACT ............................. v i i i
1. INTRODUCTION . . . ........................................... ' . ............................ 1
Philosophic Framework of the S t u d y ............................................ 1
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................................................. 5
3. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ..................... .8
H ypo theses to be Tested ............................................ 8D efin ition of Terms ........................................ 9Assum ptions ........................ 9L im itations . . ................................................................ 10
4. METHODOLOGY ............................................. 12
Sample ........................ 12Setting ....................... •......................... 12I n s t r u m e n t .................................... 13
Sandbox ................................ 13M ethods of O b s e r v a t io n ................................................. 14S t a t i s t i c s ............................................................................ 14
5. R E S U L T S ............................................... 16
6 . IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION AND FURTHER RESEARCH . . . 35
7. S U M M A R Y ..................................................................................................... . 40
REFERENCES CITED ............................ 42
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. P ercen tage of C h o ices in Each A ctiv ity (Four-y e a r -o ld s n=17) ............................................................................ . 16
2. P ercen tage of C h o ices in Each A ctiv ity (Five-y e a r -o ld s n=15) .................. 17
3. " Percen tage of M inu tes Spent in Each Activity(F o u r-y ea r-o ld s n = l 7) 18
4. P ercen tage of M inu tes Spent in Each A ctiv ity(F iv e -y e a r -o ld s n=l 5) .................... ........................... . . 19
5. P ercen tage of Number of C h o ices in Each Activity(F our-y ea r-o ld s n=l 7, O btained F requenciesE xpressed a s P e rcen tag es of Row Totals) . ..................... 20
6. Percen tage of Number of C h o ices in Each Activity(F iv e -y ea r-o ld s n = 1 5 , O btained F requenc iesExpressed a s Proportions of Row Totals) . . . . . . . . 21
7. P ercen tage of M inu tes Spent in Each A ctivity (Four-y e a r -o ld s n = 17 , O btained F requenc ies Expressed a s Proportions of Row Totals) . . . ..................................... 22
8. Percen tage of M inu tes Spent in Each A ctiv ity (F ive-y e a r -o ld s n = 15 , O btained F requenc ies E xpressedas. Proportions of Row Totals) ........................................ 23
9. Com parison of F o u r-y e a r -o ld s and F iv e -y e a r -o ld s(Percentage of M inu tes Spent in Each Activity) . . . ,. . . 25
10. Com parison of F o u r-y e a r -o ld s and F iv e -y e a r -o ld s(Percentage of C h o ices in Each Activity) . . . . . . . . . 26
•vi
v ii
LIST OF TABLES--C ontinued '
Table Page
11. C om parison of F o u r-y e a r -o ld s and F iv e -y e a r -o ld s(Percentage of M inu tes Spent in Each A ctiv ity ,O btained F req u en c ies Expressed as P ercen tagesof Row Totals) .................................... 27
12. Com parison of F o u r -y e a r -o ld s and F iv e -y e a r -o ld s(Percentage of C h o ices in Each A ctiv ity ,O btained F req u en c ies E xpressed a s P ercen tagesof Row T o t a l s ) .................................................... . ......................... 28
13. Com parison of Boys and G irls (Percentage of M inu tesSpent in Each Activity) . . ........................ 30
14. Com parison of Boys and G irls (Percentage of C h o ices 'in Each Activity) . ■ . . . . ' .................................. . 31
15. Com parison of Boys and Girls (Percentage of M in u tesSpent in Each A ctiv ity , O btained F requenciesE xpressed a s P ercen tages of Row T o t a l s ) .................................. 32
16. Com parison of Boys and G irls (Percentage of C h o ic e sin Each A c tiv i ty , O btained F requenc ies E xpressed a s P ercen tages of Row T o ta ls ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
ABSTRACT
The purpose of th is pilot s tudy w as to d e sc r ib e a c rea t iv e e x
p e r ie n c e , a sandbox with m iniature t o y s , to determ ine if i t would hold
c h i ld re n 's in te re s t a f te r the nove lty ap p ea l of the ex p e r ien ce had been
s a t i s f i e d . If e x p e r ien ces are m eaningful to ch ildren and offer a v a r ie ty
of op tions for h y p o th es is t e s t in g , in te re s t in the ex p e r ien ce con tinues
a f te r an in i t ia l period of in te re s t due to the n ove lty of the e x p e r ie n c e .
The sandbox w as p laced in a c lassroom of fo u r-y e a r -o ld s and a c l a s s
room of f iv e -y e a r -o ld s for a period of th ree w e e k s . S ta t i s t ic a l a n a l y s i s ,
C h i - s q u a re , in d ica ted th a t there w as a s ig n if ican t d e c re a s e in p reference
for the sandbox in amount of time s p e n t , and the number of c h o ices made
in each a c t iv i ty . There w as a lso s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence in p references
of th e two age groups and of boys and g i r l s . In both age g ro u p s ,
p reference w as e x p re s se d for co n s tru c tio n and p h y s ica l a c t iv i t i e s .
Im plica tions for edu ca tio n and further re se a rc h were many and b ro a d . Of
g re a te s t im portance for r e se a rc h would be to determ ine if and how m anip
u la tion of the sandbox exper ience could hold and further in te re s t .
v iii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
For the p a s t s e v e ra l d e c a d e s much has been w ritten about the
va lue and need for c rea t iv e e x p e r ien ces in the c la s s ro o m . Too ofte 'h,
when a "c rea t iv e exp er ien ce" is p re sen ted to ch ild ren , the observer
w onders why the ex p er ien ce w as c h o se n , w hat the goal of such an e x
p erience could be in term s of our overa ll ed u ca tio n a l goa ls and v a lu e s .
To ev a lu a te the worth of any ex p er ien ce for ch ild ren , i t m ust be v iew ed
a g a in s t a broader p h ilo so p h ica l framework to see how i t r e la te s to the
v a lu es and g o a ls of our dem ocra tic s o c ie ty . If such a re la t io n sh ip can
be s e e n , the exp er ien ce i s v a lu ab le e d u c a t io n a l ly . This s tudy exam ines
an e d u ca t io n a l exp er ien ce in a p h ilo so p h ica l framework and t e s t s
h y p o th e se s concern ing th is r e la t io n sh ip with one e x p e r ie n c e , a t a b le -
top sandbox w ith m iniature to y s .
Ph ilosoph ic Framework of the Study
D ew ey (1922) s ta te s th a t , " it i s the very na ture of life to s tr iv e
to con tinue in be ing (p. 11 ) ." If th is co n tinuance of l ife is to be
s e c u re d , there m ust be co n s ta n t renew ing and re co n s tru c t in g of life
through ex p e r ie n c e s so th a t growth is p o s s ib le . The aim of education is
2
to enab le in d iv id u a ls to m aintain a con tinued c a p a c i ty for g row th , w hich
is the u ltim ate ob jec t and reward of lea rn in g .
Our American dem ocracy c la im s to be devoted to providing e n
v ironm ents th a t fo s te r the ind iv idua l growth of the c h ild . If th is is t r u e ,
the developm ent of the ta le n ts and c a p a c i t ie s of each ind iv idua l is
d e s ir a b le . The unique ra th e r than the s te reo typed re sp o n s e is v a lu ed .
,fA p ro g ress iv e so c ie ty counts ind iv idual v a r ia t io n s a s p rec ious s in ce i t
f inds in them the m eans of i ts own g ro w th . H ence a dem ocracy m ust, in
c o n s is te n c y w ith i t s id e a l , a llow for in te l le c tu a l freedom and play of
d iv e rse g ifts and in te re s t s in the e d u ca t io n a l m easu res (Dewey 1922 ,
P. 3 5 7 ) ."
A coro lla ry of th is dem ocra tic id e a l of accep tin g and develop ing
the in d iv id u a l 's c a p a c i t ie s for growth is th a t every ind iv idua l belongs to
our s o c ie ty . W ithout a s e n se of belonging th e ind iv idual f e e ls iso la te d
and in se c u re and s o c ie ty is den ied h is unique con tr ibu tion . "Since the
ch ild is a so c ia l be in g , h is s tro n g es t m otivation is to be lo n g . His
secu rity or lack of i t d epends upon h is fee lin g of belonging within the
group (Dreikurs 1964, p. 14)."
Educational aims m ust fo s te r con tinu ing c a p a c i ty for growth by
arranging ex p e r ie n c e s for ch ild ren th a t c a l l forth ac tio n w hich is pur
p o se fu l. The child m ust be involved in the exper ience for i ts own s a k e ,
and not for any m otives of g a in , e . g . , in c re a se of fa c tu a l knowledge or
lea rn ing a s k i l l . Both of th e s e can tak e p lace but are seco n d ary or
b y -p ro d u c ts of lea rn ing for i ts own s a k e . To be purposefu l, ex p e r ien ces
m ust be founded on the p resen t in te re s ts and c a p a c i t ie s of the c h i ld re n .
Experiences should be f irs thand and not removed from the l iv e s of
ch ild ren . The child m ust fe e l th a t the purposes of schoo l ex p e r ien ces
are h is purposes to o . W hen the ch ild can iden tify h is purposes with
th o se .o f schoo l e x p e r i e n c e s , he has a r e a l s e n se of belong ing to the
sch o o l. In h is w ritings on ed u c a tio n , T o ls toy held th a t , " there w as no
s ing le avenue toward t r u th , b eau ty or u n d ers tan d in g , and th a t ind iv idual
d e s ir e s and s p e c ia l c ircu m stan ces m ust d ic ta te the o b je c ts worthy of.
a t te n t io n . This v iew obv iously im plies a s trong em phas is on the
in te re s t s and n eed s of s tu d e n ts in d ic ta t in g any school program (Tolstoy
19 67, p. XII-XIII).
By ac t in g upon som ething and ab id ing by the r e s u l t s , the ch ild
is engag ing in th ink ing th a t m akes con n ec tio n s be tw een w h a t . is done and
i t s c o n se q u e n c e s (Dewey 1922). It i s th is type of th ink ing th a t will
ensure the continuing c a p a c i ty for growth of the ind iv idual and will
enab le him to renew and re c o n s tru c t h is th ink ing a s he a c t s upon the
environment and is a c te d upon by i t .
Through o b se rv a tio n , te s t in g m e a n s , and observ ing c o n se q u en ces
(e n d s ) , the ch ild is engag ing in c rea t iv e th ink ing . C rea t iv e th inking in
the words of Torrance i s , " the p ro cess of se n s in g gaps or d is tu rb ing
m iss in g e lem en ts ; forming id e a s or h y p o th ese s concern ing them; te s t in g
th e s e h y p o th e se s ; and com m unicating the r e s u l t s ; p o s s ib ly modifying
and r e te s t in g th e .h y p o th e se s (Torrance 1962, p. 65) If we are to
ach ie v e our dem ocra tic goal of deve lop ing the in d iv id u a l 's c a p a c i ty for
growth, the fo s te r in g of c re a t iv e th ink ing is e s s e n t i a l , and ex p e r ien ces
ch o sen for ch ild ren m ust be exam ined c lo se ly to see if th is type of
th ink ing is being d e v e lo p ed .
If ex p e r ie n c e s evoke c rea t iv e th ink ing the ch ild w ill m ain tain
an in te re s t in the a c t iv i ty . C er ta in e x p e r ien ces have becom e tra d it io n a l
in p reschoo l c la ss ro o m s in th a t they hold the c h i ld 's in te re s t s and a llow
for a w ide v a r ie ty of h y p o th es is te s t in g and observ ing re la t io n s h ip s b e
tw een m eans and ends . They are e x p e r ie n c e s in which ch ild ren have
v o lu n ta r i ly engaged throughout the world and throughout t im e , e . g . ,
p a in tin g , bu ild ing a c t iv i t i e s . They continue to ch a llen g e the child to
t e s t and r e t e s t h y p o th e se s , to fo re see r e s u l t s and ev a lu a te th e ir con
s e q u e n c e s . "Activity which does not g ive back r e s u l t s of tan g ib le and
v is ib le ach ievem en t lo s e s i t s in te re s t (Dewey 1922, p. 2 3 9 ) ." Any
a c t iv i ty p re sen ted over a period of time would hold the c h i ld 's in te re s t
if a l l the above i s t ru e , and could be t e s te d by o b se rv a tio n .
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
A rev iew of the l i te ra tu re on the u se in p resch o o l of a sandbox
with m iniature toys re v e a ls the p auc ity of a v a i la b le l i te ra tu re and r e
se a rc h on the s u b je c t . M o st w riting is of a genera l n a tu r e , proclaim ing
the v a lu e of the a c t iv i ty a s part of a curriculum focus ing on n a tu ra l
m a te r ia ls , and d esc r ib in g the d iffe ren t w ays ch ild ren can u s e a sandbox .
As one a c t iv i ty among many o th e rs , Rudolph (1973) and M atte r son (1965)
d i s c u s s e d the m an ipu la tive va lue of san d . G arrison , Sheehy and
D a lg lie sh (1937) and H ead ley (1966) s ta te th a t ea r ly p lay with sand w ill
be m an ipu la tive and la te r requ ire o ther item s to s tim u la te cons truc tion
and d ram atic p lay a c t iv i t i e s . F a l l is (1905) con tends th a t th e outdoor
sand p ile has more v a lu e th an the indoor sand tra y . H ead ley (19 66)
c la im s th a t having a sandbox a s a perm anent a c t iv i ty in the c lassroom is
q u e s t io n a b le if ch ild ren have p rev iously ex h au s ted the m anipula tive
p o s s ib i l i t ie s of san d . G arrison e t a l . (1937) and W idner (1970) d is c u s s
the need for varying m ate r ia ls used w ith sand to fu lf il l d iffe ren t purposes
of the ch ild ren .
Some w ritings d e sc r ib e the u se of the sandbox to develop
sp e c if ic c o n c e p ts . M atte rs on (19 65) w rite s of s e l f -d is c ip l in e children
learn from m ate r ia ls respond ing ini the sam e way to the same m anipu la
t io n . Lewis (1967) d esc r ib ed the u se of sand to develop language and
math c o n c e p ts . Elder (1973) used found o b jec ts with sand to develop
co n cep ts of leng th and h e ig h t .
Much of th e r e se a rc h reported in the l i te ra tu re d e a ls with the
u se of the sandbox in a c l in ic a l s e t t in g , a s both a d ia g n o s t ic and
th e ra p e u tic d e v ic e . M argare t Lowenfeld (1950) u se d a cab in e t of min
ia tu re to y s w ith sand a s a c l in ic a l d e v ic e . Children w ere ask ed to
"make a p icture in the s a n d ." Lowenfeld theo r ized th a t the ch ild could
build h is world and the th e ra p is t , through o bserva tion and conversa tion
with the c h i ld , could b e t te r unders tand the meaning to the child of
o b jec ts u s e d , a c t io n s , and changes in s truc tu ring of the s e t t in g .
Bowyer (1970) u sed the same type of m ateria l to s e t up a
norm ative s tu d y , u s in g o b se rv a tio n a l te ch n iq u es ra ther than s ta t i s t i c a l
m easurem ent to. e s ta b l i s h developm enta l pa tte rns of b eh av io r , b a sed on
the c h i ld re n 's configuration of th e ir w o r ld s , and for u se a s a pro jec tive
te c h n iq u e . Ucko (1967) u sed a sand tray world a s a p ro jec tiv e te c h
nique to show th a t ch ild ren encoun tering u p se tt in g e x p e r ie n c e s re f lec ted
them in th e ir u se of the m ate r ia l . Albino (1954) a lso u se d s im ilar
m a te r ia ls a s a p ro jec tive te c h n iq u e . C h i ld re n 's a g g re ss io n and the ir
d e fe n se s a g a in s t i t were pro jected in to u se of the m a te r ia l . .
Axline (1947)'and M o u stak as (1953) d i s c u s s u se of sand and
m iniature toys a s part of a therapy program . C ap lan and C ap lan (1974)
th eo r ized th a t the German overem phasis on m iniature to y s (no re fe ren ce
to u s e w ith sand) r e s t r i c t s the p o s s ib i l i ty of co opera tive endeavors and
e m p h as iz es p lea su re in m aste ring objects- and peop le .
In the l i te ra tu re were found a few s ta t i s t i c a l s tu d ie s comparing
d iffe ren t c lassroom a c t iv i t ie s for d iffe ren t r e a s o n s . Farw ell (1930)
compared k in d erg a r ten , f i r s t , and second grade ch ild ren a s to amount of
time sp en t in d iffe ren t co n s tru c t iv e p lay a c t i v i t i e s , e . g . , m odeling
m a te r ia l s , p a in tin g , bu ild ing m a te r ia l s , s a n d . Farw ell concluded th a t
the w ide range in amount of time sp en t by d ifferen t s e x e s , grade le v e l s ,
and sch o o ls in d ic a te d the p resen ce of uncon tro llab le fa c to r s . Johnson
and Johnson (1968) found th a t th e a b s e n c e or su b trac tio n of m a te r ia ls
r e su l te d in an in c re a se in th e u se of perm anent a c t iv i t i e s , inc lud ing
sand and d ir t , w hereas the add ition of m a te r ia ls re f le c te d a d e c re a s in g
u se of perm anent a c t iv i t i e s . C la rk , Wyom and Richards (1969) explored
the amount of time sp en t in d iffe ren t a c t iv i t ie s in an a ttem pt to re la te
cho ice of a c t iv i ty and so c ia b il i ty to a g e , s e x , and b irth p o s it io n .
Although the va lue of the sandbox w as em phas ized throughout
the l i t e r a tu r e , the q u e s tio n a ro se a s to w hether i t should be a permanent
part of c lassroom a c t iv i t i e s . The g enera l nature of m ost of the w riting ,
the p auc ity and lack of re p l ic a t io n of s ta t i s t i c a l r e s e a rc h prompted th is
s tudy to more fu lly explore u sag e of the sandbox .
CHAPTER 3
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of th is s tudy w as to t e s t an e x p e r ie n c e , a sandbox
with m iniature t o y s , to s e e if i t Would hold c h i ld re n 's in te re s ts after the
n o v e lty of the exp er ien ce had worn off. S ince a rev iew of the re se a rc h
rev ea led l i t t le s ta t i s t i c a l r e se a rc h on the s u b je c t , a p ilo t s tudy of a
d e sc r ip t iv e na tu re w as d ec ided upon to provide a narrow focus on a few
te s ta b le h y p o th e se s , a s w ell a s to re v e a l broader q u e s t io n s w ith
im p lica tions for edu ca tio n and future r e s e a rc h . C h i ld re n 's in te re s t w as
u sed a s a c r i te ria of th e va lue of a c lassroom exp erien ce a s e s ta b l i s h e d
p rev iously in th e ph ilo so p h ic framework of th is s tudy .
H ypo theses to be Tested
1. C hildren w ill m ain ta in in te re s t in a sandbox w ith m iniature
to y s af te r in te re s t due to the n o v e lty of the ex p e r ien ce has
d i s s ip a te d .
2. More in te re s t w ill be e x p re s se d in some a c t iv i t i e s offered by
the program th an o th e r s .
3. There are s ig n if ic a n t d if fe ren ces betw een fo u r -y e a r -o ld and
f iv e -y e a r -o ld ch ild ren in p reference for c e r ta in a c t iv i t i e s ,
inc lud ing the sandbox .
There are s ig n if ic a n t d if fe ren ces be tw een the s e x e s .a s to
p reference of the sandbox and o ther a c t i v i t i e s .
D efin ition of Terms
Experience: D ew ey 's d e f in it io n . That w hich someone does
and u n d e rg o e s , a par t ic ip a tio n in an a c t iv i ty w here there i s
c o n s ta n t in te ra c t io n of the ind iv idua l and the environm ent.
The ind iv idua l is both ac t in g upon the environm ent and being
ac ted upon by i t .
C rea tiv e ex p e r ien ce : The same a s the above defin ition with
the added em p h as is upon ex p e r ie n c e s in which the ind iv idual
m akes up som eth ing th a t i s unique or o rig inal to him, and
w hich invo lves orig inal th in k in g . Em phasis is upon the
p ro cess ra ther than upon the product.
C rea tiv e th inking: As defined by D ew ey. That w hich occurs
in the p ro cess of ex p er ienc ing when h y p o th e se s can be formed
and t e s t e d .
Play: Inc ludes any ex p e r ie n c e s which involve a l l of the
foregoing and which ch ild ren vo lun ta ri ly c h o o se .
A ssum ptions
Learning is ep iso d ic and d oes not follow a l in ea r or s ta i r
s te p p ro g ress io n .
10
2. C rea tive ex p e r ie n c e s canno t be d iv ided into ca te g o r ie s of
p h y s ic a l , em o tio n a l , s o c ia l , or in te l le c tu a l deve lopm en t, b e
ca u se i t is the in te ra c t io n of a l l th e se a s p e c ts of behavior
th a t de term ines the given s ta te of an ind iv idual and the
q u a l i ty of an ex p e r ien ce . A child cannot be the summation of
h is various p a r t s .
L im itations
Lim itations of in s i tu s tu d ie s are ap p licab le h e r e . Due, to lack of
random ization and the la rge number of uncon tro llab le v a r ia b le s , i t is
d iff icu lt to determ ine if or how much control is lo s t and rendering
g en e ra l iza t io n to o ther populations im p o ss ib le . M ethods of d a ta c o l
lec tio n p resen ted problems which could a ffec t the outcome of the
s tudy .
Some of the more im portant uncon tro llab le v a r ia b le s observed in
th is s tudy w ere: (1) a b s e n c e , (2) inc lem ent w ea th e r , (3) lo c a t io n ,
(4) behav ior of paren ts w hile in th e c la s s ro o m .
The method of ga thering data can a ffec t r e s u l t s . M ethods of
time sam pling and c a teg o r iza t io n of a c t iv i t ie s were two im portant prob
lems in s tu d y . A rev iew of the l i te ra tu re rev ea led d ifferen t methods of
time sam pling . M c C a n d le s s and Hoyt (1967) observed e a c h ch ild for
f if teen f iv e -m in u te p e r io d s . In the C lark e t a l . (1969) s tu d y , children
were observed for te n - s e c o n d in te rv a ls . Farw ell (1930) observed each
11
child th ir ty m inutes per day for fourteen d a y s . In the p re se n t s tudy , i t
w as som etim es d iff icu lt to determ ine when an a c t iv i ty a c tu a l ly began
and when i t en d ed . Time recorded in m inutes p resen ted d if f icu l t ie s
a t t im e s . How long a minute can be in the life of a .ch ild !
C a te g o r iz a t io n of a c t iv i t ie s in th is s tudy w as e s ta b l i s h e d more
on th e b a s is of lo c a t io n , s in ce ce r ta in a re a s were a lread y d es ig n a te d
for ce r ta in a c t iv i t i e s . Sometimes d ram atic p lay , b u ild ing , and p h y s ica l
a c t iv i t ie s would be p re sen t in the same a c t iv i ty , and w hich a c t iv i ty w as
m ost dom inant w as d iff icu l t to determ ine and changed ra p id ly . In c e r
ta in a c t iv i t i e s , there w as room for more c h i ld re n , i . e . , bu ild ing ,
p h y s ic a l . On se v e ra l o c c a s io n s , ch ild ren could not p lay in the sandbox
b e c a u se there w as no room. If a child u sed the ba th room , drinking
foun ta in , e tc . , and re turned to the previous a c t iv i ty , i t w as recorded as
ano ther c h o ic e , a lthough th is is q u e s t io n a b le .
CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY
Sample
An In s itu s tudy w as d es ig n e d to t e s t the h y p o th ese s formu
la ted by the s tu d y . One group of tw enty fo u r-y e a r -o ld s and one groiif) of
tw en ty -o n e f iv e -y e a r -o ld s w as o b s e rv e d . Due to a b s e n c e s and l e s s th an
s ix ty m inutes being sp en t in free cho ice a c t i v i t i e s , s e v e n te e n fo u r-y e a r -
o lds and f if teen f iv e -y e a r -o ld s were inc luded in the s tu d y . In the
fo u r -y e a r -o ld .group there were n ine boys and e igh t g i r ls . In the f iv e -
y e a r-o ld group there were e igh t boys and seven g i r l s . Socio log ica l
background inc luded middle and upper c l a s s A nglo-w hite ch ild ren with
th ree ex cep tio n s : one J a p a n e se -C h in e s e boy in the fo u r-y e a r -o ld group
and two M exican-A m erican girls in th e f iv e -y e a r -o ld g ro u p .
S etting
The Tucson Community School w as chosen as th e se tt in g for the
s tudy b e c a u s e i t provided t r a d i t io n a l , c rea t iv e a c t iv i t ie s w hich hold
c h i ld re n 's in te re s t over a long period of t im e , and provided for a wide
v a r ie ty of h y p o th ese s t e s t in g . A lso , the two programs observed offered
long periods of free cho ice of a c t iv i ty for the ch ild ren .
12
13
Eight d ifferen t c a teg o r ie s of a c t iv i t ie s were e s ta b l is h e d :
(1) art and m usic; (2) books and gam es; (3) u se of p h y s ica l equipm ent,
e . g . , t r ik e s , c lim bers; (4) co n s tru c t io n , e . g . , b lock bu ild ing , carpentry ;
(5) d ig g in g , e . g . , a c t iv i t ie s involving earth and w ater; (6) sandbox;
(7) d ram atic play; (8) o ther , e . g . , u s e of bathroom , drinking foun ta in ,
te a c h e r -d i r e c te d a c t iv i t ie s such as cook ing , ta lk in g with the te a c h e r
or f r ien d s , or p lay ing with toy or toys from home. The la t te r two a c t iv
i t i e s were marked in the "other" ca tego ry only if p a r t ic ip a tio n w as not in
connection with any of the above sev en c a te g o r ie s .
C rite ria for d ec id ing w hich ca tego ry of a c t iv i ty to mark for the
c h i ld 's par t ic ipa tion w as a rb itra r ily e s ta b l is h e d as to l o c a t io n / s in ce
d ifferent a c t iv i t ie s were grouped in d iffe ren t lo c a t io n s , e . g . , block
bu ild ing w as in two d iffe ren t a r e a s , one o u ts id e and one in s id e ; books
and gam es were in one a r e a , e tc . It w as d iff icu lt som etim es to d e te r
mine how to ca teg o r ize an a c t iv i ty , e . g . , w as i t primarily dram atic
p lay , bu ild ing or u s ing t r ik e s . Therefore , the arb itrary s e le c t io n of
loca tio n of a c t iv i ty w as u sed a s cr ite ria of se le c t io n of ca teg o ry .
Instrum ent
Sandbox
A s h e e t m etal box , 3' x 18" x 8 " , w as d es ig n e d to hold sand
(with w ater if desired) and w as f il led with f in e , w hite sand from the
b e a c h e s of C oronado, C a lifo rn ia . It w as s e t up on a ta b le a t an
14
appropria te he igh t for ch ild ren to u se w hile s tan d in g . An a sso r tm en t of
m iniature to y s w as s e t out on the ta b le : s e ts of people (family g ro u p s ,
s o ld ie r s , In d ia n s ) , n a tu ra l m a te r ia ls (s t icks and s to n e s ) , m anipu la tive
toys (spoons , c u p s , d i s h e s ) , ca rs and t r u c k s , sm all un it b lo c k s , and
two s e ts of a n im a ls . The sandbox was p laced in the fo u r-y e a r -o ld room
and then in the f iv e -y e a r -o ld .ro o m . The te a c h e r gave no d ire c t io n s as to
th e u se of the m ate r ia ls u n le s s ask ed by the ch ild ren . In th is c a s e ,
she w as in s tru c te d to sa y to th e ch ild ren , "You may play any way you
w ant in the sand with th e s e to y s . " The te a c h e r w as a sk e d to tre a t th is
m ateria l a s she would any other c rea t iv e exper ience o f fe re d , thus
leav ing the experim enter free to observe and c o l le c t d a t a .
M ethods of O bserva tion
The sandbox w as p laced in e a c h c lassroom for a period of th re e
w eeks a s a part of the regu la r program, w ith ch ildren free to choose it
or ano ther a c t iv i ty . D ata w as c o l le c te d th e f ir s t and th ird w eeks by
th e ex p e r im en te r .
Each ch ild w as observed for s ix ty m inutes during the f ir s t and
th ird w eek s of the program to determ ine: (1) the amount of time spen t in
each a c t iv i ty , and (2) the number of tim es each a c t iv i ty w a s ch o sen .
S ta t i s t ic s
F requency ta b le s a s to the number of m inutes sp en t in each
a c t iv i ty and the number of ch o ices made in each a c t iv i ty were converted
15
into p e rcen tage ta b le s and X2 w as com puted , u s in g an R X C con tingency
ta b le . These percen tage ta b le s were converted to ta b le s ex p ress in g
ob ta ined f req u en c ies as percen tage of row to ta l s in order to compare
re s u l t s be tw een the f ir s t and third w eeks as to where d if fe ren ces e x is te d
betw een the d ifferent a c t iv i t i e s , d i f fe ren ces betw een the s e x e s , and
betw een th e fo u r -y e a r -o ld s and the f iv e - y e a r - o ld s .
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS
D ata w ill be d i s c u s s e d acco rd ing to the h y p o th ese s p rev iously
iden tif ied in C hap te r 3.
1. C hild ren w ill m ain tain in te re s t in a sandbox with miniature
toys af te r the nove lty of the exp er ien ce has been s a t i s f i e d .
Table 1 show s percen tage of c h o ic e s of fo u r -y e a r -o ld s in each
a c t iv i ty .
Table 1. Percentage of C h o ices in Each Activity (F ou r-y ea r-o ld s n=17)
A ctiv ity F irs t W eek Third W eek
Art & M u sic 4 3 .5Books & Games 7 0Physica l 19 31C onstruc tion 15 21Digging 8 10Sandbox 14 6D ram atic Play 4 3 .5Other 29 ' 25X2 10. 95
p = .05 df = 7X2 crit = 14.07
16
17
Table 2 show s percen tag e of ch o ic e s of f iv e -y e a r -o ld s in each
a c t iv i ty .
Table 2. Percen tage of C h o ices in Each A ctiv ity (F iv e -y e a r -o ld s n=15)
A ctiv ity F irs t W eek Third W eek
Art & M u s ic 9 10
Books & Games 11 9
P hysica l 20 22
C onstruc tion 18 17
D igging 4 5
Sandbox 13 3
D ram atic Play 2 6
Other 23 28
X2 9. 22
p = . 05 df = 7
crit = 14.07
2X was not s ig n if ican t in e i th e r group for p e rcen tag e of ch o ic e .
The g re a te s t d e c re a se in in te re s t was in. p ercen tage of cho ice of the
sandbox . Although in both groups the sandbox w as fourth in popularity
during the f ir s t w eek , i t rem ained fourth in the fo u r-y e a r -o ld group and
dropped to lo w es t p reference in the f iv e -y e a r -o ld group.
18
Table 3 show s p ercen tage of m inutes sp en t in e a c h a c t iv i ty by
f o u r - y e a r -o ld s .
Table 3. P ercen tage of M in u tes Spent in Each A ctiv ity (F our-year-o lds n=17)
A ctiv ity F irs t W eek Third W eek
Art & M u sic 3 3
Books & Games 2 0
P hysica l 22 29
C onstruc tion 19 27
Digging 12 12
Sandbox 22 • 12
Dram atic Play 2 6
Other 18 11
X2 10.96
p = .05 df = 7
crit = 14 .07
Table 4 show s p ercen tage of m inutes spen t in e a c h a c t iv i ty by
f iv e - y e a r - o ld s .
19
Table 4 . P ercen tage of M inu tes Spent in Each A ctiv ity (F iv e -y e a r-o ld s n=15)
Activ ity F irs t W eek Third W eek
Art & M u sic 11 12
Books & Games 5 9
Physica l 22 16
C onstruc tion 23 23
Digging 4 9
Sandbox 22 5
D ram atic Play 1 7
Other 12 19
X2 20 .8 5
p = .05 df = 7
crit = 14.07
The C h i- sq u a re ta b le s above show a s ig n if ican t d iffe rence b e
tw een a c t iv i t ie s only for th e . f iv e -y e a r -o ld s in p ercen tage of m inutes
sp en t in e a c h ac tiv ity ; both groups show ing the g re a te s t d e c re a se in
sandbox a c t iv i t i e s . The sandbox ra ted the h ig h es t p reference during th e
f ir s t w eek in the fo u r-y e a r -o ld g roup , and d e c re a se d to fourth preference
in th e th ird w eek . Preference for the sandbox in the f iv e -y e a r -o ld group
w as second h ig h e s t during the f ir s t w eek ( iden tica l ra t in g w ith p h y s ica l
ac t iv i t ie s ) and d e c re a se d to lo w es t p reference during the th ird w eek .
20
Further a n a ly s is of th is da ta e x p re ss in g f req u en c ies as p e rc e n t
a g e s of row to ta ls produced the follow ing t a b le s . Table 5 shows ob ta ined
f req u en c ies e x p re sse d as proportions of row to ta ls in p e rcen tag e of number
of ch o ic e s in each a c t iv i ty in the fo u r-y e a r -o ld group. Table 6 shows
ob ta ined f req u en c ies e x p re s se d a s proportions of row to ta ls in p e rcen t
age of number of ch o ices in each a c t iv i ty in the f iv e -y e a r -o ld group.
Table 7 show s ob ta ined f req u en c ies e x p re sse d a s proportions of row to ta ls
in percen tage of m inutes sp en t in each a c t iv i ty by f o u r - y e a r -o ld s .
Table 8 show s obtained, f req u en c ies e x p re s se d a s proportions of row to ta l s
in p ercen tage of m inutes spen t in each a c t iv i ty by f iv e -y e a r - o ld s .
Table 5. Percen tage of Number of C h o ices in Each A ctiv ity (Four-year- o lds n=17. O btained F requenc ies Expressed as P ercen tages of Row Totals)
A ctiv ity F irs t W eek Third W eek Total P ercen tages
Art & M u sic .53 .47 1.00Books & Games 1.00 0 1.00P hysica l .38 .62 1 .00C onstruc tion .42 .58 1 .00Digging .44 .56 1.00Sandbox .70 .30 1.00Drama .53 .47 1.00Other .54 .46 1.00Expected F requency .50 .50 1.00
21
Table 6. Percen tage of Number of C h o ices in Each A ctiv ity (F iv e -y ea r-olds n=15, O btained F req u en c ies Expressed a s Proportions ofRow Totals)
A ctiv ity F irs t W eek Third W eek Total P ercen tages
Art & M usic .47 .53 1 .00
Books & Games .55 .45
Oo
1—1
P hysica l .48 .52 1.00
C onstruc tion .51 .49 1 .00
Digging .44 .56 1.00
Sandbox .81 .19 1.00
Drama .25 .75 1.00
Other .45 .55 1.00
Expected F requency .50 .50 1.00
In percen tage of ch o ic e s in each a c t iv i ty the g re a te s t d iffe rence
be tw een the f ir s t and th ird w eeks w as in te re s t shown in the sandbox .
22
Table 7. P ercen tage of M inu tes Spent in Each A ctiv ity (F our-yea r-o ldsn=17. O btained F req u en c ies Expressed as Proportions of RowTotals)
A ctiv ity F irs t W eek Third W eek Total P e rcen tages
Art & M u s ic .50 .50 1.00
Books & Games 1 .00 0 1 .00
P h y sica l .43 .57 1 .0 0
C on s tru c tio n .41 .59 1 .0 0
Digging .50 .50 . 1 .00
Sandbox .65 .35 1 .00
D ram atic Play .25 .75
ooI—I
Other . 62 .38 1 .00
Expected Frequency .50 .50 t—1
o o
23
Table 8. P ercen tage of M inu tes Spent in Each A ctiv ity (F iv e -y e a r-o ld sn=15. O btained F requenc ies E xpressed as Proportions of RowTotals)
A ctiv ity F irs t W eek Third W e e k . Total Percen tages
Art & M usic .48 .52 1.00
Books & Games .36 . 64 1 .00
P hysica l .58 .42 1.00
C onstruc tion .50 .50 1.00
Digging .31 . . 69 1 .00
Sandbox .81 .19 1.00
D ram atic Play .13 .87 1.00
Other .39 . 61 1.00
Expected Frequency .50 .50 1.00
In te re s t d e c re a se d rap id ly in the third week for both groups in
both p ercen tage of m inutes sp en t and number of ch o ices made in each
ac t iv i ty . T he refo re , the ch ildren did not m ain ta in in te re s t in the sa n d
box after the novelty of the exp er ien ce wore off. D ec re a s in g in te re s t
could point to the in a d v isa b i l i ty of u s in g th e sandbox a s a permanent
ac t iv i ty . It is in te re s t in g to note th a t m ost of the other a c t iv i t ie s
showed ap p rec iab ly l i t t le d iffe rence be tw een the f ir s t and th ird w e e k s .
24
2. More in te re s t will be e x p re sse d in some a c t iv i t ie s offered by
the program than o th e r s .
The g re a te s t in te re s t in both the four- and f iv e -y e a r -o ld
programs w as shown in co n s tru c tio n and p h y s ica l a c t iv i t ie s and a c t iv i
t ie s ca teg o rized a s " o th e r ." (Refer to Tables 1 through 4 .) In both
programs the s tro n g e s t in v ita t io n to p lay w as observed to be in c o n s tru c -■ I
tion and p h y s ica l a c t iv i t i e s .
Other large d if fe ren ces could be due to the sm all number of
c a s e s com prising the p e r c e n ta g e s , e . g . , art and m u sic , books and
g a m e s , and dram atic p lay . The ra th e r la rge in c re a se in p h y s ic a l and
co n s tru c tio n a c t iv i t ie s in both p ercen tage of c h o ices and time spen t in
each a c t iv i ty for the fo u r-y e a r -o ld group could be a ttr ib u ted to inc lem ent
w ea ther during the f ir s t w eek . There are more ch o ices in e a c h of th e se
two c a te g o r ie s o u t -o f - d o o r s .
Referring to Table 5 and Table 6, i t can be o b served th a t there
i s l i t t le d iffe rence be tw een the f ir s t and th ird w eeks in the percen tage
of c h o ices in the ca tego ry of " o t h e r . " H ow ever, in Table 7 and Table 8 ,
w hich give p e rcen tage of m inu tes spen t in each a c t iv i ty , there was
approx im ate ly the same amount of d e c re a s e in the fo u r -y e a r -o ld group as
there w as in c re a se for the f iv e -y e a r -o ld -g ro u p . The d e c re a s e in the
fo u r-y e a r -o ld group could be exp la ined by the p rev iously m entioned
in c re a se in o u t-o f -d o o rs m a te r ia ls during the third w eek . The in c re a se
in the f iv e -y e a r -o ld group i s u n e x p la in ab le . .
25
3. There are s ig n if ic a n t d iffe ren ces betw een fo u r -y e a r -o ld s and
f iv e -y e a r -o ld s in p reference for a c t i v i t i e s , inc lu d in g the
sandbox .
Table 9 show s a com parison of fo u r-y e a r -o ld s and f iv e -y e a r -
o lds in percen tage of m inutes spen t in each a c t iv i ty . Table 10 shows a
com parison of fo u r -y e a r -o ld s and f iv e -y e a r -o ld s in percen tag e of c h o ic e s
in e a c h a c t iv i ty .
Table 9. "Comparison of F o u r-y e a r -o ld s and F iv e -y e a r -o ld s (Percentage of M in u te s Spent in Each Activity).
A ctiv ity F o u r-y e a r -o ld s (n=17) F iv e -y e a r -o ld s (n-15)
Art & M u s ic 6 23
Books & Games 2 14
P h y sica l 51 38
C onstruc tion 46 46
Digging 24 13
Sandbox 34 27
D ram atic Play 8 8
Other 29 31
X2 X2=25
p = . 05 df = 7X2 c rit = 14.07
26
Table 10. Com parison of F o u r-y e a r -o ld s and F iv e -y e a r -o ld s (Percentage of C h o ices in Each Activity)
A ctiv ity F o u r-y e a r -o ld s (n=17) F iv e -y e a r -o ld s (n=15)
Art & M usic 7 .5 19
Books & Games 7 20
Physica l 50 42
C onstruc tion 36 35
D igging 18 9
Sandbox 20 16
D ram atic Play 7 .5 8
Other 54 51
X2 X2=15 .5
p = .05 df = 7X2 c rit = 14 .07
The above ta b le s show th a t there are s ig n if ican t d iffe ren ces
betw een p re fe ren ces of fo u r -y e a r -o ld s and f iv e -y e a r - o ld s . When ob
ta in ed f req u en c ies were e x p re sse d a s p e rcen tag es of row t a b l e s ,. the
fo llow ing r e s u l t s were ob ta in ed .
Table 11 show s a com parison of fo u r-y e a r -o ld s and f iv e -y e a r -
o lds in percen tage of m inutes spen t in each a c t iv i ty , w ith ob ta ined
f req u en c ies e x p re s se d a s p e rcen tag es of row to ta l s .
27
Table 11. Com parison of F o u r-y e a r -o ld s and F iv e -y e a r -o ld s .(Percentage of M inu tes Spent in Each A ctiv ity , Obtained F requenc ies Exp re sse d as P ercen tages of Row Totals)
A ctiv ityF o u r-y e a r -o ld s
(n=17)F iv e -y e a r -o ld s
(n=15)Total
Percen tages
Art & M u sic .21 .79 1.00
Books & Games .13 .87 1.00
Physica l .57 .43 1.00
C onstruc tion .50 .50 1.00
Digging . 65 . 35 1.00
Sandbox .56 .44 1.00
D ram atic Play .50 .50 1.00
Other .48 .52 1.00
Expected F requency .50 .50 )—1 o o
Table 12 show s a com parison of fo u r-y e a r -o ld s and f iv e -y e a r -
o lds in p e rcen tag e of c h o ic e s in each a c t iv i ty , with ob ta ined f req u en c ie s
e x p re s se d a s p e rcen tag es of row to ta l s .
28
Table 12. Com parison of F o u r-y e a r -o ld s and F iv e -y e a r -o ld s (Percentage of C h o ices in Each A ctiv ity , O btained F req u en c ies E xpressed a s P ercen tag es of Row Totals)
A ctiv ityF o u r-y e a r -o ld s
,(n=17)F iv e -y e a r -o ld s
(n=15)Total
P ercen tag es
Art & M u sic .28 .72 1.00
Books & Games .26 .74 1.00
P hysica l .54 .46 1.00
C onstruc tion .50 .50 1.00
Digging .67 .33 1.00
Sandbox .56 ■ .44 1.00
Dram atic Play .48 .52 1.00
Other .51 .49 1.00
Expected Frequency .50 .50 1.00
Little d iffe rence w as noted be tw een the two groups in the fo l
lowing ca te g o r ie s : p h y s ic a l , co n s tru c t io n , sandbox , d ram atic p lay , and
o ther. (Refer to Table 11 and 12.) This is par t icu la r ly in te re s t in g in
ligh t of the p rev iously d is c u s s e d da ta th a t showed there w as grea ter
p reference.for p h y s ica l and construc tion a c t iv i t ie s during both w e e k s ,
and l i t t le change in p reference from the f ir s t to the third w eek . Al
though d iffe ren ces be tw een the two groups w as neg lig ib le in preference
for d ram atic p lay , very sm all p e rcen tag es in th is ca teg o ry were ob ta ined
29
(refer to Tables 1 through 4). Both groups showed d e c re a s in g in te re s t
in the sandbox from the f i r s t to the third w eek , and ye t sm all d if
fe ren ces could be observed betw een the two g ro u p s .
Although only sm all d iffe ren ces were observed in the a c t iv i
t ie s m entioned in the foregoing paragraph , s ig n if ican t C h i- sq u a re s
were ob ta ined when th e two groups were compared: for p ercen tage of
m inutes sp en t in each a c t iv i ty , X^=25; for percen tage of ch o ices inO
each a c t iv i ty , X = 1 5 .5 . Large d if fe ren ces in art and m u s ic , books
and gam es , and digging a c t iv i t i e s , appear to contribute h e a v ily to the
s ig n if ican t C h i - s q u a re s . F o u r-y e a r -o ld s showed more p reference for
d igging and f iv e -y e a r -o ld s for art and m u s ic , and books and g a m e s .
In th e fo u r-y e a r -o ld p ro g ram s, a r e s t period after lunch w as cen tered
around gam es and b o o k s . S ince th is w as not s tr ic t ly a f ree cho ice of
a c t iv i ty , da ta w as not co l le c te d during th is t im e. S ince ch ild ren had
th is exp er ien ce a t a s e t t im e , th is might exp la in why th is a c t iv i ty was
not ch o sen during free cho ice t im e . In the f iv e -y e a r -o ld program, a
pos t office ex per ience w as se t up to inv ite the w riting and read ing of
l e t t e r s . In both p rog ram s, art and m u sic , and d igging e x p e r ien ces were
s im ila r ly a r ra n g e d .
4. There are s ig n if ican t d iffe ren ces betw een the s e x e s in
p reference for a c t iv i t i e s , inc lud ing the sandbox .
30
Table 13 show s a com parison of boys and g ir ls in percen tage of
m inutes sp en t in e a c h a c t iv i ty .
Table 13. Com parison o f Boys and Girls (Percentage of M in u te s Spent in Each Activity)
'Activ ity Boys (n=17) G irls (n=15)
Art & M usic 12 15
Books & Games 8 8
P hysica l 47 42 .5
C ons truc tion 63 26 .5
Digging 31 4
Sandbox 15 48
Dram atic Play ■ 1 17
Other 23 39
X2 72.28
p = .05 df =7X2 = 14.07
Table 14 show s a com parison of boys and g irls in percen tage of
ch o ices in each a c t iv i ty .
31
Table 14. Com parison of Boys and Girls (Percentage of C h o ices in Each Activity)
A ctiv ity Boys (n=17) Girls (n=15)
Art & M u s ic 6 8
Books & Games 7 6
P hysica l 23 24
C onstruc tion 23 12
Digging 11 1
Sandbox 7 10.5
D ram atic Play 1 7 .5
Other 22 31
X2 19.38
P = . 05 df =7X2 = 14.07
There were indeed s ig n if ic a n t d iffe ren ces be tw een the sex es in
p reference of a c t iv i ty . When ob ta ined freq u en c ies were e x p re sse d as
p e rcen tag es of the row t o t a l s , a c t iv i t ie s with the g re a te s t d iffe rences
betw een the se x e s were show n.
Table 15 show s a com parison of boys and g irls in percen tage of
m inutes spen t in each a c t iv i ty , with ob ta ined freq u en c ies e x p re sse d as
p e rcen tag es of row t o t a l s .
32
Table 15. Com parison of Boys and Girls (Percentage of M in u tes Spent inEach A ctiv ity , O btained F requenc ies Expressed as P ercen tagesof Row Totals)
A ctiv ity Boys (n=l 7) Girls (n=15) Total Percen tages
Art & M u s ic .44 .56 1 .00
Books & Games .50 .50 O o
P hysica l .53 .47 1.00
C onstruc tion .70 .30 . 1 .00
Digging .89 .11 1 .00
Sandbox .24 .76 1 .00
D ram atic Play .05 .95 1.00
Other .37 .63 1.00
Expected Frequency .50 .50 1.00
Table 16 show s a com parison of boys and g irls in percen tage of
c h o ic e s in each a c t iv i ty , with obtained f req u en c ies e x p re s se d as
p e rcen tag es of row to ta l s .
33
Table 16. Com parison of Boys and Girls (Percentage of C h o ices in EachA ctiv ity , O btained F req u en c ies Expressed as P ercen tages ofRow Totals)
A ctiv ityiBoys (n=17) Girls (n=15) Total Percen tages
Art & M u sic .43 .57 1.00
Books & Game's .54 .46 1 .00
P hysica l .51 .49 1 .00
C onstruc tion .69 .31 1.00
Digging .90 .10 1.00
Sandbox .42 .58 1.00
D ram atic Play .10 .90 1.00
Other .44 .56 1 .00
Expected F requency .50 .50 1.00
There were s ig n if ic a n t d iffe ren ces be tw een the s e x e s in pref
e rence of a c t iv i ty . X^=19 .38 for p e rcen tage of m inutes sp e n t and number
of ch o ic e s made in each a c t iv i ty (refer to Table 13 and Table 14). When .
obtained f req u en c ies w ere ex p re sse d a s percen tage of row to ta l s ,
a c t iv i t ie s with the g re a te s t d iffe rences betw een the s e x e s were shown.
In both percen tage of m inutes sp en t and number of ch o ices made
in each a c t iv i ty , boys preferred co n s tru c tio n and digging a c t iv i t ie s and
the g ir ls preferred dram atic p lay . It is in te re s t in g to no te th a t th e se
find ings point to trad it io n a l s e x is t b eh av io r . However, there seem ed
to be l i t t le d iffe rence betw een boys and g ir ls in u se of the physica l
equipm ent.
CHAPTER 6
IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION AND FURTHER RESEARCH
Perhaps the g re a te s t va lue of a s tudy such a s th is one l ie s in
the q u e s t io n s i t r a i s e s ra ther than the q u e s t io n s i t a n sw e rs . Q u es t io n s
r a is e d concern im p lica tions for p resch o o l curriculum and for further
re la te d r e s e a rc h .
S ta t i s t ic a l a n a ly s is in th is s tudy showed th a t in te re s t in the
sandbox exp er ien ce did not continue af te r the appeal of th e novelty
e ffec t w as s a t i s f ie d . This would point to the in a d v isa b i l i ty of us ing the
sandbox a s a perm anent, c rea t iv e a c t iv i ty in the c la ss ro o m . H ow ever,
q u e s tio n s a r ise as to the e f fec t on the da ta of how the exp er ien ce w as
p resen ted to the ch ild ren . Perhaps s e t t in g up an ex p er ien ce with a ll
the m a te r ia ls av a i la b le a t one time produced the data reco rded in th is
s tudy . Do children respond to change of the m a te r ia ls , with sub trac tion
and add ition of m a te r ia l s ? Johnson and Johnson (1968) found th is to be
t r u e . Would such change a rouse th e ir in te re s t and su g g e s t further
hy p o th es is te s t in g ? Perhaps m eeting a s itu a t io n th a t is the same each
day d oes not inv ite p a r t ic ip a tio n . R esea rch could be d e s ig n e d using
two g roups, varying the se tt in g in one group, and leav ing i t s ta t ic in
35
36
another group. More s t a t i s t i c a l ev id en ce is needed to show th a t it is
not the m a te r ia ls th e m se lv e s , but how they are h and led , th a t e l ic i t s
appropria te behav io ra l re sp o n s e .
In p reschoo l educa tion to d ay , q u e s tio n s a r is e as to th e u se of
na tu ra l m a te r ia ls v e rsu s commercial m a te r ia ls d es ig n e d for sp e c if ic
ed u ca t io n a l p u rp o se s , re la t iv e ly u ns truc tu red as opposed to more
s truc tu red e x p e r ie n c e s . R esearch b ase d on observ a tio n a l m ethods might
he lp re so lv e such c o n tro v e rs ie s . The sandbox could be u sed to determ ine
w hat h y p o th ese s ch ildren t e s t , how th ey t e s t them , and to what con
c lu s io n s th ey come.
Q u e s t io n s a r ise about the to ta l c lassroom s e t t in g . Why are
some a c t iv i t ie s p a r t ic ip a ted in so much more than o thers ? D oes such
par t ic ipa tion point to n e e d s of th e se par t icu la r g ro u p s , a g e s , and
in d iv id u a ls? Or does i t point to the w ay in which ce r ta in a c t iv i t ie s
are s e t up, inv it ing d iffe ren t q uan ti ty and q u a l i ty of p lan? D oes the
high in te re s t in p h y s ica l a c t iv i t ie s show th a t ch ild ren are unw illing to
a c c e p t the ch a llen g e of more d iff icu lt a c t iv i t i e s ? Perhaps more em pha
s is should be p laced on a c t iv i t ie s involv ing large motor a c t iv i t ie s
ra th e r than upon th o se involv ing sm all motor a c t iv i t i e s .
Such great d iffe ren ces in popularity of a c t iv i t ie s a s w ell as
th e g rea t d iffe ren ces be tw een the se x e s and the two age groups supports
the con ten tion of Farw ell (1930) th a t such large d iffe ren ces are due to
37
uncon tro llab le f a c to r s , As p rev iously m entioned , a l im ita tion of in s itu
s tu d ie s is the large number of uncon tro llab le v a r ia b le s .
Of p a r t icu la r in te re s t were the t ra d it io n a l d if fe re n c e s betw een
the s e x e s . Boys preferred co n s tru c tio n and digging a c t iv i t i e s . Girls
preferred dram atic p lay a c t iv i t i e s . Further observa tion could re v e a l
w hether or not the inv ita t ion to p lay w as sex u a lly o r ien ted . Perhaps we
should be exploring options which expand c h ild re n 's p o te n t ia ls through
developm ent of n o n - s e x is t a t t i t u d e s . The W om en's Action A lliance
found th a t "v ir tu a l ly no one w as deve lop ing a p ro ject for the ea rly
childhood y e a r s . We fe lt th is was the id e a l p lace to beg in before s e x is t
a t t i tu d e s becam e too ingra ined (Sprung 1975, p. 12)."
Since a large percen tage of time w as spen t in a c t iv i t ie s other
than th o se offered by the program, q u e s t io n s a r ise as to w hat is h ap
pening during th e s e t im e s . How much time is sp en t obse rv in g o th e rs ,
in the ba th room , p laying a lo n e , fo llow ing a d u l ts , p laying w ith toys
from home, e t c . ? Why do some ch ild ren spend a g rea t d e a l of time in
a c t iv i t ie s of th is ca tego ry? - How involved are th e se ch ild ren in the
program? Although o bserva tion of p lay in th is s tudy w as of a q u a n t i ta
t iv e n a tu re , the q u a l i ty of p lay f requen tly su g g es ted th a t involvem ent
in a c t iv i t ie s w as not d e e p , e . g . , b lock s tru c tu res were s im p le ,
in te ra c t io n w ith other ch ild ren w as more a s s o c ia t iv e than co o p era tiv e ,
and th ey were unable to extend the play exper ience through th e ir own
a c t io n s .
38
As a method of observ ing behav io r , the type of q u a n ti ta t iv e
a n a ly s is used in th is s tudy could h e lp the c lassroom te a c h e r r a i s e
q u e s t io n s regard ing the behavior of ind iv idual c h i ld re n . Such q u e s tio n s
might be: why do es one ch ild prefer one a c t iv i ty , exc lud ing a ll o th e r s ?
Why do some ch ild ren spend more time with adu lts and a d u l t -d ire c te d
a c t iv i t i e s ?
This type of observa tion of ch ild ren could be accom plished by
an a ide or par t ic ip a tin g paren t. This could have the dual purpose of
he lp ing the te a c h e r and he lp ing the a ide or parent to becom e a b e t te r
observer of b ehav io r , w hich is a d iff icu lt t a s k . Further re se a rc h could
be aimed a t how to u se s im ilar and sim ple observa tion tec h n iq u e s to
s tudy behav ior in order to gain a b e t te r unders tand ing of ch ild ren . It
could be d isco v e red w hether adu lt percep tion of behavior is born out by
o b se rv a t io n s , and a ls o w hether percep tion can be changed by o b se rv a
t io n . A c lea r perception and u n d ers tand ing of the child is important in
order for the te a c h e r to a ffec t change in behavior.. S ince p reschoo l is
the e a s i e s t age a t w hich to change beh av io r , unders tand ing and use of
good observa tion tech n iq u es are of the g re a te s t im portance .
P rev iously d is c u s s e d in the ch ap te r on l im ita tions were the
problems of m ethodology due to the n e c e s s i ty for a n a tu ra l s e t t in g for
th is s tu d y . Because of the im portance of in s itu s tu d ie s , a s pa r t ia lly
seen from the d is c u s s io n of the im p lica tions of the s tu d y , more a tten tio n
should be given to d e s ig n in g re se a rc h in n a tu ra l s e t t in g s and dea ling
39
w ith the problems th e reo f . Edward Minium (1970) s ta te s :
M any im portant em pirica l q u e s t io n s do not appear a p proachab le in any other w ay, and there are numerous in s ta n c e s in w hich such s tu d ie s have made im portant con tr ibu tions to k n o w led g e . Advancem ent of know ledge through in s itu s tu d ie s often c a l l s upon the h ig h e s t degree of su b s ta n t iv e k n o w le d g e , and the m ost sk il lfu l dev isem en t of in v e s t ig a to r ia l t a c t i c s (p. 347).
In th is s tu d y , da ta w as c o l le c te d on each c h i ld 's f i r s t cho ice
of a c t iv i ty . Over o n e -h a If o f 'th e ch o ic e s were in the "o ther" ca tego ry .
W here th is w as s o , second cho ice w as u s e d . When da ta w as c o l-
2l a te d , X = 42 .36 for fo u r-y e a r -o ld s and 54 .9 6 for the f iv e -y e a r -o ld s .
W here ob ta ined f req u en c ies were e x p re s se d a s p e rcen tag es of row
t o t a l s , the da ta confused the finding of the other data and w as th e re
fore e lim inated from the s tudy . The confusing picture p re sen ted by th is
d a ta could be due to the sm all number of c a s e s and g rea te r in fluence
of uncon tro llab le v a r ia b le s . This method of observa tion should be
further e x p lo re d , e s p e c ia l ly w ith larger numbers of ch i ld re n .
CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY
A pilot s tudy of a d e sc r ip t iv e na tu re w as d e s ig n e d to t e s t
h y p o th ese s concern ing a sandbox with m iniature to y s . A ph ilosophic
framework for the s tudy e s ta b l is h e d th a t ed u ca tiv e p ro c e s s e s should be
re la te d to our dem ocratic goa ls and sh o u ld , th e re fo re , u t i l iz e c rea t iv e
ex p er ien ces th a t provide many and varied options for learn ing in order
to s a t i s fy what each ch ild w ants to le a rn . A rev iew of the l i te ra tu re
rev ea led a p auc ity of r e se a rc h and lack of rep e t i t io n of s ta t i s t i c a l
r e s e a rc h . L im itations of many uncon tro llab le v a r ia b le s and methods of
observa tion in in s itu s tu d ie s were e x p lo re d .
The sandbox was p laced in two c lassro o m s for th ree w eeks;
se v e n te e n fo u r -y e a r -o ld s and f if teen f iv e -y e a r -o ld s were observed for
a period of s ix ty m inutes during the f i r s t and third w e e k s , and data w as
recorded as to number of ch o ices made and amount of time spen t in each
a c t iv i ty . S ta t i s t ic a l a n a ly s is of C h i- sq u a re rev ea led th a t there were
g rea t d iffe ren ces b e tw een popularity of d ifferen t a c t iv i t ie s in both
g ro u p s . There were a lso s ig n if ic a n t d iffe ren ces be tw een th e two age
groups and be tw een the s e x e s . Although C h i- sq u a re did no t rev ea l s ig
n if ica n t d iffe ren ces be tw een the f ir s t and third w eeks in popularity of
41
a c t iv i t i e s , conversion of the da ta to ta b le s e x p re ss in g ob ta ined f re
q u e n c ie s a s 'p e rc e n ta g e of row to t a l s , popularity of the sandbox
d e c re a se d co n s id e ra b ly from the f ir s t to the third week in both amount of
time sp en t and the number of ch o ices in e a c h a c t iv i ty .
Although r e s u l t s of the s tudy did not support the u se of the
sandbox a s a permanent a c t iv i ty in the c la ssro o m , re p l ic a t io n of the
s tudy by m an ipula ting the m ate r ia ls might produce d ra s t ic a l ly d ifferen t
r e s u l t s . Perhaps it is not the m a te r ia ls , but how th ey are used th a t
e l ic i t s th e d e s ire d r e s u l t s .
REFERENCES CITED
Albino, Ronald C . “D efen ses A gainst A ggression in the Play of Young C h ild re n . " British Tournal of M e d ic a l P sy c h o lo g y , 1954, 27:
. 61-71„
A xline, Virginia M . P lay T herapy . New York: Ballan tine B ooks , 1947.
Bowyer, Ruth. The Lowenfeld World T ech n iq u e . New York: Pergamon P re s s , 1970.
C ap lah , Frank and C a p la n , T h e resa . The Power of P la y . New York: Anchor P re s s , 1974.
C la rk , Anne H . ; W yom , Sally M .; and R ichards , M . P, M . "Free Play in N ursery School C h ild ren . " Tournal of Child Psychology and P sych ia try and Allied D is c ip l in e s , 1969, 10 :205-216 .
D ew ey, John. D em ocracy and E d u c a tio n . New York: M acM illan C o . , 1922.
D re iku rs , Rudolph. C hild ren the C h a l le n g e . New York: Hawthorne B ooks, Inc . , 1964.
Elder, C onnie Zehr. "M in ia ture Sand Environments: A New W ay to See and Feel and E x p lo re ." Young C h i ld re n , Ju n e , 1973, 28:283- 286.
F a l l i s , Edwina. The Child and T h in g s . New York: World Book C o . ,1905.
F arw ell, L ou ise . "R eac tions of K indergarten , F irs t , and Second GraceC hildren to C o n s tru c tiv e Play M a te r i a l s ." G en e tic P sycho log ic a l M onographs , Nov. - D e c . , 1930 , Vol. 8 :43 1 -5 6 2 .
G arrison , C harlo tte G . ; Sheehy, E .D . ; and D a lg l ie sh , A lice . The H orace Mann Kindergarten for F iv e -y e a r -o ld C h i ld re n . New York: Columbia U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1937.
H ead ley , Keith E. Education in the K indergarten . New York: American Book C o. , 1966.
42
43
Johnson, M arguerite and Johnson, W ilker . "Effect on Behavior ofVariation in the Amount of Play Equipm ent." Child D evelopment , 1968, 6 :56-68 .
L ew is, L. E. "Sand in the C la s s ro o m ." The In s t ru c to r , January, 1967, 76 :80 -81 .
L ow enfe ld , M arg are t . "The N ature and U se of the Lowenfeld World Technique in Work with C hildren and Adults. " Journal of P sy c h o lo g y , 1950, 30 :325-331 .
M a tte rso n , E. M . Play and P layth ings for the Preschool C h i ld . Baltimore: Penguine B ooks, 1965.
M c C a n d le s s , B. R. and Hoyt, J. M . "Sex, Ethnicity and Play Prefe rence of P reschool C h i ld re n . " Journal of Abnormal Social P sy c h o lo g y , 1967, 62:683-685 .
M in ium , Edward. S ta t i s t ic a l Reasoning in Psychology and E d u ca tio n . New York: John W iley and S o n s , I n c . , 1970.
M o u s ta k a s , C la rk . Children in Play T herapy . New York: Ballantine Books, 1953.
Rudolph, M a rg a r i ta . From Hand to H e a d . New York: M cG raw -H ill , 1973.
Sprung, Barbara. "O pening the Options for C hildren: A N o n sex is t Approach to Early Childhood E d u c a t io n ." Young C h ild re n , November, 1975, 31 :12-21 .
T ols toy , Leo. On E d u c a tio n . C hicago: U n iv e rs ity of C h icago Press , 1 9 6 7 ."
Torrance, E. Paul. Guiding C rea tive T a le n t . New York: Prentice H all , Inc . , 1962.
U cko, L. E. "Early S tress Experiences M irrored in World Play a t Five Y ears ." Human D eve lopm en t, 1967, 10(2):107-127 .
W idner, E. L. The C r i t ica l Years: Early Childhood Education a t theC ro s s ro a d s . Scranton , P ennsy lvan ia : In te rna tiona l Textbook C o. , 1970.
