ComparativeLabour LawandIndustrialRelationsinIndustrializedMarketEconomies

KLUWER LAWINTERNATIONAL

Editor:R. Blanpain

J. BakerG. Bamber

R. Ben-IsraelM. Biagi

R. BlanpainG. Cella

M. ColucciB. Creighton

C. EngelsR Foubert

M. FranzenF. Gamillscheg

A. GladstoneA. GoldmanF. Hendrickx

S.JacksonA.JacobsS. Pursey

J. RojotG. Rynhart

L. SalasR. Schuler

J. M. ServaisP. Sheldon

L. SwepstonM. Tiraboschi

T. TreuJ. Windmuller

VHIth andrevised edition

2004

Table of Contents

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

EDITORS' PREFACE xxvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxix

SUMMARY TABLE OF CONTENTS

METHODOLOGY I

Chapter 1. Comparativism in Labour Law and Industrial RelationsR. Blanpain (Belgium) 3

Chapter 2. Comparative Labour Law: Sources and DocumentationM. Colucci (Italy) 25

Chapter 3. Comparative Research in Labour Law Using the InternetL. Salas (Belgium) 37

ACTORS 53

Chapter 4. International Employers' OrganizationsG. Rynhart (IEO) 55

Chapter 5. The International Trade Union MovementJ.P. Windmuller, S. Pursey and J. Baker (ILO) 75

Chapter 6. Human Resource Management in ContextR.S. Schuler and S.E. Jackson (USA) 103

SOURCES OF REGULATION 139

Chapter 7. International Labour LawL. Swepston (ILO) 141

Chapter 8. The European Union and Employment LawR. Blanpain (Belgium) 165

Chapter 9. Multinational Enterprises and Codes of Conduct.The OECD GuidelinesR. Blanpain (Belgium) 191

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Chapter 10. Conflicts of Laws in Employment Contracts andIndustrial RelationsF. Gamillscheg and M. Franzen (Germany) 213

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS AND COMPARATIVE STUDIES 231

Chapter 11. Freedom of AssociationB. Creighton (Australia) 233

Chapter 12. Subordinate Employees or Self-Employed Workers?C. Engels (Belgium) 275

> Chapter 13. Working Conditions and GlobalizationJ.-M. Servais (Switzerland) 293

•v Chapter 14. Equality and the Prohibition of Discrimination in' Employment

R. Ben-Israel (Israel) and P. Foubert (Belgium) 321

Chapter 15. Employment PrivacyF. Hendrickx (Belgium) 359

\ Chapter 16. Security of Employment and EmployabilityJacques Rojot (France) 375

Chapter 17. National Trade Union MovementsG.P. Cella and T. Treu (Italy) 395

Chapter 18. Forros of Employee Representational ParticipationM. Biagi and M. Tiraboschi (Italy) 433

Chapter 19. Transnational Information and Consultation:The European Works Council DirectiveC. Engels and L. Salas (Belgium) 481

Chapter 20. Collective Bargaining: Towards Decentralisation?G.J. Bamber and P. Sheldon (Australia) 509

Chapter 21. The Law of Strikes and LockoutsA.T.J.M. Jacobs (The Netherlands) 549

Chapter 22. Settlement of Disputes over RightsA. Gladstone (Switzerland) 595

Chapter 23. Settlement of Disputes over InterestsA. Goldman (USA) 623

Index 649

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METHODOLOGY 1

Chapter 1. Comparativism in Labour Law and Industrial Relations 3

I. In Search of a Definition 3II. Uses of the Comparative Method 4

A. Better Insight into One's Own National System . . . 4B. International Private Labour Law 5C. Multinational Enterprises and

International Unions 6D. Forecast of Further Developments 6E. To Guide or Promote Social Change at

Home - Assistance 7F. As an Instrument in the Formulation and the

Application of International Labour Standards:Horizontal and Vertical Comparison 71. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) . . 82. The Council of Europe and the

European Union 9G. As an Instrument for Theory Formulation 11

III. What and How to Compare? 12A. Comparison of Functions Rather than Institutions . . 12B. Comparison of What is 'Going on' 13C. Looking for 'Models' 13D. An Integrated and Global Approach 14E. Group Collaboration 15F. Educational Visits 16

IV The Traps 16A. Language and Terminology 16B. Parochialism and Ideological Hangovers 17

V The Transplantability Issue 18VI. The Status of the 'Academic Art' 20VII. De Comparatione Ferande: Guidelines 21

A. Teaching 21B. Research 21

VIII. Conclusions 21Select Bibliography 22

Chapter 2. Documentation 25

I. Introduction 25A. International Sources: ILO Publications 25B. European Union Institutions 28C. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development (OECD) 30

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D. Private Collection 30E. Books 31F. Bulletins 31G. Academic Journals 32

II. International Societies and Meetings 33

Chapter 3. Comparative Research in Labour Law Using the Internet . . . . 37

I. Introduction 37II. Why use the Net for Research? 37III. What is the Net? 38IV Tips for Surfing 38

A. Starting Points 40B. Search Engines 40

V Kind of Material being Sought 41A. Primary 42B. Secondary Sources 42

VI. European Law Sources 44VII. Tertiary Sources: The Social Partners &

International Organizations 46A. International Organizations 46B. Social Partners 47

VIII. The Legal Profession 48IX. Conclusion 49List of Useful Web Sites 50

ACTORS 53

Chapter 4. International Employers' Organizations 55

I. Introduction: Definition 55II. Historical Development: From Guilds to

Employers' Organizations 55III. Functions of Employers' Organizations 58

A. Defence and Promotion 58B. Function of Representation 58

1. Representative Function in thePolitical Structure 58

2. Representative Function in theIndustrial Relations System 60

C. Infernal Functions of Employers' Organizations . . . . 61IV Structure of Employers' Organizations 62

A. Unity of the Central Organization atNational Level 621. Economic and Social Organizations 622. Coverage of the Central Organization 633. Parallel Organizations 63

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B. Membership of Employers' Organizations 641. Small and Medium-sized Enterprises 642. Public Sector Enterprises 65

C. Employers' Organizations at the Sectoral andRegional Levels 65

D. Means and Resources 66V International Employers' Organizations 67

A. Historical Development 67B. International Employers' Organizations at

the World Level 671. General Description 672. The International Organisation of

Employers (IOE) 68C. Regional Organizations 69

VI. Future Challenges for Employer Organizations 72Select Bibliography 73

Chapter 5. The International Trade Union Movement 75

I. Historical Overview 75A. To 1914 75B. From 1914 to 1939 76C. After 1939 77

II. The International Confederation ofFree Trade Unions 78A. Aims and Activities 78

1. Overall Goals 782. Representational and Organizational Work 79

B. Structure and Government 801. Membership and Finances 802. Governing Bodies and Secretariat 813. Regional Organizations 82

III. The World Federation of Trade Unions 83A. Aims and Activities 83B. Structure and Government 84

1. Membership and Finances 842. Governing Bodies and Secretariats 853. Trade Union Internationais 85

IV The World Confederation of Labour 86A. Membership 86B. Aims and Activities 87C. Organization and Structure 87

V Independent Regional Federations and Related Bodies . . . . 88A. The European Trade Union Confederation 88B. The Organization of African Trade Union Unity . . . . 90C. The Trade Union Advisory Committee to

the OECD (TUAC-OECD) 91D. Subregional Bodies 92

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VI. Global Union Federations 93A. Organization and Structure 93

1. Relations with Global Internationais 932. Membership and Finances 933. Governing Bodies and Trade Groups 94

B. Aims and Activities 951. Solidarity and Organizational Work 952. Information and Research 96

VII. Conclusions 97Select Bibliography 101List of International Union Web Sites 102

Chapter 6. Human Resource Management 103

I. Introduction 103II. What is Human Resource Management and

How does it Operate? 104A. What are the Activities that HR Entails? 104

1. Strategie Analysis 1042. Strategie Implementation 104

a. Four task model for HR 105b. Environmental improvements 105c. Empowerment 105

3. A Link-to-the-Organisation Role 105B. Staffing the HR Management Department 108

1. Specialists vs. Generalists 1082. Centralization vs. Decentralization 109

C. Partnership in HR 110D. HR Management Reflects Changing Context . . . . 112

1. Globalization of Industry and Globalisation ofthe Workforce 112

2. Organizational Changes 113a. Layoffs and job elimination 113b. Mergers and acquisitions 113c. Innovation in technology 113d. Innovation of practices 114e. Innovation in process 115f. Teams 115

3. Outsourcing and Offshoring 1154. Legal issues 116

E. Forces Impacting HR Management 1161. Pressures for Social Responsibility 1162. Elements of the Stakeholder Model 117

a. The organization as stakeholder 117b. Employees as stakeholders 118c. Customers as stakeholders 118d. Investors as stakeholders 118

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e. Strategie partners as stakeholders 119f. Society as stakeholder 119

F. Strategie Human Resource Management 120G. Strategie International Human Resource

Management 122H. Cross-Border Allinaces: International Mergers and

Acquisitions and International Joint Ventures 123III. What are some of the Theoretical Frameworks

that are Applicable in Studying theHuman Resource Management Field? 124A. Resource-based View 124B. Institutionalist Theory 125C. Agency Theory 126D. General Systems Theory 126E. Human Capital Theory 127F. Life Cycle Theory 127G. Role Behaviour Theory 127H. Transactions Cost Theory 128I. Strategie Contingency Theory 128J. Organizational Learning Theory 129K. Information Processing Perspective 130

IV What are some of the Key Issues Relevant to thePractice of Human Resource Management that areLikely to be prevalent in the early 21 st Century? 130A. Leadership 130B. Pay for Performance 130C. Effectiveness of Human Resource Management

Using Multiple Stakeholders 131D. Technology and Knowledge Transfer 131E. Flexible Work Arrangements 132F. Managing Human Resource in Knowledge-Intensive

Environments 132G. No One Best Way: Context is Critical 134

V. Summary 135Select Bibliography 135

SOURCES OF REGULATION 139

Chapter 7. International Labour Law 141

I. Introduction 141A. Definition 141B. Historical Development 141C. The Purposes of International Labour Law 142

II. The Sources of International Labour Law 142A. ILO Sources 142

1. The Constitution of the ILO 1422. Conventions and Recommendations 143

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3. Declaration of Fundamental Rights andPrinciples 145

4. Other Less Formal Instruments 1465. Interpretation 1466. Case Law 1467. Instruments Adopted at Special Conferences . . . 146

B. United Nations Instruments 147C. European Instruments 147

1. Council of Europe Instruments 1472. European Communities Standards 148

D. Instruments in the American Region 148E. Instruments in the African Region 148F. Instruments in the Arab Region 148G. Bilateral Treaties 148H. Relation between Sources 149

III. The Content of International Labour Law 149A. Freedom of Association and Protection of

the Right to Organize 149B. Forced Labour 150C. Discrimination in Employment and Occupation . . 151D. Child Labour 151E. Employment 152F. Wages 153G. General Conditions of Work 153H. Occupational Safety and Health 154I. Social Security 154J. Social Policy 155K. Industrial Relations 155L. Employment of Women 155M. Older Workers 156N. Migrant Workers 156O. Other Special Categories of Workers 156P. Labour Administration 157

IV The Implementation of International LabourStandards 158A. Obligations in Respect of Standards .158B. Ratification of Conventions 158C. Reports on Ratified Conventions 159D. The Incorporation of International Conventions

in National Law as a Result of Ratification 159V. The Supervisory Machinery of the ILO 159

A. Procedures Based on the Examination ofPeriodic Reports 159

B. Procedures Based on the Examination ofComplaints 160

C. Special Machinery in the Field ofFreedom of Association 161

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D. Special Studies and Inquiries, PromotionalMeasures, Technical Cooperation 162

VI. Supervisory Machinery Established byOther Organizations 162

Select Bibliography 162

Chapter 8. The European Union and Employment Law 165

I. Introductory Remarks 165II. Competences Regarding Labour and

Employment Matters 166A. Legislative Competence 167

1. Qualified Majority 1672. Unanimous Voting 1673. Excluded Matters 167

B. Guidelines and Peer Pressure:Employment Policies 167

C. The European Social Fund 168III. The Role of Social Partners: Consultation and

Collective Bargaining 168IV The EMU: A Scenario for Social Dumping and

a Dual Society 170A. Macro-economic: Inflation and NAIRU 170B. Flexibility 171C. An Evaluation 172

V The 'Acquis Communautaire' 172A. In General 172B. Free Movement of Workers 173C. Equal Treatment: A General Framework -

Irrespective of Race or Ethnic Origin 175D. Equal Treatment for Men and Women 177E. Restructuring of Enterprises 180

1. Collective Redundancies 1802. Transfer of Undertakings and Acquired Rights 181

VI. The Social Dialogue 183A. In General 183B. The Sectoral Social Dialogue 185C. The European Company Statute (SE) 186

VII. Conclusions: Europe beyond 2000 187Select Bibliography 189

Chapter 9. Multinational Enterprises and Codes ofConduct.The OECD Guidelines 191

I. Introduction 191II. The Employment and Industrial Relations Chapter . . . 193

A. Content of the Chapter 1931. Freedom of Association (paras la and 7) 194

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2. Child Labour (para. lb) 1943. Forced Labour (para. lc) 1944. Discrimination (para. ld) 1945. Collective Bargaining (paras 1, 2, 8) 1946. Provision of Information - Consultation

(paras 2c, 3) 1957. Health and Safety (para. 4b) 1958. Observance of Employment

Standards (para. 4) 1959. Skills and Training (para. 5) 195

10. Reasonable Notice and Cooperation inCase of Major Changes (para. 6) 195

11. Access to Decision Makers (para. 9) 196B. The Clarification Process 196

III. Development in Other IntertnationalOrganizations 200A. International Labour Office 201

1. The ILO Tripartite Declaration of 1977 2012. The ILO Declaration on Fundamental

Principles and Rights at Work andits Follow-up (1998) 201a. The ILO declaration 201b. The follow-up to the declaration 203

3. NAFTA: The Labor Side Agreement 203IV Corporate Codes of Conduct 204V Implementation Procedures 206

A. Procedural Guidance for National ContactPoints (NCPs) 206

1. Core Criteria for Functional Equivalence inthe Activities of NCPs 206

2. Institutional Arrangements 2073. Information and Promotion 2074. Implementation in Specific Instances 2085. Reporting 209

B. Procedural Guidance for the CIME 209VI. Conclusions 210

Chapter 10. Conflicts ofLaws in Employment Contracts andIndustrial Relations 213

I. Introduction 213II. Sources 214

A. International Sources 214B. National Sources 215

III. The Proper Law of the Employment Contract 216A. Autonomy of the Parties 217B. Lex Loci Laboris 220C. Article 6 of the EC-Convention 222

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IV The Sphere of Application of the ProtectiveNorms with Public Law Character 225

V The Scope of the Proper Law 226VI. Collective Labour Law (Industrial Relations) 229Select Bibliography 230

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS AND COMPARATIVE STUDIES 231

Chapter 11. Freedom of Association 233

I. The Concept of Freedom of Association 233II. International Recognition of Freedom of

Association 234A. The Universal Declaration of

Human Rights, 1948 234B. The 1966 Covenants 235C. Regional Standards Relating to

Freedom of Association 236D. Freedom of Association and the ILO 237E. Conventions Nos. 87 and 98 243

III. Application of the Principles of Freedom ofAssociation 245A. The Supervisory Bodies 245B. The Principles as Developed 256C. Choice of Union 256D. Union Representation and Bargaining

in Good Faith 264E. Interference with Bargaining Outcomes 265F. Interference with the Right to Strike 267

IV Evaluation and Future Directions 271Select Bibliography 273

Chapter 12. Subordinate Employees or Self-Employed Workers 275

I. Introduction 275II. The Importance of the Distinction 275III. The Tests Developed to Make the Distinction

between Employees and Self-employed 280A. The Absence of a Füll Definition 280B. The Freedom of Choice 281C. Performance by a Physical Person, Not

a Legal Entity 283D. The Different Tests that were Developed 284E. European Labour Law 287

IV Contract Labour - Economically Dependent Workers . 288V. Conclusion 291

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Chapter 13. Working Conditions and Globalization 293

I. Persistent Social Malaise 294A. Countless Social Fracture Lines 294B. The Labour Scene Diversifies 296C. The New Social Question 298

II. Questions about the New Policies 299A. Three Categories of Standards 299B. The Cost of Labour Standards 305C. Autonomous Standards, Heteronomous Standards,

and Alternatives to Social Regulation 306III. A Need for Innovative Formula for Social

Relationships 310A. Broadening the Levels of Dialogue 310B. A Renewed Role for the State 311C. Standards with What Content? 312

Select Bibliography 316

Chapter 14. Equality and the Prohibition of Discriminationin Employment 321

I. Legal Theories of Equality/Differenceand Discrimination 321A. Legal Theories of Equality and Difference 321

1. Equality, Difference and Comparability 322a. The influence of society 322b. The purpose of the law 323c. The importance of a comparator/standard . . . 323

2. Different Approaches to Equality andDifference 324a. Formal equality 324b. Substantive equality 325

i. Affirmative/positive action 326ii. Unequal treatment of factually and

legally unequal siruations 328B. Discrimination Sensu Lato 328

1. Different forms of discrimination Sensu Lato . .. 330a. Overt/direct discrimination 330b. Covert/indirect disrimination 331

i. Neutral practices that disadvantagea subordinated group 331

ii. Discrimination through like treatmentof legally unlike cases 332

C. Justifying Discrimation 3321. Justificationof Overt/Direct Discrimination . . . . 3332. Justification of Covert/indirect Discrimination . . 3343. The Limits of Justification 334

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II. International Legal Rules on Equality andProhibition of Discrimination (EPD) in Employment . . . 335A. Sources. of International Labour Standard of EPD . . . 335

1. In General 3352. Examples 336

B. Grounds of Prohibited Discrimination 3381. In General 3382. Race (Colour, National Extraction,

Social Origin) 3393. Sex (Civil or Marital Status, Family

Responsibilities, Pregnancy and Confinement,Sexual Herassment, Sexual Orientation) 340

4. Ideological Freedoms and Beliefs (PoliticalOpinion, Religion, Trade Union Membership . . . 341

5. Other Grounds (Family Responsibilities,Disablement, Health, Private Life, Age) 342

C. Justifications 3441. Inherent Requirements of a Particular Job . . . . 3442. Security of the State 3453. Special Measureof Protection/Affirmative

Action 346D. Field of Application 346

1. The Pre-employment Stage 3472. General Terms and Conditions of

Employment 348E. Remedies 350

1. Severance 3502. Extension 3513. Affirmative Action 351

a. Equal pay for work of equal value 352b. Special rights 352

4. Implementation 352F. Future Outlook 353

1. The Dynamics of Equality 3532. Final Remarks 355

Select Bibliography 356

Chapter 15. Employment Privacy 359

I. Introduction 359II. General Principles of Employment Privacy Law 361

A. The Right to Privacy as a Human Right 361B. The Employment Environment 363

III. International Regulation 363A. Council of Europe Conventions and

Recommendations 364B. European Directive 95/46/EC 365

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C. Working Party Opinion 8/2001 366D. International Labour Organisation 367

IV European Comparative Overview 368V Conclusion 373Select Bibliography 374

Chapter 16. Security of Employment and Employability 375

I. Introduction 375II. The Notion of Employment Security 375III. The Tensions in Employment Security 377IV. Dismissal for Cause and Dismissal for

Economic Reasons 386V Company Level Provisions in Order to Reduce

the Level of Dismissals 387VI. Legal and Contractual Limits to Economic

Dismissals 390VII. Legal and Contractual Limits to Dismissal

for Cause 391VIII. Government Active Manpower Policies 393IX. Conclusion 394

Chapter 17. National Trade Union Movements 395

I. Introduction 395II. Trade Union Structure 395

A. Craft-Occupational Unions 395B. White-Collar Unions 396C. Industrial Unions 397D. General Unions 398E. Territorial Structures 398F. Enterprise Unionism 400

III. Membership and Internal Government 400A. Membership 400B. Government 401

IV Unions and Workplace Organizations 403V Forms of Trade Union Action and Objectives 405

A. Collective Bargaining and Political Action . . . . 405B. Collective Bargaining and Participation 407

1. Collective Bargaining 4072. Self-management 4083. Institutional Participation 4084. Works Council 409

VI. Politics and Relations with Political Parties 409A. No Stable Relationship 409B. Dependence 410C. Interdependence 411

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VII. Unions and State Intervention in IndustrialRelations 411A. Repression 411B. Tolerance 412C. Intervention 412D. Neo-Corporatism 414

VIII. Models of National Trade Union Movements 415IX. Trade Unions at the Beginningof the XXI Century . 419

A. Trade Union Structure 422B. Membership and Internal Government 423C. Unions and Workplace Organizations 425D. Forms of Trade Union Actions and Objectives . . 426E. Politics and Relations with Political Parties . . . . 428F. Unions and State Intervention in

Industrial Relations 429Select Bibliography 431

Chapter 18. Forms of Employee Representational Participation 433

I. Introduction 433II. Forms of Employees General Representation

at the Workplace: A Structural Analysis 435A. Bodies Directly Linked with Trade Unions in

Single-Channel Systems of Representation . . . . 435B. Bodies Directly Linked with Trade Unions in

Dual Channel. Systems of Representation 441C. Elected Unitary Bodies 446D. Joint Bodies 455

III. Forms of General Representation of Employeesat the Workplace: A Functional Analysis 457A. The Right to Share Information 457B. The Right to be Consulted 459C. The Right to Decide Jointly 465D. Collective Bargaining 466E. Industrial Confiict 470

IV. 'Specialized' Forms of Workplace EmployeeRepresentation: Health and Safety at Work 471

V Forms of Board-Level Employee Representation . . . 474VI. Concluding Remarks 477Select Bibliography 479

Chapter 19. Transnational Information and Consultation:The European Works Council Directive 481

I. Introduction 481A. Legal Basis 482B. Basic Structure 483

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II. General Provisions 484A. Scope 484B. The Notion of Controlling Undertaking 485C. A Positive Obligation to Provide Information . . . . 487D. National and Transnational Issues 490

1. Transnational Provisions 4912. National Provisions 492

III. Pre-Existing Agreements-Article 13 Agreements . . . 492A. Article 13 Agreements Analysed 494

1. Geographical Scope 4952. Nature of the Body Created 4953. Composition/Number of Members 4954. Selection of Members 4965. Competence of the EWC 4966. Meetings . . 497

IV Establishment of EWC or Employee Information andConsultation Procedure - Article 6 Agreements . . . . 497A. Central management and a Representative Agent . . 497B. Special Negotiating Body 499C. Content of the Agreement 501D. Article 6 Agreements Analysed 501

1. Geographical Scope 5012. Nature of the Body Created 5023. Composition/Number of Members 5024. Selection of Members 5025. Competence of the EWC 5026. Meetings 503

V. Subsidiary Requirements 503A. Applicability 503B. Content 504

1. Competence 5042. Composition 5043. Re-evaluation 5044. Meetings 5055. Costs and Experts 505

VI. Miscellaneous Provisions 506A. Confidential and/or Harmful Information 506B. Operation of EWC: Spirit of Cooperation 506C. Protection of Employee Representatives 507D. Review by the Commission 507E. Revision of the Directive 508

Chapter 20. Collective Bargaining: Towards Decentralization? 509

I. What is Collective Bargaining? 509II. Historical Background 513III. Levels of Bargaining 516IV The Parties to Collective Bargaining 519

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V. Bargaining Units and the Recognition ofBargaining Agents 520

VI. Bargaining Processes 521VII. The Functions of Collective Bargaining 526VIII. Coverage of Bargaining 528IX. Content of Agreements 535X. Duration of Agreements 539XI. Administration of the Agreements 540XII. Collective Bargaining and Economic

Problems and Policies 541XIII. Conclusions 544Select Bibliography 548

Chapter 21. The Law ofStrikes and Lockouts 549

I. Introduction 549A. From Crime to Fundamental Right 549B. Crystallization into Distinctive 'Models' 552

II. The Limits of the Right to Strike 553A. Ways ofDelimiting the Right toStrike 553B. Official Strikes versus Wild-Cat Strikes 555C. The Peace Obligation 556D. Disputes of Rights and Disputes of Interests . . . 558E. Other Limitations as Regards the Aim

of the Strike 559F. Procedural Restrictions 562G. Principles of Proportionality, Fairness, etc. . . . 565H. Other Collective Actions of Workers 567I. Picketing 568J. Public Service and Essential Services 569

III. The Effectsof an (Un)Lawful Strike 573A. Liability of Trade Unions 574B. The Wages of the Striking Worker 576C. Disciplinary Actions against Striking Workers . . 577D. The Impact ofStrikes on Non-striking Workers . . . 581

IV The Employers' Defence and Retaliation 582A. The Employers' Right to Keep his

Business Operating 582B. The Lockout 583

V Litigation 585VI. Evaluation and Conclusions 588Select Bibliography 592

Chapter 22. Settlement of Disputes over Rights 595

I. Classification and Categories of Disputes and ofSystems for their Resolution 595

II. Ordinary Courts 598

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A. In General 598B. Specific Countries 600

1. Italy 6002. The Netherlands 6013. Japan 601

III. Labour Courts and Similar Institutions 603A. In General 603B. Specific Countries 604

1. France 6042. Germany 6063. Sweden 608

IV Highly Specialized Tribunals and Boards 609A. In General 609B. Specific Countries 610

1. Great Britain 6102. United States 6113. Canada and Japan 612

V Arbitration 612VI. Remedies in Rights Disputes: Two Examples 618

A. Termination of Employment 618B. Remedial Measures for Illegal or

Unlawful Strikes 619Select Bibliography 621

Chapter 23. Settlement of Disputes over Interests 623

I. Overview of Models for Interests DisputesSettlement 623A. Acquiescence in Unilateral Action 623B. Governmental Fiat 624C. Alliance Discipline 624D. Adjudication 625E. Voting 625F. Negotiation 625G. Conciliated Negotiation 626H. Prestigious Exhortation 626

II. Acquiescence in Unilateral Action 626III. Governmental Fiat 630IV. Alliance Discipline 633V. Adjudication 635VI. Voting 639VII. Negotiation 640VIII. Conciliated Negotiation 641IX. Prestigious Exhortation 644Select Bibliography 647

Index 649

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