Chinese Management StudiesComparing job expectations of Chinese male and female college studentsJoseph Tomkiewicz Robert Frankel Mariusz Sagan Chunfang Wang

Article information:To cite this document:Joseph Tomkiewicz Robert Frankel Mariusz Sagan Chunfang Wang, (2011),"Comparing job expectations ofChinese male and female college students", Chinese Management Studies, Vol. 5 Iss 1 pp. 111 - 120Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506141111118499

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Comparing job expectationsof Chinese male and female

college studentsJoseph Tomkiewicz

East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA

Robert FrankelUniversity of North Florida, Jacksonville, Florida, USA

Mariusz SaganWarsaw School of Economics, Warsaw, Poland, and

Chunfang WangShenyang Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, Shenyang, China

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine gender differences in job expectations amongChinese university students and how they may affect the activities of organizations in attracting andretaining talent.

Design/methodology/approach – Since 1972, a number of studies have utilized a job-orientationsurvey instrument developed by Manhardt. This study asked Chinese university students to rate 25 jobcharacteristics according to their importance to the rater on a five-point scale (5 – very important, 1 –not important) in the same manner as had previously been done by Manhardt and others,subsequently. There were 101 Chinese university business students surveyed.

Findings – Results showed that the rank order of importance which male and female students placedon job characteristics was similar. In addition, there were no significant differences between maleand female students on either the intrinsic or extrinsic subset of variables, indicating that both genderscould be approached similarly with regard to the basic issues that comprise a human resourceportfolio.

Originality/value – The consistency of job expectations of males and females could be viewed as apositive characteristic by firms, as it simplifies the human resource portfolio design and thus would becost effective. Whether such consistency across genders would remain true over time (i.e. as Chinesesociety and culture evolves) or across all industry segments and geographic regions, or in a variety ofeconomic conditions is an issue for future research exploration and analysis. In regard to certainextrinsic items, females seem to exhibit the philosophy that “life is more than just work” and thatflexibility in regard to work design is important. Human resource portfolios would be advised toconsider opportunities for cross-training to better meet such expectations, especially for females.

Keywords Employment, Gender, China, Students

Paper type Research paper

IntroductionThe focus of this study is China. The goal of the paper is to study the job expectationspossessed by China’s newly emerging college-educated knowledge workers.

China is no longer just a developing country. It is an emerging economicsuperpower, one that is writing economic history. If the last century was the Americancentury, this one looks to be the Chinese century (Earth Policy Institute, 2005).

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/1750-614X.htm

Job expectationsof Chinese

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Chinese Management StudiesVol. 5 No. 1, 2011

pp. 111-120q Emerald Group Publishing Limited

1750-614XDOI 10.1108/17506141111118499

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China’s dynamic economy had one of the highest sustained growth rates in the latetwentieth century. It has also experienced profound institutional and structuralchanges (Shane and Gale, 2004).

Such growth can be seen in multiple respects; for example, there has been aremarkable increase in the number of university students over the past five years. Thegrowth was, in fact, projected. According to the (Chinese) Ministry of Education’sprojections in 2004, China was expected to see 2.8 million college graduates hit the jobmarket in the summer of 2004. This figure actually climbed to 6.1 million graduates in2009 (UPI Asia.com, 2009). Yet, the continued increase in Chinese university graduates isnot without its related challenges, both internal and external to the country. Forexample, as reported inTheEpochTimes (2010), at the beginning of 2009 there were overseven million Chinese college graduates searching for employment. And, while publicemployment (the “iron rice bowl”) continues to be favored, UPI Asia.com (2009) reportedthat private companies have become the largest employers, hiring 42 percent of collegegraduates.

What cannot be ignored in discussing the topic of job expectations, are the economiccircumstances surrounding the participants in a labor force. In an external sense,the global economy is suffering a severe economic crisis. A major casualty of such aglobal collapse is employment. Zhou and Lin (2009) reported that over six millionChinese university students graduated during 2009, and it is likely that as many as twomillion did not find work. Under circumstances where the advantage would appear tobe with employers as opposed to employees, one may ask how important are the jobexpectations of employees who in all likelihood are unlikely to leave a job in a downeconomy. However, in an internal sense, Chinese competitiveness and Chinese firms arealso faced with the task of understanding and meeting the job expectations of thesecurrent employees, many of them newly graduated university students.

As greater numbers of organizations continue their globalizing efforts, withChina representing one of the most important development targets, understanding theneeds and expectations of prospective employees must rank at the highest levels ofimportance. Such knowledge can provide organizations that use it with a competitiveadvantage not bound only to monetary expenditures. Awareness of job characteristicsvalued by workers might enable organizations to avoid mistakes of underestimatingand under-developing the full extent of human resource management tools that can beused to create a working climate that encourages both performance and retention.

Yet, even with such large numbers of college graduates, and the current challengesof the employment market, the war for talent never ends. “Middle managers in China?Good luck finding them, let alone keeping them. They’re well educated and hard working.Trouble is, every company wants them” (McGregor and Hamm, 2008, p. 34). However,even when there was an expanding economy, the increase in college graduates has ledsome experts to warn that university graduates need to reduce their expectations anddesign reasonable career development plans to meet the tight new employment situation(China Daily, 2003). Thus, while it may seem on the one hand that a plethora of knowledgeworkers exists, hiring the brightest and best and, perhaps more importantly, keeping themfor an extended period of time, appears to be the greatest challenge faced by organizations.For example, Ketter (2008), in a survey of employees in China, found that 25 percent of therespondents had already three or more jobs and 20 percent of those planned to leave theirpresent positions in the coming year. Shao (2007, p. 17) points out that as a result of China’s

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continued growth, there is an ongoing war to attract and keep key talent and organizationsneed to understand what motivates employees to stay for any extended period of timewith one employer. Prieur (2007) believes that the most pressing challenge facing HRprofessionals is to provide the necessary expertise and strategic insights to meet the needsof businesses in China’s cultural environment. Awareness of job characteristics valued byworkers might enable organizations to avoid the mistake of underestimating andunderdeveloping the full extent of human resource management tools that can be used increating a working climate that encourages both performance and retention.

The effectiveness of both indigenous and multinational corporations in such anenvironment requires new strategies be implemented and policies established that canprocure, integrate and maintain an appropriate workforce. Success in this area dependsin large part on the congruence between employees’ job expectations and organizationalrealities. Thus, the stated purpose of this paper is twofold, and asks:

(1) What are the job expectations possessed by China’s newly emerging collegeeducated knowledge workers?

(2) Do such expectations differ between male and female genders?

We begin with an overview of the current knowledge base regarding job expectations.Next, we describe the methodology of the study. Then, we present results anddiscussion, draw several conclusions, and suggest future research directions.

Research and job expectationsDuring the past approximately 50 years, considerable research has been undertakenexamining gender differences on job orientation and intrinsic and extrinsicjob characteristics. Herzberg et al. (1957) declared that females valued extrinsic jobcharacteristics more than males. More than 30 years later, Loscocco (1989) reportedsimilar findings. Brief et al. (1977) reported no differences between males and femaleswith respect to intrinsic and extrinsic job characteristics, but Neil and Snizek (1987)concluded that males valued extrinsic job factors more highly. Centers and Bugental(1966) declared that few differences existed between males and females. However, thefemales in their sample rated interpersonal factors significantly higher than did males.

At the international level, de Vaus and McAllister (1991) undertook an extensive studyof gender differences in intrinsic and extrinsic work values covering 6,113 workers fromnine Western European countries. For the total sample (from all nine countries), theyreported that men placed greater emphasis on both intrinsic and extrinsic factors than didwomen. However, on an individual country basis, no gender differences were discoveredin three of these countries (Denmark, Italy, and Spain). Men placed more value onintrinsic factors in Belgium, Great Britain, France, Germany, and The Netherlands.Men valued extrinsic work factors more than did women in Great Britain, Ireland, and TheNetherlands. In all the nine countries, women placed less value than men on both intrinsicand extrinsic factors. The authors did not provide reasons for the gender gap in workvalues evident in their research. Mahmoud (1996) reported that female Palestinian workerswere significantly more satisfied with their work (an intrinsic factor) than were males. Pay(an extrinsic factor) affected the work satisfaction of males but not females. However,kinship to the employer affected both males and females. Elizur (2001) evaluatedresponses from sample populations in Hungary, Israel, and The Netherlands. Men rankedpay, responsibility, independence, and influence in work and in the organization higher

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than did women. Women valued meaningful work, esteem, supervision, co-workers,interaction with people, convenient hours of work, and job security and benefits more thandid men. As a result, there was no clear-cut demarcation between sexes regarding intrinsicand extrinsic factors.

One of the most influential survey instruments regarding job orientation wasdeveloped by Manhardt (1972). As such, a number of studies have utilized his joborientation survey instrument. In his initial research, Manhardt found 11 differences out of25 characteristics studied between male and female recent college graduates workingat a major insurance company. Male respondents valued job aspects that related tolong-range career success (e.g. supervising others, working on problems of centralimportance to the organization and advancement to high-administrative responsibility).Female respondents desired to work with congenial associates, wanted ample time awayfrom the job and desired to work for superiors they respected. No significant genderdifferences were found on intrinsic values. Tomkiewicz et al. (1994) repeated earlier studiesusing the Manhardt instrument. This study found six significant differences between thejob expectations of males and females. Males indicated the higher expectation on five ofthe six expectations.

From a disciplinary perspective, Bartol (1976) found male and female business majorssignificantly different on measures of working environment and interpersonal relations.Significant differences also existed between business majors and psychology majors.Brenner and Tomkiewicz (1979), replicating Manhardt’s (1972) work but usinggraduating business school students, found male-female differences in job orientationshad gone from 11 differences to eight differences. In both studies, the highest ranked itemwas (provides a feeling of accomplishment) and the lowest ranked item was (has clear cutrules and procedures to follow). Both studies reported high Spearman rank correlationcoefficients between the rank orders of male and female mean rating, with the Manhardtstudy reporting r ¼ 0.90 and the Brenner and Tomkiewicz study reporting r ¼ 0.76.Bartol and Manhardt (1979) found significant gender differences in job orientations.Females gave significantly more emphasis to interpersonal job aspects and workenvironment than did males and significantly less emphasis to career objectives.Notwithstanding such differences, they concluded that there seemed to be growingsimilarity between male and female job orientations.

Job expectations have also been investigated from a racial perspective. A studyby Brenner and Tomkiewicz (1982) examining the job orientations of Black andWhite college graduates in business reported gender results that closely paralleled theirfindings in 1979. Nine differences were found in 1982 versus eight differences in the1979 study. Females scored significantly higher than males on 12 of 18 work valuesderived from discriminant analysis in results reported by Beutell and Brenner (1986).In comparing their findings to those of earlier studies using the Manhardt’s instrument(Manhardt, 1972; Brenner and Tomkiewicz, 1979), they concluded that a substantialconsistency in the relative importance of job orientations existed based on Spearmanrank-order correlations (theirs being r ¼ 0.89). Job expectations of White and Blackbusiness students were revisited by Tomkiewicz et al. (1997). Five differences werefound in this study between Black and White males versus Black and White females asopposed to the nine differences in the 1982 study.

Lastly, Frankel et al. (2006) applying the Manhardt instrument to a newly emergingcapitalist economy in Eastern Europe, reported that Polish males and females showed

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differences on 15 of the 25 job characteristics studied, although the Spearman rankcorrelation coefficient between the rank orders of male and female job preferences wassignificant. Thus, what had appeared to be a steady decline in differences betweenmales and females with regard to job expectations apparently did a turnabout whenthe subject nation did not fit the Western economic tradition.

Given the turnabout described above, the present study examines the disposition(i.e. expectations) of college-trained individuals in another non-Western society thatmakes no pretense of emulating traditional Western economic models. It is an attempt tounderstand what problems may exist for organizations, both indigenous and exogenous,doing business in China and whether they differ significantly from other studies in thistopic area.

MethodologyChinese students at a university in Shenyang, China, were asked to rate 25 jobcharacteristics according to their importance to the rater on a five-point scale (5 – veryimportant, 1 – not important) in the same manner as had previously been done byManhardt (1972), Brenner and Tomkiewicz (1979, 1982), Bartol and Manhardt (1979),Beutell and Brenner (1986), Tomkiewicz et al. (1994) and Sagan et al. (2008) (Table I). Thecoefficient alpha for the entire sample was 0.85 (males – 0.87; females – 0.83). This figureis quite comparable to the last reported use of this instrument (Sagan et al., 2008)

Please indicate how important each of the following items are to you in a job, with “1” beingunimportant and “5” being importantHow important is it to you to have a job which:Q1 Requires originalityQ2 Makes use of your specific educational backgroundQ3 Encourages continued development of knowledge and skillsQ4 Is respected by other peopleQ5 Provides job securityQ6 Provides the opportunity to earn a high incomeQ7 Makes a social contribution by work you doQ8 Gives you the responsibility for taking risksQ9 Requires working on problems of central importance to the organizationQ10 Involves working with congenial associatesQ11 Provides ample leisure time off the jobQ12 Provides change and variety in duties and activitiesQ13 Provides comfortable working conditionsQ14 Permits advancement to high administrative responsibilityQ15 Permits working independentlyQ16 Rewards good performance with recognitionQ17 Requires supervising othersQ18 Is intellectually stimulatingQ19 Satisfies your cultural and aesthetic interestsQ20 Has clear-cut rules and procedures to followQ21 Permits you to work for superiors you admire and respectQ22 Permits a regular routine in time and place of workQ23 Requires meeting and speaking with many other peopleQ24 Permits you to develop your own methods of doing workQ25 Provides a feeling of accomplishment

Table I.Job expectation

questionnaire

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when the reliability coefficient was reported as 0.78. Additionally, the survey instrumentalso requested basic demographic information.

There were 101 Chinese university undergraduate business students surveyed. Ofthis number, 94 usable surveys were obtained. The survey language was English. Whilethe students had a good command of English, an individual was available to clarify anylanguage that was not clear to a respondent. The sample consisted of 47 males and47 females. The average age of the entire Chinese sample was 22.4 years, which wasrepresentative of the business students in the university. Participation in the survey wasvoluntary.

ResultsMean scores were calculated for each of the 25 items on the questionnaire and thesewere rank ordered separately for male and female respondents (Table II). TheSpearman rank correlation coefficient between the rank orders of male and femalestudents was 0.52 ( p ¼ 0.01), indicating that the order of importance which male andfemale students placed on job characteristics was similar.

Significant differences for gender were tested using the statistical procedure analysisof variance (ANOVA) (Table II). Significant differences ( p ¼ 0.05 or better) were found

Male (n ¼ 47) Female (n ¼ 47)Item Rank Mean SD Rank Mean SD

1 10 3.77 1.07 17 3.72 0.902 18 3.49 1.33 21 3.32 1.143 1 4.62 0.77 7 4.51 0.784 * 16 3.53 1.10 8 4.06 0.995 11 3.77 0.98 5 4.13 0.826 7 3.87 0.90 6 4.13 0.747 14 3.72 1.02 12 3.87 0.858 19 3.49 0.95 20 3.36 0.999 9 3.81 0.85 18 3.68 0.98

10 6 3.89 1.07 13 3.83 0.9611 * 24 3.32 1.12 10 3.96 1.1012 * 23 3.34 0.98 14 3.83 1.0513 15 3.64 0.84 11 3.94 0.8714 4 3.98 0.90 3 4.15 0.9115 * 20 3.47 1.23 7 4.13 0.7416 3 4.04 1.02 9 4.04 0.8617 25 3.19 1.26 25 3.19 1.1218 12 3.74 1.11 19 3.62 0.9719 22 3.40 1.17 16 3.77 0.9420 * 8 3.83 0.98 23 3.23 1.0921 17 3.53 1.02 15 3.83 1.1522 * 13 3.74 0.90 22 3.26 1.1523 21 3.43 1.25 24 3.21 1.0024 2 4.13 1.01 4 4.15 0.7825 5 3.94 1.34 2 4.34 0.82

Notes: Significant at: *p # 0.05 or better; all numbers rounded to two decimals

Table II.Comparison of male andfemale job expectations

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on six items (items 4, 11, 12, 15, 20, and 22). Females had the higher score on four items(items 4, 11, 12, and 15) while males had the higher score on two items (items 20 and 22).

Standard deviations of the 25 items were compared. Male standard deviations werehigher than female standard deviations on 16 of the 25 job characteristics. Mean malestandard deviations were 1.05 and mean female standard deviations were 0.95,indicating that females were more homogeneous than males with respect to joborientation. These figures are higher both for males and females than those reportedfor a Polish sample where males had higher standard deviations than females on 21 of25 items (male SD ¼ 0.96; female SD ¼ 0.87) (Frankel et al., 2006).

Intrinsic and extrinsic perspectives of the survey itemsPrior research over the last 50 years illustrates that differences in job orientation,whether intrinsic and/or extrinsic, are an important component in determiningorganizational strategies in attracting and retaining employees (Herzberg et al., 1957;Loscocco, 1989; Brief et al., 1977; Neil and Snizek, 1987; Centers and Bugental, 1966; deVaus and McAllister, 1991; Mahmoud, 1996; Elizur, 2001). The cause of intrinsicmotivation is a need or incentive that takes place within the individual and is directlyrelated to the task (e.g. sense of achievement). Extrinsic motivation is caused by anevent or stimulus that happens outside the individual and is related to externalcircumstances (e.g. salary).

The 25 items in the Manhardt instrument are dichotomized into intrinsic andextrinsic factors based on the locus of incentive from the individual’s perspective. Onsuch a basis, 13 intrinsic factors were identified (items 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 15, 16, 18, 21, 24,25) and 12 extrinsic factors were identified (items 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 22,23). Analyzing these data using ANOVA resulted in no significant differences betweenmale and female students on either subset of variables.

Conclusions and discussionsAs economic development continues in China, and as related societal benefits expand,it would seem logical to surmise that organizations should seek to make the most ofindigenous human resources who seek to share in the aforementioned benefits. As such,we offer several conclusions that may be drawn from the above results.

First, because there were no significant differences between male and female studentson either the intrinsic or extrinsic subset of variables, one may infer that both genderscould be approached similarly with regard to the basic issues that comprise a humanresource portfolio. Such consistency would likely be viewed as a positive characteristic byfirms, as it simplifies the human resource portfolio design and thus would be cost effective.Whether such consistency across genders would remain true over time (i.e. as Chinesesociety and culture evolves) is an issue for future research exploration and analysis.Moreover, whether such consistency holds true across all industry segments andgeographic regions would also be of interest to investigate in the future. Additionally,whether such consistency would hold true under varying economic conditions (i.e. duringa period of growth rather than a recession) is also worthy of exploration.

Second, with regard to the six items where significant differences did exist betweengenders, one may infer a number of observations as follows. In regard to the extrinsicitems nos 20 and 22, males appear to prefer a more structured work environment ascompared to females. Such structural preferences would hopefully be able to be met,

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while still providing females with enough flexibility to satisfy their needs. Of relatedinterest would be future research that examines whether there is a connection betweensuch structure and the ability to foster innovative thinking by employees. In regard tothe extrinsic items nos 11 and 12, females seem to exhibit the philosophy that “life ismore than just work” and that flexibility in regard to work design is important. Humanresource portfolios would be advised to consider opportunities for cross-training tobetter meet such expectations, especially for females. Of related interest would befuture research that examines the relationship between employee retention andworkplace flexibility. Finally, in regard to the intrinsic items nos 4 and 15, femalesappear to prefer that jobs provide a considerable component of self-worth,self-development and self-confidence, as compared to males. Support programs thatprovide mentoring, and can relate workplace advancement to internal personal (i.e. softskills) development would seem to be important here. Of related interest, again, wouldbe future research that examines the relationship between employee retention and suchdevelopmental support.

About 20 years ago, Meglino et al. (1989) argued the differences that existed in joborientations might be organizationally triggered. New employees might enter theorganization possessing a personalized set of expectations but given time thoseexpectations would change to meet the reality of the specific organization. However,while this might happen for some employees, it should not be assumed to befundamental. The results of the present study indicate that, while differences do existbetween male and female respondents, they are not extensive. However, during the last60 years, women’s share of the total labor force in China has gone from 7.5 percent toalmost 50 percent (China Labour Bulletin, 2004). Thus, organizations seeking tomaximize the effectiveness of their human resources need to possess an appreciationthat, while few differences may exist, they cannot be nonchalantly dismissed.

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Further reading

China Daily (2004), “Graduates’ hopes dampened by salary fall”, available at: www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-06/15/content_339630.htm (accessed June 15).

Corresponding authorJoseph Tomkiewicz can be contacted at: tomkiewiczj@ecu.edu

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2015

(PT

)