Comparison of Direct and Indirect Vector Control of Induction Motor

B. S. Nayak. / International Journal of New Technologies in Science and EngineeringVol. 1, Issue. 1, Jan. 2014, ISSN XXXX-XXXX

Available online @ www.ijntse.com 110

Comparison of Direct and Indirect VectorControl of Induction Motor

B. Srinu Naik

Abstract-Vector control is becoming the industrial standard for induction motor control. Thevector control technique decouples the two components of stator current space vector: oneproviding the control of flux and the other providing the control of torque. The two componentsare defined in the synchronously rotating reference frame. With the help of this control techniquethe induction motor can replace a separately excited dc motor. The DC motor needs time to timemaintenance of commutator, brushes and brush holders. The main effort is to replace DC motorby an induction motor and merge the advantages of both the motors together into variable speedbrushless motor drive and eliminate the associated problems. The squirrel cage induction motorbeing simple, rugged, and cheap and requiring less maintenance, has been widely used motor forfixed speed application. So with the implementation of vector control, induction motor replaces theseparately excited dc motor. The vector control technique is therefore a better solution so that thecontrol on flux and torque become independent from each other and the induction motor istransformed from a non-linear to linear control plant. With the advent of field oriented control;the induction motor has become an attractive option. In this report we will come to know theconcept of vector control and different types of vector control techniques available. And finally wewill be able to compare them.

Index Terms-Induction Motor, Vector Control, Speed Control, AC Motors.

1. INTRODUCTION

Modern method of static frequency conversion has liberated the induction motor from its historical role asa fixed speed machine. The inherent advantages of adjustable frequency operation cannot be fully realizedunless a suitable control technique is employed. The choice of technique is vital in determining the overallcharacteristics and performance of the drive system. Also the power converter has little excess currentcapability; during normal operation the control strategy must ensure that motor operation is restricted tothe regions of high torque per ampere, thereby matching the inverter ratings and minimizing the systemloses. Overload or fault conditions must be handled by sophisticated control rather than over design.

Now a days more than 60% of all the electrical energy generated in the world is used by cage inductionmachines have been mostly used at fixed speed for more than a century. On the other hand, D.C machineshave been used for variable speed applications. In DC machines mmf axis is established at 90˚ electrical tothe main field axis. The electromagnetic torque is proportional to the product of field flux and armaturecurrent. Field flux is proportional to the field current and is unaffected by the armature current because oforthogonal orientation between armature mmf and field mmf .Therefore in a separately excited DCmachine , with a constant value of field flux the torque s directly proportional to the armature current.Hence direct control of armature current gives direct control of torque and fast response. Hence they are



simple in control and offer better dynamic response inherently. Numerous economical reasons, forinstance high initial cost, high maintenance cost for commutators, brushes and brush holders of DC motorscall for a substitute which is capable of eliminating the persisting problems in dc motors. Freedom fromregular maintenance and a brushless robust structure of the three phase squirrel cage induction motor areamong the prime reasons, which brings it forward as a good substitute.

The ac induction motors are the most common motors used in industrial motion control systems, as wellas in main powered appliances. Simple and rugged design, low cost and low maintenance are some of themain advantages of 3 phase ac induction motors. Various types of induction motors are available in themarket. Different motors are suitable for different application. The speed and torque control of 3 phaseinduction motors require great understanding of the design and characteristics of these motors.

2. BRIEF THEORY OF VECTOR CONTROL (FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL)

The control of separately-excited dc machines is straightforward due to the inherent decoupled naturebetween flux and torque. As a consequence, torque linearization can be obtained easily by armature currentcontrol with constant field flux .DC motors have been widely used in high performance domains such asrobotics, rolling mills and tracking systems where fast dynamic torque control is required. AC machines arealways preferable to dc machine due to their simpler and more robust construction; there are no mechanicalcommutators. However, the electrical structures of ac machines are highly nonlinear and involvemultivariable inputs and outputs. Therefore, additional effort is required to decouple and linearize the controlof these machines. In practice, intricate control algorithms are involved if ac drives have to match thedynamic performance of dc drives. Due to advancements in microelectronics and power electronics, highperformance control of ac motors can now be implemented at a reasonable cost. This technologicalbreakthrough has stimulated in turn the application of sophisticated control algorithms and the widespreaduse of ac drives in high performance domains. [2][22].

The realization of fast decoupling control requires that both the magnitude and phase of the machine currentsbe controlled accurately. Depending on the design philosophy and the type of ac machine, there can be manydifferent approaches to synthesize the machine currents to provide fast decoupling control. Among thedifferent approaches of torque and flux decoupling control techniques, the emerging consensus is that themethod of field-orientation yields the best overall performance. The field-oriented control (F.O.C.) is by farthe most widely accepted method of control in high performance ac drive domains. While F.O.C. represents asingle, unified control concept, the application strategies, complexity of implementation and drive responsesvary with different drive motors.

In a Dc machine, a number of coils are distributed around the armature surface and inter connected to form aclosed winding. Stationary poles with dc-excited field windings or permanent magnets establish magneticfield in which the armature rotates Current is supplied to the armature through the commutator brushes sothat the armature mmf axis is established at 90 degrees electrical to the main field axis.



The DC motor analogy

Where torque (T) Ia.If

And where Ia represents the torque component and If the field.

The orthogonal or perpendicular relationship between flux and mmf axes is independent of the speed ofrotation and so the electromagnetic torque of the dc motor is proportional to the product of the field fluxand armature current. Assuming negligible magnetic saturation, field flux is proportional to field currentand is unaffected by armature current because of the orthogonal orientation of the stator and rotor field.Thus in a separately excited dc motor with constant value of field flux, torque is directly proportional toarmature current.

The principle behind the field oriented control or the vector control is that the machine flux and torque arecontrolled independently, in a similar fashion to a separately excited DC machine. Instantaneous statorcurrents are transformed to a reference frame rotating at synchronous speed aligned with the rotor stator orair gap flux vectors, to produce a d-axis component current and a q-axis component current. (SRRF).Inthis work, SRRF is aligned with rotor mmf space vector, the stator current space vector is split into twodecoupled components, one controls the flux and the other controls the torque respectively. [11][22]

An induction motor is said to be in vector control mode , if the decoupled components of the stator currentspace vector and he reference decoupled components defined by the vector controller in the SRRF matcheach other respectively..Alternatively, instead of matching the two phase currents (reference and actual) inthe SRRF, the close match can also be made in the three phase currents (reference and actual) in thestationary reference frame. Hence in spite of induction machine’s non linear and highly interactingmultivariable control structure, its control has becomes easy with the help of FOC. Therefore FOCtechnique operates the induction motor like a separately excitedly DC motor.

The transformation from the stationary reference frame to the rotating reference frame is done andcontrolled by with reference to specific flux vector (stator flux linkage, rotor flux linkage) or magnetizingflux linkage). In general, there exits three possibilities for such selection and hence, three vector controls.They are stator flux oriented control, rotor flux oriented control and magnetizing flux oriented control. Asthe torque producing component in this type of control is controlled only after transformation is done andis not the main input reference, such control is known as indirect torque control. The most challenging and



ultimately, the limiting feature of field orientation is the method whereby the flux angle is measured orestimated. Depending on the method of measurement, the vector control is sub divided into two subcategories: direct vector and indirect vector control. In direct vector control, the flux measurement is doneby using flux sensing coils or the hall devices. [2][22]

FOC uses a d-q coordinates having the d-axis aligned with rotor flux vector that rotates at the statorfrequency. The particular solution allows the flux and torque to be separately controlled by the stator

current d-q components. The rotor flux is a flux of the d-axis component stator current dsi .The

developed torque is controlled by the q – axis component of the stator current qsi .The decouplingbetween torque and flux is achieved only if the rotor flux position is accurately known. This can be doneusing direct flux sensors or by using a flux estimator.

3. TYPES OF VECTOR CONTROL TECHNIQUES OF INDUCTION MOTOR

The synchronously rotating reference frame (SRRF) can be aligned with the stator flux or rotor flux ormagnetizing flux (field flux) space vectors respectively. Accordingly, vector control is also known asstator flux oriented control or rotor flux oriented control or magnetizing flux oriented control. Generally ininduction motors, the rotor flux oriented control is preferred. This is due to the fact that by aligning theSRRF with the rotor flux, the vector control structure becomes simpler and dynamic response of the driveis observed to be better than any other alignment of the SRRF.

The vector control can be classified into (i) Direct vector control and (ii) indirect vector control.

Scope of work

In vector control the dynamic performance of the induction motor improves to a great extent. The squirrelcage induction motor behaves similar to a separately excited dc motor with control of field and torquebeing independent of each other. Therefore the drive exhibits quick starting response, fat reversal responseand quick change over from one operating point to another. With proper choice of speed controller, thedrive can be further improved in terms of performance indices such as starting time, reversal time, and dipin speed on load application, overshoot in speed on load removal, steady state speed error on load etc.

The VCIMD can be operated in two modes of operation (a) operation below base speed and (b) operationabove base speed. When the drive operates below base speed, the flux component of the stator current(ids

*) is maintained constant and torque is dependent on the torque component of the stator current (iqs*).

and when the drive operates above base speed, the flux component of stator current (ids*) is reduced for

control, with the torque component (iqs*) at the maximum possible level.

The excitation current for rotor flux (imr*) depends on the speed of the motor ( r ) in inverse proportion

for the operation of the motor above base speed.

The voltage source inverter I operated in current controlled (CC) mode. The CC mode of VSI gives aquick and fast response as the winding currents are regulated in accordance to vector control mode of aninduction motor.



Normally uncontrolled ac-dc converters are used to feed vector controlled induction motor. Theseuncontrolled ac-dc converters draw non-sinusoidal current from the ac mains and behave as non-linearloads. This leads to power quality problems. But a number of techniques have been proposed forimproving power quality at ac mains.

Direct vector control method

In direct vector control method we have seen that it determines the magnitude and position of the rotorflux vector by direct flux measurement or by a computation based on terminal conditions. It also calledflux feedback control is method in which required information regarding the rotor flux is obtained bymeans of direct flux measurement or estimation. The flux is measured by the sensors like Hall Effectsensor, search coil and this is a part of the disadvantages. Because fixing of number of sensors is a tediousjob and this increases the cost factor. [2]

The quantities generated from flux sensors are used in the outer loop of the drive control structure.Alternatively, in place of flux sensors, the flux models can also be used for which the stator currents andvoltages become the feedback signals and he rotor flux angle is given as its estimated output.

Figure.2 shows a simplified block diagram of a field control scheme .the two axis reference currents,

qsi

and

dsi are the demanded torque and flux components of stator current, respectively and are governed by

the outer control loops. Currents,

qsi and

dsi , undergo a coordinate transformation to two phase statorbased quantities, followed by two phase to three phase transformation which generates the stator reference

currents*** ,, csbsas iii .These reference current are reproduced in the stator phases by the current controlled

PWM inverter .[2]



Figure-2: Basic field oriented control system for an induction motor with a current controlled PWMinverter.

Thus the external reference currents

qsi and

dsi are reproduced within the induction motor. Control isexecuted in terms of these direct and quadrature axis current components to give decoupled control of fluxand torque as in a dc machine

Disadvantages

1. Fixing of number of sensors is a tedious job.2. The sensors increase the cost of the machine.3. Drift problem exist because of temperature.4. Poor flux sensing at lower temperatures.

These disadvantages lead to another technique called in-direct vector control technique.



In-direct vector control Method

Figure.3 shows the basic block diagram of induction motor operating in indirect vector control mode. Themotor speed is used as feedback signal in the controller. The controller calculates reference values of thetwo decoupled components of stator current space vector in the SRRF which are iqs

* and ids* for the control

of torque and flux respectively. [2] The two components of the currents are transformed into three phasecurrents which are ias

*,ibs*,ics

* in the stationary reference frame of reference. Now as a balanced load, twoof the phase currents are sensed and the third one is calculated from the two sensed currents. The currentcontroller controls the reference currents close to sensed three phase currents in the stationary referenceframe and operates the voltage source inverter to feed three phase induction motor. This ensures a highlevel of performance of the vector controlled induction motor (VCIMD).Because of the smooth, efficientand maintenance free operation of VCIMDs, such drives are finding increasing applications in many driveapplication s such as air conditioning, refrigeration, fans blowers, pumps, waste water treatment plants,elevators, lifts traction motors, electric vehicles, etc[2][7]

figure-3:basic block diagram of indirect vector control mode

The field-weakening controller receives the speed signal ( r ) as an input signal and provides reference

value of the excitation current (*

mri ) as an output signal. Therefore the two signals are the reference

signals for the vector controller. In the vector controller the d-axis component (

dsi ) and the q- axis

component (

qsi ) of the stator current signals are computed which are responsible for the flux and torque

control respectively. The slip frequency signal (*

2 ) is also computed in vector controller to evaluate

the flux angle. The slip angle is computed using slip frequency (*

2 ), rotor speed ( r ) and sampling



period ( T ).These signals of flux (

dsi and torque (

qsi ) are in the synchronously rotating reference

frame and these are transformed into stationary reference three phase currents (*** ,, csbsas iii )

For current controlled VSI fed vector controlled induction motor, the reference currents*** ,, csbsas iii and

sensed currents ( csbsas iii ,, ) are fed into the pulse width modulated (PWM) current controller. A triangularcarrier wave is generated at the required switching frequency (fs). The point of intersection of thetriangular carrier wave and modulating signals acts as the point of state change over for the resultingPWM signals, which are fed to the driver circuit of VSI feeding an induction motor[2][7]

The indirect vector controlled induction motor is reshown in figure.3 below with blocks consists of thespeed sensor, speed controller ,limiter, the field weakening controller , the two phase rotating frame tothree phase stationary frame converter, PWM current controller, CC-VSI and three phase squirrel cageinduction motor. The functions are described as follows




dsi and torque (









dsi and torque (








Speed sensor

It measures the motor speed. Since in the indirect vector, the accurate measurement of position of rotorflux vector is given by the sensors which have high resolution and precision. Normally shaft encoders areused for the closed loop vector control of the cage induction motor drive.

Speed controller

The measured speed ( r ) is compared with the set reference speed (*

r ) in the error detector and the

resulting output is known as speed error ( e ) is processed in the speed controller. The output of the

controller is the control signal for the torque command ( T ). The command input may be positive or

negative depending upon the set reference speed and the motor shaft speed. The speed error ( e ) isprocessesed in the speed controller which may be of different types depending upon the required dynamicperformance of the drive. And accordingly the controller is used.

When the drive operates in the transient conditions such as starting, reversing or load application or loadremoval the speed controller output (T) may be very high value to achieve the steady state condition of thedrive as fast as possible, as, a result the controller output signal (T) may become quite high and in somecases it may become higher than the breakdown torque of the motor. Such a situation may be ratherdangerous for the motor and may take the drive into instability. In order to avoid certain circumstances, itbecomes very much necessary to apply certain limit on the output of the speed controller .The output ofthe speed controller after the limit is considered as the reference torque(T*) to the vector controller andused to obtain the value of stator current torque component of the stator current space vector. As a resultthe limit of the torque also ensures over current protection to the drive.

4. FIELD WEAKENING CONTROLLER

The field weakening operation of a VCIMD is similar to the field controller of a separately excited dcmotor. This operation is implemented when the drive speed is controlled above the base speed. The inputto the field weakening controller is the feedback speed of the motor. The output of the controller is theexcitation current. Below the abase speed the excitation current remains constant. Above the based speedthe excitation current varies in inverse proportion to the speed. [13-14]

*mri = mi if r < base speed

*mri =Kf mi / r if r >= base speed Where Kf is flux constant.

*mri is the excitation current,

mi is the magnetizing current,



r is the feedback speed of the motor,

b is the base speed of the motor.

5. VECTOR CONTROLLER

The output of the speed controller after limiting is taken as the reference torque ( *T ) and output of field

weakening controller (*

mri ) is taken as reference flux for the vector controller. These two command

signals are taken as input to the vector controller for calculating the torque component (

qsi ) and the flux

component (

dsi )

And also to calculate the slip frequency (*

2 ).The torque (

qsi ) and the flux components (

dsi ) are the

respective decoupled components of the stator current (

si ) in the synchronously rotating reference frame.

Estimation of

dsi ,

qsi and*

2

The vector controller block is the heart of the entire modeling of the vector controlled induction motor

drive. This section calculates the direct and quadrature axis stator components (

dsi and

qsi ) in thesynchronously rotating reference frame (SRRF) aligned with rotor inclined at flux angle ( ) with respectto stationary reference frame. [19]

Mathematically these equations for calculating these two components of the current are given as follows:

nids

= nimr*

+ dtdi mr

r

*

…………….……………………Eq(1)

niqs

= nKinT

mr*

*

……………………………………..…………Eq(2)

n*2 =

nini

mrr

qs

*

…………………………………… Eq (3)



Where, r is the rotor time constant defined as

r =r

r

RL

K=

r

Mp123

2

P is the number of poles, nids and niqs

refer to flux and torque components of stator current at nth

instant,

n*2 refer to nth instant reference slip frequency , M is the mutual inductance , r is the rotor

leakage factor and Lr is the rotor self inductance and is defined as

lmlrr LLL ………………………………………………………………..…Eq(4)

ML rr 1 ……………………………………….…..Eq(5)

And

1

MLr

r where M= mL23 , mL is the magnetizing inductance

Two phase rotating frame to three phase stationary frame converter

Two phase rotating frame to three phase stationary frame converter transforms the two decoupled

components of stator current namely, (

dsi and

qsi ) in synchronously rotating reference frame into three

phase currents namely**, bsas ii and

*csi in three phase stationary reference frame. The conversion

process requires the flux angle ( ), which is calculated by the integration of the synchronous speed.

Synchronous speed is obtained by addition of slip speed (*

2 ) and motor speed ( r )

Transformation equations can be written as follows:

cossin ***dsqsas iii ..……………………………….………..……....Eq(6)

21cos3sin

21sin3cos ***

qsdsbs iii …………....…Eq(7)



***bsascs iii …………………………………………………………..…….Eq(8)

Where*** ,, csbsas iii are the three phase currents in stator reference frame.

PWM current controller

Current control plays an important role in power electronic circuits, particularly in current regulated PWMinverters which are widely applied in ac motor drives and continuous ac power supplies where theobjective is to produce a sinusoidal ac output. The main task of the control system in current regulatedinverters is to force the current vector in the three phase load according to a reference trajectory. In orderto operate the three phase induction motor into vector controlled mode, sensed three phase stator currents

(ias,ibs and ics) are to be controlled by the three phase reference currents(**, bsas ii and

*csi ). Such a control

technique is called current controller.

In indirect vector control technique the rotor flux vector position is computed from the speed feedbacksignal the motor. The indirect vector control eliminates the need of using flux sensors or flux model.However it requires an accurate measurement of the shaft position in order to determine the preciseposition of the rotor flux vector. The difference between the reference speed and the rotor speed is fed tothe controller. The controller computes the slip frequency that on addition to the feedback motor speedprovides the speed of the rotor flux vector from which the flux angle can be computed. The referencecurrents here are reproduced in the motor winding by the current controlled inverter. Indirect controleliminates most of the problems, which are associated with the flux sensors as the controller is free fromrotor flux sensing.

The induction motor behavior in field coordinates is given by the equations

qsmr ikiT ………………………………………………Eq(9)

dsmrmr

r iidt

di ………………………………...Eq(10)

mrr

qsmmr i

idtd

…………………………………....Eq(11)

mrr

qsmmr i

idtd

……………………………….Eq(12)



The latter equations state that the rotor flux vector has an instantaneous angular velocity, mr which is

the sum of the instantaneous shaft angular velocity, m and the instantaneous angular velocity of the

rotor flux relative to the rotor. If thus slip angular velocity is denoted by 2 ,

Then

2 =mrr

qs

ii and-----------------------------------------------------------------Eq(12)

2 = mr - m = mrs -----------------------------------------------------------Eq(13)

Where, s is the fractional slip of the rotor with respect to the rotor flux vector.

The slip equation can be implemented in the field oriented controller so that direct measurement of therotor flux position is unnecessary. This approach is the basis of indirect methods of the field orientation,

which are often termed slip frequency control methods. The reference values

qsi ,

dsi and

2 for

demanded values of torque, and rotor magnetizing current

mri are given by

dsi =

mri + dt

dimrr

-------------------------------------------------------------------Eq (14)

qsi =

mrkiT

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Eq (15)

2 =

mrr

qs

ii = 2

mrr ikT --------------------------------------------------Eq (16)

The basic implementation of a speed control system for a current controlled PWM inverter is shown infigure .3



Figure-3: the basic implementation of a speed control system for a current controlled PWM inverter

The speed error is fed to the speed controller, which generates the torque command, T*.As before, the

shaft speed is fed to a function generator that demands a constant rotor magnetizing current, mri , belowbase speed, and implements field weakening above base speed. The torque and flux command are used to

calculate the reference values

qsi ,

dsi and

2 .the commanded slip frequency is integrated to give aslip angular position signal, 2 , which is added to the rotor position signal, , from the shaft mountedincremental encoder to determine the rotor flux angle, .These calculations give desired accuracy and

freedom form drift. The angle is used to implement the vector rotation,jpe of

qsi and

dsi to stator

based reference currents

Indirect field orientation is readily applied to other types of adjustable frequency inverter drive. m .Ingeneral, indirect field orientation systems are very similar to the controlled slip frequency drives. Thetraditional controlled slip frequency drives seeks to maintain a constant air gap flux, but the controlledimplementation does not preserve the proper phase relationships in the machine during the transientconditions. The overall dynamic performance of the indirect vector control is better than direct vectorcontrol.







qsi ,

dsi and



qsi and

dsi to stator









qsi ,

dsi and



qsi and

dsi to stator





Comparison with direct vector control

The major disadvantage of direct vector method is the need of so many sensors. Fixing so many sensors ina machine is a tedious work as well as costlier [2]. Due to this the scheme is prevented from being used.Several other problems like drift because of temperature, poor flux sensing at lower speeds also persists.Due to these disadvantages and some more related ones, indirect vector control is used.

In indirect vector control technique, the rotor position is calculated from the speed feedback signal ofthe motor. This technique eliminates most of the problems, which are associated with the flux sensors asthey are absent.

Here the in phase component of stator current space vector n the SRRF is aligned with the rotor mmfvector. This component of the vector is responsible for the production of flux. In the similar fashion thequadrature component is responsible for the production of the torque. And hence such a control techniqueprovides a substitute of a separately excited dc motor using a three-phase squirrel cage induction motor invariable speed application.[2][7]

Advantages

1. The sensors are eliminated.2. The dynamic performance of the indirect vector control is better than the direct vector control3. The cost factor is decreased.4. There is no drift problem as in direct vector control.

6. CONCLUSION

From the above discussion it can be concluded that the control of induction motor is very necessary as itis the common motor used in industrial motor control systems. Hence a well established induction motordrive which is simple, rugged, low cost and low maintenance can serve the required purpose. Manyauthors have published several research papers on the vector control techniques of induction motor. Andstudying vector control techniques it is clear that the indirect vector control technique supersedes thedirect vector control and is more used rather than the later one. Hence for the further work the methodadopted is the indirect vector control technique.

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[106] Phase Noise repression in Fractional-N PLLs using Glitch-Free Phase Switching Multi-Modulus Frequency DividerBilla. Shirisha and Prof. A. balaji Nehru, International Journal of New Trends in Electronics and Communication(IJNTEC-ISSN: 2347 - 7334), Vol.1, Issue. 2, pp. 42-53, Sep. 2013, www.iret.co.in.

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[112] Optimal Reactive Power Flow in a Deregulated Power System – A Case Study T. Hariharan and Dr. M. GopalaKrishnan, International Journal of Emerging Trends in Electrical and Electronics (IJETEE – ISSN: 2320-9569) Vol.10, Issue. 2, pp. 30-32, Mar-2014, www.iret.co.in.

[113] Design and Fabrication of Circularly Polarized Microstrip Patch Antenna using Symmetric Slit Suvidya R. Pawar1, R.Sreemathy2, Shahadev D. Hake, International Journal of New Trends in Electronics and Communication (IJNTEC—ISSN: 2347 - 7334) Vol. 2, Issue. 2, pp. 1-6, Mar. 2014, www.iret.co.in.

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[117] Interweave Cognitive Radio Network: Signal Detection Pravin P.Magar, Megha N Pandey and Prof.Suman P.Wadkar,International Journal of New Trends in Electronics and Communication (IJNTEC—ISSN: 2347 - 7334) Vol. 2, Issue.1, pp. 1-4, Jan. 2014, www.iret.co.in.

[118] Boosting Input Voltage and Improving PF Using PFC Circuit Prof.D.B.Madihalli, Prof.V.M.Chougala andProf.D.M.Kumbhar, International Journal of New Trends in Electronics and Communication (IJNTEC—ISSN: 2347 -7334), Vol.1, Issue. 4, pp. 1-4, Nov. 2013, www.iret.co.in.

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Documents

Comparison of Direct and Indirect Vector Control of Induction Motor